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College Of Cardinals

College of Cardinals

The Sacred College of Cardinals is the body of all Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church. The body plays two roles for the church:
- participating in papal elections when the Holy See is vacant, and
- advising the Pope about Church matters when he summons them to a consistory. Historically, they were also the clergy of the city of Rome serving the Pope as the Bishop of Rome and were assigned duties in parishes of the city. The College has no ruling power except during the sede vacante period, where its powers are still extremely limited according to Universi Dominici Gregis. The president and vice-president of the college are the Dean of the College of Cardinals and the Sub-Dean. Both are elected by the cardinals holding suburbicarian dioceses, but the election requires Papal confirmation. Except for presiding, the Dean has no power of governance over the cardinals, instead acting as primus inter pares. The prefects of Vatican Congregations are always Cardinals, with few, generally temporary, exceptions.

Choosing the pope

Since January 1, 1971, cardinals over the age of 80 have not had a vote in papal election, under the terms of Pope Paul VI's motu proprio Ingravescentem Aetatem. The rules for the election of the pope are now those stated in Universi Dominici Gregis, published by Pope John Paul II on 22 February 1996. It now states that cardinals over the age of 80 at the day the see become vacant do not have a vote in the papal election. Although the rules of the Conclave explicitly say the Pope need not be chosen from among the ranks of the Cardinals (in theory any male Roman Catholic may be elected Pope), that has been the norm since the election of Pope Urban VI in 1378.

Members of the College of Cardinals

The following is the list of Cardinals as of December 2005. Cardinals are shown in order of precedence, based on seniority by date of appointment. Stephen Cardinal Kim Sou-hwan is considered the most senior member of the College by length of service, as he was listed first of those surviving from the 1969 consistory. However, Angelo Cardinal Sodano, as dean of the College of Cardinals, has the highest precedence as a Cardinal Bishop. Cardinals aged over 80 are indicated with an asterisk (
- ). All but fourteen of the Cardinals alive at the death of Pope John Paul II were appointed by him. Three of those fourteen were under 80 years old as of the day of John Paul II's death, and one of those three has since been elected Pope while another has died. There are now a total of 179 cardinals of whom 111 are aged under 80. There are three ranks of Cardinals: Cardinal Bishops, Cardinal Priests, and Cardinal Deacons. Almost all Cardinals are also bishops.

Cardinals of the Order of Bishops

Titular Bishops of seven suburbicarian sees
- Angelo Cardinal Sodano, Dean of the College of Cardinals (Italy) - born 23 November 1927 Cardinal Secretary of State Cardinal 28 June 1991, Cardinal Bishop of Albano since January 1994, Dean of the College (and therefore Cardinal Bishop of Ostia) since April 2005
- Bernardin Cardinal Gantin
- (Benin) - born 8 May 1922 retired as Dean and as Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops Cardinal 27 June 1977, Cardinal Bishop of Palestrina since September 1986, was Dean and Cardinal Bishop of Ostia 1993-2002
- Roger Cardinal Etchegaray
- (France) - born 25 September 1922 Vice-Dean of the College of Cardinals, former President of the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace Cardinal 30 June 1979, Cardinal Bishop of Porto-Santa Rufina since June 1998
- Alfonso Cardinal López Trujillo (Colombia) - born 8 November 1935 President of Pontifical Council for the Family Cardinal 2 February 1983, Cardinal Bishop of Frascati since November 2001
- Giovanni Battista Cardinal Re (Italy) - born 30 January 1934 Prefect of the Congregation for Bishops Cardinal 21 February 2001, Cardinal Bishop of Sabina-Poggio Mirteto since October 2002
- Francis Cardinal Arinze (Nigeria) - born 1 November 1932 Prefect of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments Cardinal 25 May 1985, Cardinal Bishop of Velletri-Segni since April 2005 Patriarchs of Oriental Rites with dates of cardinalates
- 2/28/1994: Nasrallah Pierre Cardinal Sfeir
- (Lebanon) - born 15 May 1920 Maronite Patriarch of Antioch (lives in Beirut)
- 2/21/2001: Stephanos II Cardinal Ghattas
- (Egypt) - born 16 January 1920 Coptic Catholic Patriarch of Alexandria
- 2/21/2001: Ignace Moussa I Cardinal Daoud (Syria) - born 18 September 1930 Prefect of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches and former Syrian Rite Patriarch of Antioch

