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August 21

August 21

August 21 is the 233rd day of the year (234th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 132 days remaining.

Events

- 1192 - Minamoto Yoritomo becomes Seii Tai Shōgun and the de facto ruler of Japan. (Traditional Japanese date: July 12, 1192)
- 1680 - Pueblo Indians capture Santa Fe from Spanish during the Pueblo Revolt
- 1770 - James Cook formally claims eastern Australia for Great Britain, naming it New South Wales.
- 1772 - King Gustav III completes his coup d'etat by adopting a new Constitution, ending half a century of parliamentary rule in Sweden and installing him as an enlightened despot.
- 1831 - Nat Turner leads slave revolt in Southampton County, Virginia
- 1841 - The venetian blind is first patented in the United States by John Hampson.
- 1842 - The city of Hobart, Tasmania, is founded.
- 1852 - Tlingit Indians destroy Fort Selkirk, Yukon Territory
- 1856 - America's first consul to Japan, Townsend Harris, arrives in Shimoda. (Traditional Japanese date: July 21, 1856)
- 1858 - The Lincoln-Douglas debates begin
- 1862 - The Vienna Stadtpark opens its gates.
- 1863 - Lawrence, Kansas is destroyed by Confederate guerillas Quantrill's Raiders in the Lawrence Massacre.
- 1878 - The American Bar Association is founded
- 1879 - The Virgin Mary, along with St. Joseph and St. John the Evangelist reportedly appear to the people of Knock, County Mayo, Ireland.
- 1888 - The first successful adding machine in the United States was patented by William Seward Burroughs.
- 1911 - The Mona Lisa was stolen by a Louvre employee.
- 1944 - Dumbarton Oaks Conference, prelude to the United Nations, begins.
- 1959 - President Eisenhower signs an executive order proclaiming Hawaii the 50th state of the union.
- 1968 - Soviet Union-dominated Warsaw Pact troops invade Czechoslovakia.
- 1971 - Black Panther George Jackson is shot and killed in the prison yard at California's San Quentin prison.
- 1976 - Operation Paul Bunyan at Panmunjeom, Korea
- 1986 - Toxic gas erupts from volcanic Lake Nyos in Cameroon, killing over 1700 people.
- 1987 - Hard rock band Guns 'N Roses release their classic debut Appetite for Destruction.
- 1991 - Latvia declares its full independence from the Soviet Union.
- 1991 - Coup attempt against Mikhail Gorbachev collapses.
- 1993 - NASA loses contact with the Mars Observer spacecraft.
- 1997 - The British Rock Group Oasis release album, Be Here Now.
- 1998 - The United States destroys a pharmaceutical plant (erroneously believed to be a chemical weapons plant) in Sudan.
- 2001 - NATO decides to send a peace-keeping force to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
- 2001 - A sixth-century temple is discovered in central Mexico.
- 2001 - The Red Cross announces that a famine is striking Tajikistan, and calls for international financial aid for Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
- 2002 - Jean Chrétien, Prime Minister of Canada, announces that he will not seek re-election and would resign within eighteen months.
- 2004 - A grenade attack on Bangladesh Awamee League, the bigest political party in Bangladesh kills 22 and injures more than a thousand, including party president Sheikh Hasina.
- 2005 - Pope Benedict XVI concludes World Youth Day with a mass. Over 800,000 people attended the closing liturgy.

Births

- 1165 - King Philip II of France (d. 1223)
- 1535 - Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese samurai and warlord (d. 1619)
- 1567 - Francis de Sales, Bishop of Geneva and saint (d. 1622)
- 1597 - Roger Twysden, English antiquarian and royalist (d. 1672)
- 1643 - King Afonso VI of Portugal (b. 1683)
- 1660 - Hubert Gautier, French scientist and civil engineer (d. 1737)
- 1665 - Giacomo F. Maraldi, French-Italian astronomer (d. 1729)
- 1670 - James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, French military leader (d. 1734)
- 1725 - Jean-Baptiste Greuze, French painter (d. 1805)
- 1754 - William Murdoch, Scottish inventor (d. 1839)
- 1765 - William IV of the United Kingdom (d. 1837)
- 1789 - Augustin Louis Cauchy, French mathematician (d. 1857)
- 1801 - Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer, Dutch politician (d. 1876)
- 1811 - William Kelly, American inventor (d. 1888)
- 1813 - Jean Stas, Belgian chemist (d. 1891)
- 1816 - Charles Frédéric Gerhardt, French chemist (d. 1856)
- 1826 - Karl Gegenbaur, German anatomist (d. 1903)
- 1872 - Aubrey Beardsley, English illustrator (d. 1898)
- 1904 - William "Count" Basie, American bandleader (d. 1984)
- 1906 - Friz Freleng, American movie animator (d. 1995)
- 1908 - M. M. Kaye, British writer (d. 2004)
- 1923 - Shimon Peres, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1924 - Chris Schenkel, American sports journalist
- 1924 - Jack Weston, American actor (d. 1996)
- 1925 - Maurice Pialat, French actor and director (d. 2003)
- 1928 - Art Farmer, American trumpet player (d. 1999)
- 1930 - Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon (d. 2002)
- 1932 - Melvin Van Peebles, American actor and screenwriter
- 1933 - Janet Baker, English opera singer (mezzo-soprano)
- 1936 - Wilt Chamberlain, American basketball player (d. 1999)
- 1938 - Kenny Rogers, American singer and actor
- 1939 - James Burton, American guitarist
- 1939 - Clarence Williams III, American actor
- 1944 - Jackie DeShannon, American singer
- 1944 - Peter Weir, Australian film director
- 1951 - Eric Goles, Chilean mathematician and computer scientist
- 1952 - Joe Strummer, British musician and singer (The Clash) (d. 2002)
- 1954 - Ivan Stang, American writer
- 1956 - Kim Cattrall, English-born actress
- 1959 - Jim McMahon, American football player
- 1962 - Jeff Stryker, American adult film actor
- 1963 - Mohammed VI of Morocco
- 1964 - Trinity Loren, American porn star, model and stripper (d. 1998)
- 1967 - Carrie-Anne Moss, Canadian actress
- 1967 - Serj Tankian, Lebanese-born singer (System of a Down)
- 1969 - Josée Chouinard, Canadian figure skater
- 1970 - Erik Dekker, Dutch professional cyclist
- 1971 - Liam Howlett, British Musician (Keyboardist for (The Prodigy)
- 1978 - Reuben Droughns, American football player
- 1978 - Jason Marquis, American baseball player
- 1980 - Burney Lamar, American NASCAR driver.
- 1984 - Alizée, French singer
- 1991 - Tess Gaerthé, Dutch singer and actress