Cardinals of the Order of Priests

Appointed by Pope Paul VI

Appointed by Pope John Paul II

Cardinals of the Order of Deacons

Cardinal Deacons have the right to become Cardinal Priests after ten years as Cardinal Deacons. All living former Cardinal Deacons created prior to 1998 have exercised this right. Consistory of 21 February 1998
- Jorge Arturo Cardinal Medina Estévez (Chile) - born 23 December 1926 Retired Prefect of the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments
- Darío Cardinal Castrillón Hoyos (Colombia) - born 4 July 1929 Prefect of the Congregation for the Clergy and President of the Pontifical Commission Ecclesia Dei
- Lorenzo Cardinal Antonetti
- (Italy) - born 31 July 1922 Pontifical Delegate for the Patriarchal Basilica of St. Francis of Assisi and Retired President of the Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See
- James Francis Cardinal Stafford (USA) - born 26 July 1932 Major Penitentiary
- Giovanni Cardinal Cheli
- (Italy) - born 4 October 1918 Retired President of the Pontifical Commission for Pastoral Care of Migrants and Itinerants
- Dino Cardinal Monduzzi
- (Italy) - born 2 April 1922 Prefect of the Pontifical Household Consistory of 21 February 2001
- Agostino Cardinal Cacciavillan (Italy) - born 14 August 1926 Retired President of the Administration of the Apostolic See (succeeded Cardinal Antonetti)
- Sergio Cardinal Sebastiani (Italy) - born 11 April 1931 President of the Prefecture for the Economic Affairs of the Holy See
- Zenon Cardinal Grocholewski (Poland) - born 11 October 1939 Prefect of the Congregation for Catholic Education
- José Cardinal Saraiva Martins (Portugal) - born 6 January 1932 Prefect of the Congregation for the Causes of Saints
- Crescenzio Cardinal Sepe (Italy) - born 2 June 1943 Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
- Jorge María Cardinal Mejía
- (Argentina) - born 31 January 1923 Retired Librarian and Archivist of the Holy Roman Church
- Mario Francesco Cardinal Pompedda (Italy) - born 18 April 1929 Retired Prefect of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura
- Walter Cardinal Kasper (Germany) - born 5 March 1933 President of the Pontifical Council for the Promotion of Christian Unity
- Roberto Cardinal Tucci
- (Italy) - born 19 April 1921 Priest of Society of Jesus and retired President of the Administrative Committee of R

Cardinal (Catholicism)

A cardinal is a senior ecclesiastical official in the Roman Catholic Church, ranking just below the Pope and appointed by him as a member of the College of Cardinals during a consistory. The duties of the cardinals are to attend the meetings of the Sacred College and to make themselves available individually if the Pope desires their counsel. Most cardinals have additional duties either leading many of the church's dioceses and archdioceses or running the Roman Curia. Excluding the rochet, which is always white, a cardinal wears scarlet garments when in choir, including the cassock, mozzetta, zucchetto, and biretta. His normal-wear simar is black but has scarlet sash and trim. He wears a ring which is traditionally kissed by Catholics when he is greeted. The bright red color of the scarlet symbolizes a cardinal's willingness to die for his faith. Upon a pope's death, the college runs the church during the sede vacante; those under 80 years old are also responsible for electing the next Pope. Pope Sixtus V limited the number of cardinals to 70 (six cardinal bishops, 50 cardinal priests, 14 cardinal deacons). In 1975, Pope Paul VI created the age limit on electors and raised the limit to 120 cardinal electors. But the numerical limitations have been frequently disregarded in order to make the College of Cardinals a more representative body. Pope John Paul II elevated an additional 31 cardinals in a consistory on October 21, 2003, bringing the number of cardinals at that time to 194. As of John Paul II's death, 117 of the then-current 183 cardinals were young enough to be electors. The term "cardinal" derives from the Latin cardo, or hinge, suggesting the fulcrum-like leadership role they play. Because of the red color of their vestments, cardinals are the namesakes for the bird of the same name.

Orders

bird of the same name According to Canon 350 of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, the College of Cardinals is divided into three orders:
- the episcopal order (Cardinal Bishops),
- the presbyteral order (Cardinal Priests), the most numerous group,
- the diaconal order (Cardinal Deacons). Most cardinal bishops are those to whom the Pope assigns the title of a suburbicarian church; that group elects a Dean of the College of Cardinals to be the head of the college, the first among equals; the election must be approved by the Pope. At the Pope's discretion, patriarchs of the Eastern Rite churches may also be appointed to the college. When appointed, they become cardinal bishops without holding a suburbicarian see, but they cannot elect the dean or be elected dean. Cardinal priests and cardinal deacons are each assigned a church or deaconry in Rome by the Pope. All cardinal priests and almost all cardinal deacons are actually bishops. Originally any Catholic male could be appointed to the College: for example in the 16th century Reginald Pole was a cardinal for 18 years before he was ordained a priest. Today, Canon 351 specifically requires that a cardinal at least be in the order of priesthood, and those who are not already bishops must receive episcopal consecration. Only bishops are normally created cardinals. A recent exception is Avery Cardinal Dulles, S.J., who was a priest at the time of his elevation in 2001. He successfully petitioned Pope John Paul II for a dispensation from episcopal consecration due to advanced age. Although he is not a bishop, he is still entitled to wear the episcopal vestments and regalia (miter, crozier, pectoral cross, ring) and possess a coat of arms by virtue of his status as cardinal. He is, though, restricted to the lower two orders of cardinals.

Secret cardinal

In addition to the named cardinals, a pope may name cardinals in pectore, Latin for in the breast. A cardinal named in pectore is known only to the pope; not even the cardinal so named is necessarily aware of his elevation. Cardinals are named in pectore to protect them or their congregations from reprisals if their identities were known. If conditions change such that a secret cardinal would be safe, the pope may at any time make public a previously in pectore cardinal, who ranks in precedence with those of his original consistory. If a pope dies before revealing the identity of an in pectore cardinal, the cardinalate expires. This was the case with Pope John Paul II, who named an in pectore cardinal during his tenure that remained secret even on his death on April 2, 2005. Many speculated that the Holy Father's will would contain the name of the in pectore cardinal, but it did not.

Other privileges

2005
- If the cardinal is not a bishop, he is allowed the ceremonial privileges of one.
- Cardinals place a scarlet galero with thirty tassels, the ancient symbol of their office, above their coat of arms.
- Since 1630, cardinals have taken the style Eminence, and upon elevation the word "Cardinal" becomes part of the prelate's name, traditionally coming immediately before the surname. As an example, the full style of Cardinal McCarrick is "His Eminence, Theodore Cardinal McCarrick, Archbishop of Washington."

History

The cardinals did not always elect the Pope: the Pope was originally elected by the clergy and the people of the Roman Church, but during the medieval times, as the Roman nobility gained too great an influence, as the Holy Roman Emperors interfered into the choosing of a pope and as the papacy gained importance as an international figure, the right of election was given to the cardinals in 1159. The Pope could substitute another body of electors for the College of Cardinals at any time; in fact there have been proposals in the past to have the Synod of Bishops perform this function (the proposals have not been adopted because, among other reasons, the Synod of Bishops can only meet when called by the Pope). In early modern times, English and French monarchs had cardinals as their chief ministers—Wolsey in England, Richelieu, Mazarin and Fleury in France. These men were cardinals, not because of their religious duties, but because it allowed their kings to pay them from church revenues. Rome accepted the loss of some revenue in order to protect the rest of its property and revenue.

Cardinals in popular culture

- Among others, Charlton Heston and Tim Curry have played Cardinal Richelieu in adaptations of The Three Musketeers.
- Orson Welles played Thomas Cardinal Wolsey in the 1966 screen adaptation of A Man for All Seasons.
- George Carlin played the fictional Ignatius Cardinal Glick in Kevin Smith's Dogma.