Deaths

- 1157 - King Alfonso VII of Castile
- 1153 - Bernard of Clairvaux, French theologian (b. 1090)
- 1271 - Alphonse of Toulouse, son of Louis VIII of France (b. 1220)
- 1581 - Sakuma Nobumori, Japanese retainer and samurai (b. 1527)
- 1614 - Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian serial killer (b. 1560)
- 1627 - Jacques Mauduit, French composer (b. 1557)
- 1673 - Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford, English soldier
- 1689 - William Cleland, Scottish poet and soldier
- 1762 - Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, English writer (b. 1689)
- 1763 - Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont, British statesman (b. 1710)
- 1796 - John McKinly, American physician and President of Delaware (b. 1721)
- 1814 - Benjamin Thompson, American physicist and inventor (b. 1753)
- 1838 - Adelbert von Chamisso, German writer (b. 1781)
- 1940 - Leon Trotsky, Russian revolutionary (b. 1879)
- 1940 - Ernest Lawrence Thayer, American poet (b. 1863)
- 1943 - Henrik Pontoppidan, Danish writer, Nobel Prize (b. 1857)
- 1947 - Ettore Bugatti, Italian automobile manufacturer (b. 1881)
- 1951 - Constant Lambert, British composer and conductor (b. 1905)
- 1957 - Harald Ulrik Sverdrup, Norwegian meteorologist and oceanographer (b. 1888)
- 1960 - David Barnard Steinman, American civil engineer and bridge designer (b. 1886)
- 1978 - Charles Eames, American designer and architect (b. 1907)
- 1982 - Sobhuza II, King of Swaziland (b. 1899)
- 1983 - Benigno S. Aquino Jr., Philippine opposition leader (b. 1932)
- 1995 - Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-born astrophysicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1910)
- 1997 - Norris Bradbury, physicist (b. 1909)
- 2000 - Daniel Lisulo, Zambian prime minister (b. 1930)
- 2003 - Kathy Wilkes, English philosopher and aid worker (b. 1946)
- 2003 - Wesley Willis, American musician (b. 1963)
- 2005 - Bob Moog, American pioneer of electronic music (b. 1934)
- 2005 - Dalia Rabikovich, Israeli poet (b. 1936)

Holidays and observances

- Roman festivals - Consualia, in honor of Consus, is held
- RC saints - pope Pius X
- Orthodox - Thaddaeus

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21 BBC: On This Day] ---- August 20 - August 22 - July 21 - September 21 -- listing of all days ko:8월 21일 ms:21 Ogos ja:8月21日 simple:August 21 th:21 สิงหาคม

August 21

August 21 is the 233rd day of the year (234th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 132 days remaining.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and observances

- Roman festivals - Consualia, in honor of Consus, is held
- RC saints - pope Pius X
- Orthodox - Thaddaeus

External links

1192

Events

- The Third Crusade ends in disaster. Richard I of England and Saladin negotiate visiting rights for pilgrims to come to the Holy City of Jerusalem.
- Richard I of England taken hostage by Leopold V of Austria.
- Minamoto no Yoritomo granted title of shogun, thereby officially establishing the first shogunate in the history of Japan.
- Enrico Dandolo becomes Doge of Venice.
- Marco Polo Bridge, or Lugouqiao, completed in Beijing.

Births

- September 17 - Minamoto no Sanetomo, Japanese shogun (died 1219)
- Giorgi IV Lasha, King of Georgia (died 1223)
- Stefan Radoslav, King of Serbia (died 1234)

Deaths

- April 26 - Emperor Go-Shirakawa of Japan (born 1127)
- April 28 - Conrad of Montferrat, King of Jerusalem
- May 5 - Duke Ottokar IV of Styria (born 1163)
- August 25 - Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy (born 1142)
- Kilij Arslan II, Wultan of Rüm
- Mingayl, Prince of Połock

Heads of states

- England - Richard I King of England (reigned from 1189 to 1199)
- France - Philippe II, Auguste King of France (reigned from 1180 to 1223)
- Germany - Henry VI Holy Roman Emperor (1191 to 1197) and King of Germany (1190 to 1197)
- Pope - Celestine III (pope from 1191 to 1198)
- China - Song Guangzong (宋光宗) (reigned from 1189 to 1194) Category:1192 ko:1192년

Shogun

:This page is about the Japanese ruler and military rank. For other meanings of shogun, see Shogun (disambiguation). In Japanese history, a shogun (将軍 shōgun) was the practical ruler of Japan for most of the time from 1192 to the Meiji Era beginning in 1868. A Shogun's administration is a shogunate, or bakufu (幕府), literally "tent government", in Japanese. The term shōgun means "General" whereas the full title Seii Taishōgun (征夷大将軍) means "generalissimo who overcomes the barbarians", ie. the aborigine Ainu people who once inhabited Honshu and Hokkaido. Used in common reference to the historical full title, the term shōgun is still used to refer to the rank of general. At the launch of the Kamakura shogunate, the shogun seized power from the Imperial Court in Kyoto, becoming the practical ruler of Japan until the Meiji Restoration.