External links

- [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/cardinals.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church] information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church
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Holy See

The term Holy See (Latin: Sancta Sedes, lit. "holy seat") refers in its original sense to the episcopal see of Rome, of which the Pope is the diocesan bishop (technically, the ordinary). Currently, Benedict XVI is the ordinary of the Holy See. In the sense more widely used today, as defined in canon law, the Holy See refers to the Pope, the Roman Curia, and associated institutions, in effect, the government of the Roman Catholic Church. The Holy See is also called the "Apostolic See", although this name properly refers to any see founded by the Apostles and especially to the three original patriarchal sees of Rome (St. Peter and Paul), Alexandria (St. Mark) and Antioch (St. Peter). Later Constantinople, allegedly founded by St. Andrew, and Jerusalem, restored after its period as a pagan city, were also numbered among the patriarchal sees. The five sees were ranked in descending order of precedence: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem. Aside from Rome, the archiepiscopal See of Mainz, which was also of electoral and primatial rank, is the only other see referred to as the "Holy See," although this usage is rather less common.

The Holy See and Vatican City

Although the Holy See is closely associated with the Vatican City, the independent territory over which the Holy See is sovereign, the two entities are separate and distinct. Since medieval times the Holy See has been recognized as a legal personality under international law. After the Italian takeover of the Papal States in 1870, there was some uncertainty among jurists as to whether the Holy See, without territorial sovereignty, could continue to act as an independent personality in international matters. The State of the Vatican City was created by the Lateran treaties in 1929 to "insure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See" and "to guarantee to it an indisputable sovereignty in international affairs" (quotes from the treaty). Archbishop Jean-Louis Tauran, the Holy See's former Secretary for Relations with States, said that the Vatican City is a "miniscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with the minimum territory". [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/documents/rc_seg-st_doc_20020422_tauran_en.html] The Holy See is the entity which maintains diplomatic relations with states, and which participates in international organizations. Foreign embassies are accredited to the Holy See rather than to the Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes diplomatic agreements ("Concordats") with other sovereign states.

Organization of the Holy See

The Pope governs the Church through the Roman Curia. The Roman Curia consists of the Secretariat of State, nine Congregations, three Tribunals, 11 Pontifical Councils, and a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level. The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, directs and coordinates the Curia. The current incumbent, Angelo Cardinal Sodano, is the Holy See's equivalent of a prime minister. Archbishop Giovanni Lajolo, Secretary of the Section for Relations With States of the Secretariat of State acts as the Holy See's foreign minister. Sodano and Lajolo served in their respective roles under Pope John Paul II and were then reappointed to those same roles by Pope Benedict XVI. Among the most active of the major Curial institutions are the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, which oversees church doctrine; the Congregation for Bishops, which coordinates the appointment of bishops worldwide; the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, which oversees all missionary activities; and the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, which deals with international peace and social issues. Three tribunals are responsible for judicial power. The Apostolic Penitentiary deals with matters of conscience; the Sacra Rota is responsible for appeals, including annulments of marriage; and the Apostolic Signatura is the final court of appeal. The Prefecture for Economic Affairs coordinates the finances of the Holy See departments and supervises the administration of the Patrimony of the Holy See, an investment fund dating back to the Lateran Pacts. A committee of 15 cardinals, chaired by the Secretary of State, has final oversight authority over all financial matters of the Holy See, including those of the Institute for Works of Religion, the Vatican bank. Because the Holy See comprises more than simply the Pontificate, it does not dissolve upon the death or resignation of the reigning Pope; in contrast, the heads of the dicasteries of the Roman Curia (such as the prefects of congregations) cease to hold office immediately upon the Pope's death. During a sede vacante—that is, the interregnum occurring between the Pope's death and the election of his successor—the government of the Holy See (and therefore of the Roman Catholic Church) falls to the College of Cardinals. The Cardinal Camerlengo administers the temporalities (i.e., properties and finances) of the Holy See during this period. Canon law prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the Church during this period. The head of the Apostolic Penitentiary (normally a cardinal, called the Major Penitentiary) also remains in office during the period of Sede vacante.

External links

- [http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See Website]
- [http://www.cin.org/users/jgallegos/primacy.htm Primacy of the Apostolic See]
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/vt.html CIA World Factbook on Holy See]
- [http://www.St-Takla.org Holy See of St. Mark] (Coptic) Category:Canon law Category:The Papacy

Consistory

Antiquity

Originally, the Latin word consistorium meant simply 'sitting together', just as the Greek syn(h)edrion (from which the Biblical sanhedrin was a corruption). In the Roman empire though, it was specifically applied to a formal meeting of the Comites consistoriales, i.e. those members of the Emperor's court with the title of Comes (the translation count is rather confusing) who were assigned—and this conferred the highest rank amongst Comites—to advise him in official, important matters, suching as drafting bills and other written decisions, rather like the privy council of a feudal king. As the senate—in law still retaining the highest constitutional position, as the republic was never formally ended—lost most of its political importance, almost reducing it to a rubber stamp as a single-party state's parliament usually is, they stepped in as an official alternative power besides the throne, but real power could just as well lay mainly elsewhere, depending on the imperial favor and personal machinations.

Religion

Roman Catholic

The consistory is a formal meeting of the Sacred College of Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church, except when convened to elect a new pope (then the name is conclave, and specific rules apply, also to its composition). Consistories are held in Vatican City for taking care of the business of the college, which usually involves advising the Pope on important matters concerning the church. Since the Pope creates new cardinals in the presence of the college, the consistory is where this takes place. The identities of the cardinals-to-be are generally announced some time in advance, but only at the time of the consistory does the elevation to the cardinalate take effect, since that is when the Pope formally publishes the decree of elevation. Some men have died before the consistory date, and if a Pope dies before the consistory all the nominations are voided. However, the cardinal himself does not have to attend the consistory for his elevation to be effective. Those new cardinals present are presented with their rings, zucchetti (small skullcaps), and biretti (four-cornered silk hats) by the Pope. Formerly they also received an elaborate broad-brimmed tasseled hat, the galerum rubrum, at the ceremony, but Pope Paul VI abolished this in 1967 and those cardinals who want these obtain them privately from a maker in Rome. The zucchetto, the biretta, and the galerum rubrum are all scarlet, the distinctive color of cardinals' vestments. When a diocesan cardinal dies, his galerum rubrum is suspended from the ceiling of his cathedral. At the consistory cardinals are generally assigned titular churches in the diocese of Rome, though Paul VI abolished their functional involvement in the governance of these churches; the cardinals formally "take possession" of these churches at a later date.

In Protestant churches

In Germany and Scandinavia, the word consistory (Konsistorium etc.) has been used for the chapter of a cathedral. In the Reformed Church, a Consistory is the board of elected church officials that include the Elders and the Deacons.

Jewish

A consistory is a somewhat comparable body of a Jewish community in an area, e.g. a country. There may be more than one sharing a territory, but defined by an 'ideological' tendency, e.g. an orthodox, a conservative one, and a liberal one in Belgium

Academic

The word consistory (konsistorium) is also used in the sense of "university board" at some universities in Germany, Scandinavia and Finland (when Swedish is used). In other countries another august assembly lends an alternative name to an equivalent body, e.g. senat in Belgium. Category:Cardinal Category:Academia

Clergy

Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. The term comes from Greek κληρος (a lot, that which is assigned by lot (allotment) or metaphorically, heritage). Depending on the religion, clergy usually take care of the ritual aspects of the religious life, teach or otherwise help in spreading the religion's doctrine and practices. They often deal with life-cycle events such as childbirth, circumcision, coming of age ceremonies, marriage, and death. Clergy of most faiths work both inside and outside formal houses of worship, and can be found working in hospitals, nursing homes, missions, armies, etc. There is a significant difference between clergy and theologians; clergy have the above-mentioned duties while theologians are scholars of religion and theology, and are not necessarily clergy. A lay-person can be a theologian. The two fields, of course, often overlap. In some denominations clergy status is reserved for males. In other denominations both men and women serve as clergy. Clergy are protected by special laws in many countries. In some cases clergy are financed (or co-financed) by the state, but usually they are financially supported by the donations of individual members of their religion. In Christianity there is a wide range of formal and informal clergy positions, including priests, deacons, bishops, and ministers. In Islam, religious leaders are usually known as imams or ayatollahs.