Seii Taishogun of Heian Period Japan (794 - 1185)

Conquest of the Ainu

Originally, the title of Seii Taishogun was given to military commanders during the early Heian Period for the duration of military campaigns against the Emishi who resisted the governance of the Imperial court based in Kyoto. The most famous of these shoguns was Sakanoue no Tamuramaro who conquered the Ainu in the name of Emperor Kammu. Eventually the title was abandoned in the later Heian after the Ainu had been either subjugated or driven to Hokkaido.

Genpei

However, in the later Heian one more shogun was appointed. Minamoto no Yoshinaka was named Seii Taishogun during the Genpei War only to be killed shortly thereafter by his distant cousin Minamoto no Yoshitsune, brother of Minamoto no Yoritomo.

Seii Taishogun of Feudal Period Japan (1185 - 1868)

Kamakura Shogunate

In the 1100s, lawlessness was spreading through the provinces. People fought for land and power. The Minamoto and Taira warrior families fought for power. Then, after the defeat of the Taira clan in the Genpei War in 1185, Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power from the emperor and became the dictator and de facto ruler of Japan. He established a feudal system of government based in Kamakura in which the military, the samurai, assumed all political power while the Emperors of Japan and the aristocracy in Kyoto remained the figurehead de jure rulers. In 1192 Yoritomo was awarded the title of Seii Taishogun by the emperor and the political system he developed with a succession of shogun at the head became known as a bakufu (tent government) or shogunate. From this point in history, all shogun that headed shogunates were by tradition descendants of the Minamoto princes, the sons of Emperor Seiwa, and the title passed generation to generation to the eldest sons.

Kemmu Restoration

During the Kemmu Restoration after the fall of the Kamakura shogunate in 1333, another short-lived shogun arose. Prince Moriyoshi (also known as Prince Morinaga), son of Emperor Go-Daigo was awarded the title of Seii Taishogun and put in charge of the military. However, later Prince Moriyoshi was put under house arrest and in 1335 killed by Ashikaga Takauji's younger brother Tadayoshi.

Muromachi and Edo Shogunates

In Japanese history, besides Minamoto no Yoritomo whose Kamakura shogunate lasted for approximately 150 years, from 1192 to 1333, only Ashikaga Takauji and Tokugawa Ieyasu, each being descendants of the Minamoto princes, were awarded the title of Seii Taishogun and established bakufu in their own right. The Ashikaga Shogunate lasted from 1338 to 1573, while the Tokugawa Shogunate lasted from 1603 to 1868. The so-called Transitional shoguns of 1568-1598 were never given the title of Seii Taishogun by the emperor and did not establish bakufu, but did for a period hold power over the emperor and most/all of Japan. The title Seii Taishogun was abolished during the Meiji Restoration in 1868, in which effective power was "restored" to the emperor and his appointees. See Taisei houkan.

List of Seii Taishoguns

- Otomo no Otomaro
- Sakanoue no Tamuramaro
- Bunya no Watamaro (title Seii Shogun)
- Minamoto no Yoshinaka
- 9 Kamakura shoguns
- Prince Morinaga (or Moriyoshi)
- Prince Narinaga (or Nariyoshi)
- 15 Ashikaga shoguns
- 15 Tokugawa shoguns

Shogunate

Bakufu (幕府) originally described the dwelling and household of a shōgun, but in time it came to be generally used in Japanese to describe the system of government of a feudal military dictatorship, exercised by the shoguns (literally "tent government", meaning a military rule), and this is the meaning that has been adopted into English through the term shogunate. The system of bakufu was originally established under the Kamakura bakufu by Minamoto no Yoritomo. The military wing of the government came to dominate the civil (imperial) government, so that while the Emperors of Japan still technically led the government, all practical (and especially military) power rested with the shogun and the daimyo. The system was feudal in nature, with lesser territorial lords pledging their allegiance to greater ones. Samurai were rewarded for their loyalty with land, which was in turn handed down and divided among their sons. The hierarchy that held this system of government together was reinforced by close ties of loyalty between samurai and their apprentices. The shoguns also took lovers from among the ranks of the samurai, a practice known as shudo, "the way of the young", or nanshoku, "male color". Three primary bakufu periods are usually identified, each centered around a family which tended to dominate the position of shogun during that regime. In the Japanese language, the time period of each regime is named after the capital of the bakufu. The Ashikaga and Tokugawa bakufu can also be (and usually are) named in this fashion.
- Kamakura Bakufu - Kamakura period
- Ashikaga Bakufu or Muromachi Bakufu - Muromachi period
- Tokugawa Bakufu or Edo Bakufu - Edo period

Japanese calendar

station celebrates Hazuki, the eighth month.]] Since January 1, 1873, Japan has used the Gregorian Calendar, with local names for the months and mostly fixed holidays. Before 1873 a lunisolar calendar was in use, which was adapted from the Chinese calendar.

Years

Since the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, three different systems for counting years have or had been used in Japan:
- The Western Common Era (西暦, seireki) designation
- The Japanese era name (年号, nengō) based on the reign of the current emperor, the year 2005 being Heisei 17
- The imperial year (皇紀, kōki) based on the mythical founding of Japan by Emperor Jimmu in 660BCE Of these three, the first two are still in current use; the imperial calendar was used until the end of World War II.