Christian clergy

Catholic clergy

Ordained Catholic clergymen are deacons, priests, or bishops, i.e., they belong to the diaconate, the presbyterate, or the episcopate. Among bishops, some are metropolitans, archbishops, or patriarchs, and the Pope is the Bishop of Rome. With rare exceptions, cardinals are bishops, although it was not always so; formerly, some cardinals were unordained laymen and not clergymen. The Holy See supports the activity of its clergy by the "Congregation for the Clergy" ([http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cclergy/]), an organ of Roman curia. Canon law indicates (canon 107) that "by divine institution, there are in the Church [Latin: Ecclesia] clergy [Latin: clerices] distinguished from laics". This distinction of a separate class was formed in the early times of Christianity; one early source reflecting this distinction is the writings of St. Ignatius of Antioch. The original clerics were the bishops (the Twelve Apostles) and the deacons (their seventy appointed assistants); the presbyterate actually developed as a sort of semi-bishop (cf. the disused chorepiskopos, "rural bishop"). In the Catholic Church, only men can be members of the clergy. Catholic clerical organisation is hierarchical in nature: before the reforms after the Second Vatican Council, the tonsure admitted a man to the clerical state, after which he could receive the four minor orders (ostiary, lectorate, order of exorcists, order of acolytes) and then the major orders of subdiaconate, diaconate, presbyterate, and finally the episcopate, which is defined in Catholic doctrine as "the fullness of Holy Orders". Today the minor orders and the subdiaconate have been replaced by lay ministries and the tonsure no longer takes place, the clerical state being tied to reception of the diaconate. Monks and other religious are not necessarily part of the clergy, unless they have received the diaconate. The administration of sacraments seems to be the real distinguishing element between laity and clergy, and in this sense unordained monks and nuns should not be considered part of clergy. Ordination to Holy Orders is considered one of the Seven Sacraments of Divine institution by Catholic doctrine, in many ways directly comparable to Holy Matrimony (i.e., marriage). During the Middle Ages however, the term was used to indicate all the people with an education (having an education had been the exclusive privilege of clergy for epochs). The term also survives in students' organisations at some ancient universities (such as Goliardia, where they are often called clerici vagantes). The term clerici vagantes comes indeed from the clerics that before 12th century were commanded at the service of a determined church (incardinatio); after that time, they were not forced any more to reside in the church (if they had no privileges or other related rights), and they could go living and residing wherever they liked (then vagantes, wandering). The Council of Trent vainly tried to abolish this use, and only in recent times the rule was restored that a clericus has a perpetual and absolute obligation to serve the diocese or the Order to which he is assigned; only with a special authorisation he can be accepted in the jurisdiction of another diocese or of another Order. Current canon law prescribes that to be ordained a priest, an education is required of two years of scholastic philosophy study, and 4 years of theology; dogmatic and moral theology, the Holy Scriptures, and canon law have to be studied inside a seminary. This reflects the scholastic and intellectual traditions of the Latin Church. Oaths of celibacy and obedience are required as a condition for admittance (and persistence) for Latin Rite Catholic priests; this is a disciplinary and administrative rule rather than a dogmatic and doctrinal one. Celibacy has taken many forms in different times and places. The Council in Trullo (Quinisextum Concilium) in 692 barred bishops from marrying, but did not prevent married men from becoming priests and excommunicated those deacons who would have divorced because ordained. This rule is still followed for ordained deacons in the Latin Rite, as well as for priests in the Eastern Rites. Married men are not ordained priests in the Latin Rite, although some married priests do exist who were ordained in the Anglican church and later received into the Roman Catholic Church. See also Presbyterorum Ordinis for a modern statement of the nature of the Catholic priesthood. Clergy have four classical rights: #Right of Canon: whoever commits real violence on the person of a clergyman, commits a sacrilege. This decree was issued in a Lateran Council of 1097 (requested by Pope Urban II), then renewed in the Lateran Council II (1139). #Right of Forum: by this right clergy may be judged by ecclesiastical tribunals only. Emperor Constantine I granted this right for bishops, which was subsequently extended to the rest of the clergy by Imperial Decree. #Right of Immunity: clergy cannot be called for military service or for duties or charges not compatible with his role. #Right of Competence: a certain part of the income of clergy, necessary for sustenance, cannot be sequestered by any action of creditors. The extent to which these rights are recognised at law varies dramatically from country to country, with traditionally Catholic countries being more inclined to respect these rights.