Months

The modern Japanese names for the months literally translate to "first month", "second month", and so on. The corresponding number is combined with the suffix -gatsu (month):
- January - 一月 (ichigatsu)
- February - 二月 (nigatsu)
- March - 三月 (sangatsu)
- April - 四月 (shigatsu)
- May - 五月 (gogatsu)
- June - 六月 (rokugatsu)
- July - 七月 (shichigatsu)
- August - 八月 (hachigatsu)
- September - 九月 (kugatsu)
- October - 十月 (jūgatsu)
- November - 十一月 (jūichigatsu)
- December - 十二月 (jūnigatsu) In addition, every month has a traditional name, still used by some in fields such as poetry; of the twelve, shiwasu is still widely used today. The opening paragraph of a letter or the greeting in a speech might borrow one of these names to convey a sense of the season. Some, such as yayoi and satsuki, do double duty as given names (for women). These month names also appear from time to time on jidaigeki, which are contemporary television shows and movies set in the Edo period or earlier The name of month: (pronunciation, literal meaning)
- January - 睦月 (mutsuki, affection month)
- February - 如月 or 衣更着 (kisaragi or kinusaragi, changing clothes)
- March - 弥生 (yayoi, new life; the beginning of spring)
- April - 卯月 (uzuki, hare month)
- May - 皐月 or 早月 or 五月(satsuki, fast month)
- June - 水無月 (minatsuki or minazuki, water month -- the 無 character is ateji)
- July - 文月 (fumizuki, book month)
- August - 葉月 (hazuki, leaf month)
- September - 長月 (nagatsuki, long month)
- October - 神無月 (kan'nazuki or kaminazuki, no god month), 神有月 or 神在月; (kamiarizuki, god month – only in Izumo province, where all the gods are believed to gather in October for an annual meeting at the Izumo Shrine)
- November - 霜月 (shimotsuki, frost month)
- December - 師走 (shiwasu, priests run; it is named so because priests are busy making end of the year prayers and blessings.)

Days of the month

Each day of the month has a semi-systematic but irregularly formed name: In the traditional calendar, the thirtieth was the last day of the month, and its traditional name, misoka, survives (although sanjunichi is far more common, and is the usual term). The last day of the year is ōmisoka (the big thirtieth day), and that term is still in use.

Days of the week

The seven day week, with names for the days corresponding directly to those used in Europe, was brought to Japan around 800 AD. The system was used for astrological purposes and little else until 1876, shortly after Japan officially adopted the Western calendar. Fukuzawa Yukichi was a key figure in the decison to adopt this system as the source for official names for the days of the week. The names come from the five visible planets, which in turn are named after the five Chinese elements (wood, fire, earth, metal, water), and from the moon and sun (yin and yang).

National holidays

Notes: Single days between two national holidays are taken as a bank holiday. This applies to May 4, which is a holiday each year. When a national holiday falls on a Sunday the following Monday is taken as a holiday. † Traditional date of the founding of Japan by Emperor Jimmu, in 660 BC. Veracity of this claim is often questioned.
- Part of Golden Week

Timeline of changes to the national holidays

- 1948 - The following national holidays were introduced: New Year's Day, Coming-of-Age Day, Constitution Memorial Day, Children's Day, Autumnal Equinox Day, Culture Day, Labour Thanksgiving Day.
- 1966 - Health and Sports Day was introduced in memory of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics. Vernal Equinox Day was also introduced.
- 1985 - Reform to the national holiday law made May 4, sandwiched between two other national holidays also a holiday.
- 1989 - After Emperor Showa died on January 7, the Emperor's Birthday became December 23 and Greenery Day took place of the former Emperor's birthday.
- 2000, 2003 - Happy Monday Seido (ハッピーマンデー制度 Happī Mandē Seido) moved several holidays to Monday. Starting with 2000: Coming-of-Age Day (formerly January 15), and Health and Sports Day (formerly October 10). Starting with 2003: Marine Day (formerly July 20), and Respect for the Aged Day (formerly September 15).
- 2005, 2007 - According to a May 2005 decision, starting with 2007 Greenery Day will be moved from April 29 to May 4, while April 29 will be known as Showa Day.
- 2009 - September 22 may become sandwiched between two holidays, which would make this day a national holiday.

Seasonal days

Some days have special names to mark the change in seasons. The 24 Sekki (二十四節気 Nijūshi sekki) are days that divide a year in the Lunisolar calendar into twenty four equal sections. Zassetsu (雑節) is a collective term for the seasonal days other than the 24 Sekki. 72 Kō (七十二候 Shichijūni kō) days are made from dividing the 24 Sekki of a year further by three. Some of these names are still used quite frequently in everyday life in Japan.

24 Sekki

- 6 January: 小寒 (Shōkan) a.k.a. 寒の入り (Kan no iri)
- 20 January: 大寒 (Daikan)
- 4 February: 立春 (Risshun) - Beginning of spring
- 19 February: 雨水 (Usui)
- 5 March: 啓蟄 (Keichitsu)
- 21 March: 春分 (Shunbun) - Vernal equinox, middle of spring
- 5 April: 清明 (Seimei)
- 20 April: 穀雨 (Kokuu)
- May 6: 立夏 (Rikka) - Beginning of summer
- May 21: 小満 (Shōman)
- 6 June: 芒種 (Bōshu)
- 21 June: 夏至 (Geshi) - Summer solstice, middle of summer
- 7 July: 小暑 (Shōsho)
- 23 July: 大暑 (Taisho)
- 7 August: 立秋 (Risshū) - Beginning of autumn
- 23 August: 処暑 (Shosho)
- 8 September: 白露 (Hakuro)
- 23 September: 秋分 (Shūbun) - Autumnal equinox, middle of autumn
- 8 October: 寒露 (Kanro)
- 23 October: 霜降 (Sōkō)
- 7 November: 立冬 (Rittō) - Beginning of winter
- 22 November: 小雪 (Shōsetsu)
- 7 December: 大雪 (Taisetsu)
- 22 December: 冬至 (Tōji) - Winter solstice, middle of winter Days can vary by ±1 day. See also: Jieqi.

Zassetsu

Shanichi days can vary as much as ±5 days. Chūgen has a fixed day. All other days can vary by ±1 day. Many zassetsu days occur on multiple seasons:
- Setsubun (節分) refers to the day before each season, or the eves of Risshun, Rikka, Rishū, and Rittō; especially the eve of Risshun.
- Doyō (土用) refers to the 18 days before each season, especially the one before fall which is known as the hottest period of a year.
- Higan (彼岸) is the seven middle days of spring and autumn, with Shunbun at the middle of the seven days for spring, Shūbun for fall.
- Shanichi (社日) is the Tsuchinoe (戊) day closest to Shunbun (middle of spring) or Shūbun (middle of fall), which can be as much as -5 to +4 days away from Shunbun/Shūbun.

Seasonal festivals

The following are known as the five seasonal festivals (節句 sekku, also 五節句 go sekku). The Sekku were made official holidays during Edo era. # January 7 (1/7) - 人日 (Jinjitsu), 七草の節句 (Nanakusa no sekku) # March 3 (3/3) - 上巳 (Jōshi, Jōmi), 桃の節句 (Momo no sekku) #: 雛祭り (Hina matsuri), Girls' Day. # May 5 (5/5) - 端午 (Tango), 端午の節句 (Tango no sekku), 菖蒲の節句 (Ayame no sekku) #: Boys' Day. Overlaps with the national holiday Children's Day. # July 7 (7/7) - 七夕 (Shichiseki, Tanabata), 星祭り (Hoshi matsuri ) # September 9 (9/9) - 重陽 (Chōyō), 菊の節句 (Kiku no sekku) Not Sekku:
- January 1 - Japanese New Year
- August 15 - Obon
- December 31 - Ōmisoka

Rokuyō

The rokuyō (六曜) are a series of six days that predict whether there will be good or bad fortune during that day. The rokuyō are still commonly found on Japanese calendars today, and are often used to plan weddings and funerals. The rokuyō are also known as the rokki (六輝). In order, they are:
- 先勝 (senshō) - Good luck before noon, bad luck after noon. Good day for beginnings (in the morning).
- 友引 (tomobiki) - Bad things will happen to your friends. Funerals avoided on this day (tomo = friend, biki = pull, thus a funeral might pull friends toward the deceased).
- 先負 (senbu) - Bad luck before noon, good luck after noon.
- 仏滅 (butsumetsu) - The day Buddha died. Most unlucky day. Weddings best avoided.
- 大安 (taian) - Most lucky day. Good day for weddings.
- 赤口 (shakkō) - The hour of the horse (11 am - 1 pm) is lucky. The rest is bad luck. The rokuyō days are easily calculated from the Japanese Lunar calendar. Lunar January 1st is always senshō, with the days following in the order given above until the end of the month. Thus, January 2nd is tomobiki, January 3rd is senbu, and so on. Lunar February 1st restarts the sequence at tomobiki. Lunar March 1st restarts at senbu, and so on for each month. The last six months repeat the patterns of the first six, so July 1st = senshō and December 1st is shakkō.

April 1

The first day of April has broad significance in Japan. It marks the beginning of the government's fiscal year. Many corporations follow suit. In addition, corporations often form or merge on that date. In recent years, municipalities have preferred it for mergers. On this date, many new employees begin their jobs, and it is the start of many real-estate leases. The school year begins on April 1. (For more see also academic term)

External links

- [http://www.ndl.go.jp/koyomi/e Japanese calendar history by the National Diet Library]
- [http://www2.gol.com/users/stever/calendar.htm The Lunar Calendar in Japan]
- [http://koyomi.vis.ne.jp/mainindex.htm Koyomi no page] in Japanese
- [http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~nm9m-hsy/koyomi/ Koyomi no hanashi] in Japanese Calendar Category:Specific calendars ja:日本のこよみ ms:Kalendar Jepun

Pueblo people

The Pueblo People are a diverse group of Native Americans who live in New Mexico and in Arizona and who subsist by farming. When first encountered by the Spanish in the 1500s they were living in villages that the Spanish called "Pueblos," pueblo being the Spanish word for town. About 25 pueblos exist today, Taos, Acoma, Zuni and Hopi the most well known. Hopi

Language groups

While there are numerous subdivisions of Pueblo Peoples that have been published in the literature, Kirchhoff (1954) published a subdivision of the Pueblo Indians into two subareas: the Hopi, Zuni, Keres, Jemez group which share exogamous matrilineal clans, have multile kivas, believe in emergence from the underground, have four or six directions beginning in the north, four and seven as ritual numbers. This group stands in contrast to the Tanoan-speaking Pueblos (except Jemez) who have nonexogamous patrilineal clans, two kivas or two groups of kivas and a general belief in dualism, emergence from underwater, five directions beginning in the east, and ritual numbers based on multiples of three. Eggan (1950) in contrast, posed a dichotomy between Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on subsistence differences with the Western or Desert Pueblos of Zuni and Hopi dry-farmers, and the Eastern or River Pueblos irrigation farmers. Lingiustic differences between the Pueblos point to their diverse origins. The Hopi are Uto-Aztecan speakers; the Zuni, who are a linguistic isolate; the Keres speakers who include Acoma, Laguna, Santa Ana, Zia, Cochiti, Santo Domingo, San Feliple. The Tanoan language family consists of three languages or dialects: Towa (Jemez), Tewa (San Juan, San Ildefonso, Santa Clara, Tesuque, Name, Pojoaque, and Hano); and the Tiwa of Taos, Picuris, Sandia, and Isleta.