Orthodox clergy

The clergy of the Orthodox Church are the bishops, priests, and deacons, the same offices identified in the New Testament and found in the early church. Bishops include archbishops, metropolitans, and patriarchs. Priests (also called presbyters or elders) include archpriests, protopresbyters, hieromonks (priest-monks) and archimandrites (senior hieromonks). Deacons also include hierodeacons (deacon-monks) archdeacons and protodeacons; subdeacons, however, are not deacons, and comprise a separate office that is not to be major clergy, as do readers, acolytes and others. Bishops are usually drawn from the ranks of the monks, and are required to be celibate; however, a non-monastic priest may be ordained to the episcopate if he no longer lives with his wife (following Canon XII of the Quinisext Council)[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-136.htm#P6201_1388746]. Priests and deacons may be married, provided that they are married prior to their ordination to the diaconate.In contemporary usage such a non-monastic priest is usually tonsured to the monastic state at some point prior to his consecration to the episcopacy. If they are later divorced or remarried, they are not permitted to remarry unless they first leave the clergy and return to lay status. All Orthodox clergy must be male. There are records of deaconesses in the New Testament and in the early church; the consensus today is that this office was never equivalent to that of deacon, but had separate responsibilities. The ancient office of deaconess was subsumed by the office of abbess. The typical progression of ordination is: reader, subdeacon, deacon, priest, bishop. Each ordination must take place in order, although it is possible to ordain a layman to all five offices in the course of a weekend. The organization of the Orthodox Church is both hierarchical and conciliar (or synodal). It is hierarchical in that priests, deacons, and laymen are expected to follow their bishop and to do nothing without their bishop, and in that Jesus Christ is the head of every bishop. It is conciliar or synodal in that there is no single Pope whom all the bishops follow (the Pope of Alexandria functions as a patriarch), but rather the bishops meet together in synods or councils and reach binding agreements through consensus. A bishop, even the patriarch, is bound to obey the decisions of his synod. A council with representatives from all the churches is an ecumenical council. Although Orthodox clergy are given considerable honor by the Orthodox Church, each ordination is also viewed as a kind of martyrdom. The Orthodox cleric agrees to be a servant of both Jesus Christ and of the people of the church; many of the vestments are intended to remind him of this. Much is expected of the clergy, both practically and spiritually; consequently, they also have a special place in the litanies that are prayed, asking God to have mercy on them.
- External Links
- [http://www.goarch.org/en/special/usvisit2002/clergy/clergy_greetings.asp Forms of Address for Orthodox Clergy]

Anglican clergy

In the Anglican churches clergy is comprised of deacons, priests (presbyters) and bishops, in ascending order of seniority. Canon, Archdeacon, Archbishop, and the like are specific titles within these divisions. Bishops are typically overseers, presiding over a diocese composed of many parishes, with Archbishops presiding over an province, which is a group of dioceses. A parish (generally a single church) is looked after by one or more priests, although one priest may be responsible for several small parishes. New clergy are ordained deacons. Those seeking to become priests are usually ordained priest after a year of satisfactory service. During the 1960s, some Anglican churches reinstituted the diaconate as a permanent, rather than transitional, order of ministry focused on ministry that bridges the church and the world, especially ministry to those on the margins of society. For the forms of address to be used with Anglican clergy, see Forms of Address in the United Kingdom. During the 1980s, before the acceptance of women as equal members of the clergy, women could be ordained as 'deaconesses', who were technically distinct from deacons but carried approximately the same privileges and responsibilities. This title has now been abolished. In the Anglican church all clergy are permitted to marry. In most branches women may become deacons or priests, but very few allow women bishops. Celebration of the Eucharist is reserved for priests and bishops. Each branch of the Anglican church is presided over by one or more archbishops. The senior archbishop of the Anglican Communion is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who acts as leader of the Church of England and 'first among equals' of the archbishops of all Anglican churches. The status of deacon, priest or bishop is a function of the person and not the job. A priest who retires is still a priest, even if they no longer have any role of religious leadership.

Protestant clergy

Clergy in Protestantism fill a wide variety of roles and functions. In many denominations, such as Methodism, Presbyterianism, and Lutheranism, clergy are very similar to Roman Catholic or Anglican clergy, in that they hold an ordained pastoral or priestly office, administer the sacraments, proclaim the word, lead a local church or parish, and so forth. Some Protestant denominations reject the idea that church leaders are a separate category of people. Some dislike the word clergy and do not use it of their own leaders. Often they refer to their leaders as pastors or ministers, titles that, if used, sometimes apply to the person only as long as he or she holds a particular office.