Descent and History

They are believed to be descended from the three major cultures that dominated the region before European contact: # Mogollon, an area near the Gila wilderness # Hohokam, archaelogical term for a settlement in the Southwest # Ancient Pueblo Peoples or the Anasazi, as termed by professional archaeologists. Historically, they supported themselves mostly by maize agriculture, although they live in one of the more arid regions in North America. European settlement began in the late sixteenth century, but the desert surrounding the Rio Grande Valley precluded massive intrusions into Indian land until the mid-nineteenth century. As a result and despite forced conversions to Catholicism by the Spanish, the Pueblo tribes have been able to maintain much of their traditional lifestyle. There are now some 35,000 Pueblo Indians, living mostly in New Mexico and Arizona along the Rio Grande and Colorado River. They were the first to successfully revolt against the Spanish in the Pueblo Revolt of 1680, which expelled the Spanish for 12 years. It began August 10th; by August 21st, Santa Fe fell. On September 22, 2005, the statue of Po'pay, (Popé) the leader of the Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington D.C. The statue was the second one from the state of New Mexico and the 100th and last to be added to the Statuary Hall collection. It is the only statue in the collection created by a Native American, in this case, Cliff Fragua, a Puebloan from Jemez Pueblo. Most of the Pueblos have annual ceremonies that are open to the public. In many cases, one such ceremony is the Pueblo's feast day, held on the day sacred to its Roman Catholic patron saint. (These saints were assigned by the Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with a traditional ceremony.) Some Pueblos also have ceremonies around the Christmas holidays and at other times of the year. The ceremonies usually feature traditional dances outdoors accompanied by singing and drumming, interspersed with non-public ceremonies in the kivas. They may also include a Roman Catholic Mass and processions. Formerly, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal in a Pueblo home, but because of the large number of visitors, such meals are now by personal invitation only. Some feast days appear in the list below.

Culture

Historically, the Pueblos were large communal buildings; each family lived in a single room of the building, but if a family grew large enough, side-rooms were added. Among the Jemez and the non-Tanoan-speakers, ownership of the room was largely matrilineal, from mother to daughter. Thus if a Hopi, Zuni, Keres, or Jemez man were to divorce, he would move from the home of his former wife to the home of his mother or a sister. The other pueblos were patrilineal. Men were expected to tend the fields. They would defend the community in war societies; tribes such as the Navajo, Comanche, and Apache were their traditional enemies. The Spanish successfully re-conquered New Mexico after 1692 by allying themselves with the Pueblo people against their traditional enemies (although events in the 1800s were to modify these political alliances). According to Horgan, Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize -- white cornmeal. Thus a man might bless his son, or some land, or the town itself by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. Once, after the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering a town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance. The Puebloans employed prayer sticks, which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers; the prayer sticks (or talking sticks) were also used by other nations. Cloth and weaving were known to the Puebloans before the conquest, but it is not known whether they knew weaving before or after the Aztecs. But since clothing was expensive, they did not always dress completely, in the European tradition until after the conquest, and breechclouts were not uncommon. Corn was a staple food for the Pueblo people. They would use pottery (see images below) to hold their food and water.

List of Pueblos

- Acoma Pueblo NM 87034 - Keres speakers. Oldest continuously inhabited village in US.
- Cicuye Pueblo - now called Pecos Pueblo, survivors moved to Jemez Pueblo 1830s. See [http://www.abqjournal.com/venue/day/heritage7.htm Pecos Pueblo National Monument]
- Cochiti Pueblo NM 87072 - Keres speakers. Church 1628. Feast Day: July 14
- Hopi Tribe Kykotsmovi AZ 86039 - Hopi speakers. Area of present villages settled around 700 A.D.
- Isleta Pueblo NM 87022 - Tiwa speakers. Established 1300s. Feast Days: call.
- Jemez Pueblo NM 87024 - Towa speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo, but welcomed at Red Rocks.
- Laguna Pueblo NM 87026 - Keres speakers. Ancestors 3000 BC, established before 1300. Church July 4, 1699. Photography and sketching prohibited on the land, but welcomed at San Jose Mission Church.
- Nambe Pueblo - Tewa speakers. Established 1300s. Ceremonials July 4, October 4
- Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo NM 87566 - Tewa speakers. Originally named O'ke Oweenge in Tewa. Headquarters of the Eight Northern Indian Pueblos Council. Home of the August 1680 Pueblo revolt. Known as San Juan Pueblo until November 2005. Feast Day June 24.
- Picuris Pueblo, Peñasco NM 87553 - Tiwa speakers. Feast Day August 10
- Piru Pueblo or Piro Pueblo, Socorro NM - did not participate in Pueblo revolt
- Pojoaque Pueblo, Santa Fe NM 87506 - Tewa speakers. Re-established 1930s. Feast Day December 12, January 6
- Sandia Pueblo, Bernalillo NM 87004 - Tiwa speakers. Originally named Nafiat. Established 1300s. On the northern outskirts of Albuquerque.
- San Felipe Pueblo NM 87001 - Keres speakers. 1706. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. Feast Day May 1
- San Ildefonso Pueblo, Santa Fe NM 87506 - Tewa speakers. Originally at Mesa Verde and Bandelier. The valuable black-on-black pottery was developed here by Maria and Julian Martinez. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. Heavily-visited destination. Feast Day January 23.
- Santa Ana Pueblo NM 87004 - Keres speakers. Photography and sketching prohibited at pueblo. Feast Day July 26
- Santa Clara Pueblo, Española NM 87532 - Tewa speakers. 1550. Originally inhabited Puyé Cliff Dwellings on Santa Clara Canyon.
- Santo Domingo Pueblo NM 87052 - Keres speakers. Known for turquoise work. Feast Day August 4; Corn Dance.
- Taos Pueblo NM 87571 - Tiwa speakers. World Heritage Site. U.S. National Historic Site. Feast Day September 30. Photography and sketching $20. Commercial work requires advance approval.
- Tesuque Pueblo - Tewa speakers. Originally named [http://www.indianpueblo.org/ipcc/tesuquepage.htm Te Tesugeh Oweengeh] 1200. National Register of Historic Places. Pueblo closed to public. Camel Rock Casino and Camel Rock Suites as well as the actual Camel Rock are open.
- Zia Pueblo NM 87053-6013 - Keres speakers. New Mexico's State Flag uses the Zia symbol. Feast Day August 15
- Zuni Pueblo NM 87327 - Zuni speakers. First visited 1540 by Spanish. Mission 1629 In 1924 these peoples were granted US citizenship. In 1948, they were granted the right to vote in New Mexico.

Gallery of Pottery by the Pueblo peoples

Image:PotteryOfPuebloPeoples.jpg |Pottery of the Pueblo people, Field Museum, Chicago Image:ZiaBowl1.jpg |Zia Pueblo, pottery bowl, Field Museum Image:TesuqueJar2.jpg |Tesuque Pueblo Pottery Jar, Field Museum Image:AcomaBowl2.jpg |Acoma Pueblo, bowl. (background: Tesuque jar.) Field Museum Image:AcomaJar2.jpg |Acoma Pueblo, pottery jar, Field Museum Image:TesuqueJar1.jpg |Tesuque Pueblo, Pottery Jar, Field Museum Image:SanIldefonsoBowl1.jpg |San Ildefonso Pueblo, Black-on-Black Pottery Bowl. Field Museum Image:BirdEffigyJarCicuye1.jpg |Bird effigy, pottery. Cicuye Pueblo, Field Museum Image:CicuyeDeer1.jpg |Deer effigy, pottery. Cicuye Pueblo, Field Museum Image:AcomaJar1.jpg |Pottery Jar, Acoma Pueblo, taken at Field Museum Image:AcomaCanteen1.jpg |Pottery Canteen, Acoma Pueblo, taken at Field Museum Image:JemezBowl1.jpg |Pottery Bowl, Jemez Pueblo, Field Museum, Chicago

Pueblo Revolt

The Pueblo Revolt of 1680, also known as "Popé's Rebellion," was an uprising of the Native American Pueblos against the Spanish who were expelled from the territory. Over four hundred Spanish settlers were massacred including Franciscan friars, women and children. Twelve years later, in 1692, the Spanish reconquered New Mexico, and the Pueblos did not offer significant resistance. A lieutenant of Popé welcomed DeVargas back. The revolt was masterminded by a shaman priest named Popé (or Po'Pay) who was born at Ohkay Owingeh Pueblo and lived at Taos Pueblo. It began on San Lorenzo Day, August 10, earlier than had been originally planned, as word had leaked out by loyal Tewas from Pecos and other pueblos . A few pueblos did not participate, notably the Piro people in the Socorro area, who went with the Spanish in their withdrawal to El Paso. Refered to in Star Trek: The Next Generation in an episode in which Captian Jean-Luc Picard is forced to relocate some Native Americans. The tribe's Chief tells Picard that 23 generations ago, another Picard led the attack on the Pueblo Indians during the Pueblo Revolt leaving a blood debt that Picard must now repay.

1770

1770 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events

- March 5 - Boston Massacre: 5 Americans killed by British troops in an event that would help start the American Revolutionary War 5 years later.
- May 14 - Marie Antoinette arrives at the French court.
- May 16 - 14-year old Marie Antoinette marries 15-year old Louis-Auguste (who later becomes Louis XVI King of France).
- May 16 - Fireworks at the wedding of the crown prince of France in Paris cause a fire – 800 dead
- July 1 - Comet Lexell (D/1770 L1) passes the Earth
- August 22 - James Cook claimed for Great Britain the eastern coast of New Holland (Australia)
- Joseph Priestley, British chemist, recommends the use of a rubber to remove pencil marks.
- Joseph Louis Lagrange proves Bachet's Conjecture.

Births

- February 21 - Georges Mouton, Marshal of France (d. 1838)
- March 2 - Louis Gabriel Suchet, Marshal of France (d. 1826)
- March 20 - Friedrich Hölderlin, German writer (d. 1843)
- April 7 - William Wordsworth, English poet (d. 1850)
- April 25 - Georg Sverdrup, Norwegian philologist (d. 1850)
- April 30 - David Thompson, English-Canadian explorer (d. 1857)
- May 10 - Louis Nicolas Davout, Marshal of France (d. 1823)
- August 1 - William Clark, explorer, Governor of Missouri Territory, and Superintendent of Indian Affairs (d. 1838)
- August 3 - King Frederick William III of Prussia (d. 1840)
- August 27 - Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, German philosopher (d. 1831)
- December 17 - (baptized) Ludwig van Beethoven, German composer (d. 1827)
- december 18 - Nicolas Joseph Maison, Marshal of France and Minister of War (d. 1840)

Deaths

- January 7 - Carl Gustaf Tessin, Swedish politician (b. 1695)
- January 20 - Charles Yorke, Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1722)
- February 26 - Giuseppe Tartini, Italian composer and violinist (b. 1692)
- March 27 - Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Venetian artist (b. 1696)
- April 25 - Jean-Antoine Nollet, French abbot and physicist (b. 1700)
- May 30 - François Boucher, French painter (b. 1703)
- June 23 - Mark Akenside, English poet and physician (b. 1721)
- July 27 - Robert Dinwiddie, British colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1693)
- August 24 - Thomas Chatterton, English poet (b. 1752)
- September 30 - Thomas Robinson, 1st Baron Grantham, English politician and diplomat
- September 30 - George Whitefield, English-born Methodist leader (b. 1714)
- October 18 - John Manners, Marquess of Granby, British soldier (b. 1721)
- November 9 - John Campbell, 4th Duke of Argyll, Scottish politician
- November 13 - George Grenville, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1712)
- November 24 - Charles-Jean-François Hénault, French historian (b. 1685)
- December 5 - James Stirling, Scottish mathematician (b. 1692) Category:1770 ko:1770년 ms:1770

James Cook

This article refers to the British navigator and cartographer. For alternative meanings, see Captain James Cook (disambiguation). Captain James Cook (disambiguation) Captain James Cook (disambiguation) James Cook (October 27, 1728 (O.S.) – February 14, 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, and map maker. He made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which large areas were accurately charted, and several islands and coastlines recorded for the first time on European maps. His most notable accomplishments were the British discovery and claiming of the east coast of Australia, the European discovery of the Hawaiian Islands, and the first circumnavigation and mapping of New Zealand.

Early Life

James Cook was born in relatively humble circumstances at Marton in North Yorkshire, near what is today recognised as the town of Middlesbrough. Cook was one of five children born to a local woman and a Scottish immigrant farm labourer, Grace and James Sr. As a child, Cook moved with his family to a farm at Great Ayton where he was educated at the local school, his studies financed by his father's employer. At 13 he began work with his father, now the farm's manager. In 1745 when he was 16, Cook left home to be apprenticed in a grocer/haberdashery in the fishing village of Staithes. According to legend, Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out the shop window. After about a year and a half in Staithes, the shop's owner (Mr Anderson) found James unsuited to the trade. Mr Anderson took James to the nearby port town of Whitby and introduced him to John and Henry Walker. John and Henry were prominent local ship-owners and Quakers, and were in the coal trade business. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their small fleet of vessels plying coal along the English coast. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this, and various other coasters sailing between the Tyne and London. For this new apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, trigonometry, navigation, and astronomy, skills he would need one day to command his own ship. His three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea. He soon progressed through the merchant navy ranks, starting with his 1752 promotion to Mate (officer in charge of navigation) aboard the collier brig Friendship. In 1755 he was offered command of this vessel, but within the month he volunteered for service in the British Royal Navy. In 1755, The Kingdom of Great Britain was re-arming for what was to become the Seven Years War. Cook saw that his career could advance more quickly in military service. However, this required starting over in the naval hierarchy, and on June 17 he began as able seaman aboard HMS Eagle under the command of Captain Hugh Palliser. He was very quickly promoted to Master's Mate.

Family Life

Cook married Elizabeth Bates, the daughter of one of his mentors, on December 21, 1762. The couple would eventually have six children. When not at sea, James Cook settled in the East End of London. He attended St Paul's church, Shadwell, where his son James was baptised.

Start of Royal Navy career

St Paul's church, Shadwell During the Seven Years' War, he participated in the siege of Quebec City before the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759. He showed a talent for surveying and cartography and was responsible for mapping much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege allowing General Wolfe to make his famous stealth attack on the Plains of Abraham. Cook's surveying skills were put to good use in the 1760s mapping the jagged coast of Newfoundland. Cook surveyed the northwest stretch in 1763 and 1764, the south coast between the Burin Peninsula and Cape Ray in 1765 and 1766, and the west coast in 1767. Cook’s five seasons in Newfoundland produced the first large-scale and accurate maps of the island’s coasts; they also gave Cook his mastery of practical surveying, achieved under often adverse conditions, and brought him to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society at a crucial moment both in his personal career and in the direction of British overseas discovery. Cook's huge achievements can be attributed to a combination of excellent seamanship, his superior surveying and cartographic skills, courage in exploring dangerous locations to confirm the facts (e.g. dipping into the Antarctic circle repeatedly and exploring around the Great Barrier Reef), ability to lead men in adverse conditions, and boldness both with regard to the extent of his explorations and his willingness to exceed the instructions given to him by the Admiralty..

First voyage (1768-1771)

In 1766, the Royal Society hired Cook to travel to the Pacific Ocean to observe and record a transit of Venus across the Sun. Before starting his first voyage, Cook was granted Lieutenant's "Commission" from the Admiralty. In command of HM Bark Endeavour, he sailed from England in 1768, rounded Cape Horn and continued westward across the Pacific to arrive at Tahiti on April 13, 1769, where the obser

August 21

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August 21

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1192

Events

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Heads of states

Shogun

Seii Taishogun of Heian Period Japan (794 - 1185)

Conquest of the Ainu

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Seii Taishogun of Feudal Period Japan (1185 - 1868)

Kamakura Shogunate

Kemmu Restoration

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Timeline of changes to the national holidays

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Pueblo people

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Descent and History

Culture

List of Pueblos

Gallery of Pottery by the Pueblo peoples

See also

Further reading

Pueblo Revolt

See also

1770

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James Cook

Early Life

Family Life

Start of Royal Navy career

First voyage (1768-1771)