Latter-day Saints clergy

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, there is no professional clergy. Most clergy are part-time volunteers. The rest, including missionaries and upper level leaders, give full-time service by living off their personal savings. Traditional clergy functions such as leading meetings, giving sermons, teaching classes, and ministering in the home and at hospitals are done by ordinary church members called of God to those responsibilities. These roles are generally open to all regardless of theological training or sex. Boys and girls usually begin giving short sermons to the entire congregation and may assume certain leadership roles starting at age 12, but in most cases don't start regular teaching assignments or taking primary responsibility for other tasks until age 18. The Church does not require formal training in theology. In practice, however, most Latter-Day Saint men and women have significant theological training. Every member of the church is expected to: # Attend Sunday School weekly starting at age three and continuing throughout life # Attend four years of Seminary during high school years # Study the scriptures and doctrines of the gospel on their own at least 30 minutes per day throughout their life # Study scriptures with family on a daily basis. # Serve a two-year full-time mission as a young man (for women, a mission is only 1½ years and is optional) # Participate in continuing theological instruction through events like the yearly BYU Education Week. Performance of certain ordinances (rituals) and many leadership roles are restricted to the priesthood. Priesthood offices are Deacon, Teacher, Priest, Elder, High Priest, Seventy, Apostle, and Patriarch. Admission to the Latter-day Saint priesthood requires no training; to be a member of the Latter-day Saint priesthood, one must be male, be at least 12 years old, and be morally worthy, as determined in a confidential interview with a local bishop (pastor). Anyone who meets these requirements is ordained to the priesthood as a matter of course. See Priesthood (Latter-day Saint). Leadership in the church is organized in several levels:
- Ward (congregation) leadership
- Stake (about 10 congregations) leadership
- Area leadership, and
- General (worldwide) leadership Some of the key leadership positions at each level are: Positions marked with ‡ do not require the priesthood and are traditionally filled by women at all levels. Other leadership positions require priesthood ordination, for example a Stake President must be ordained a High Priest. Most church leaders select two “counselors” who are called to assist them in their duties and to take charge when they are at work or otherwise unable to preside. Common ordinances (rituals) which require the priesthood are: Passing the Sacrament (Deacon), blessing the Sacrament (Priest), Baptizing (Priest), and giving priesthood blessings (Elder). All are eligible to receive these ordinances on condition of worthiness.

Judaism

In ancient Judaism there was a formal priestly tribe known as the Kohanim; each member of the tribe, a Kohen had priestly duties, many of which centered around the Temple in Jerusalem. Since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 CE, their role has largely been rendered superfluous. Since that time the religious leaders and clergy of Judaism have been the rabbis. Rabbis are not an intermediary between God and man: the word "rabbi" means "teacher". The rabbi is not an occupation found in the Torah (Five books of Moses); the first time this word is mentioned is in the Mishnah. The modern form of the rabbi developed in the Talmudic era. Rabbis are given authority to make interpretations of Jewish law and custom. Traditionally, a man obtains smicha (rabbinic ordination) after the completion of an arduous learning program in Torah, Tanakh (Hebrew Bible), Mishnah and Talmud, Midrash, Jewish ethics and lore, the codes of Jewish law and responsa, theology and philosophy. Since the early medieval era an additional form of clergy, the Hazzan (cantor) has existed as well. Orthodox Judaism maintains all of these traditional requirements. Women are forbidden from becoming rabbis or cantors in Orthodoxy. One does not need a bachelor's degree to enter most Orthodox rabbinical seminaries. Conservative Judaism maintains all of these traditional requirements. Women are allowed to become rabbis and cantors in the Conservative movement. Conservative Judaism differs with Orthodoxy in that it has somewhat less stringent study requirements for Talmud and responsa as compared to Orthodoxy. However, the academic requirements are just as rigorous, as Conservative Judaism adds the following subjects as requirements for rabbinic ordination: one must first earn a bachelor's degree before entering the rabbinate. In addition studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism; and academic biblical criticism. Reconstructionist Judaism and Reform Judaism do not maintain the traditional requirements for study. Both men and women may be rabbis or cantors. The level of Jewish law, Talmud and responsa studied in five years of these denominations is similar to that learned in the first year of Orthodox Jewish seminaries. The rabbinical seminaries of these movements hold that one must first earn a bachelor's degree before entering the rabbinate. In addition studies are mandated in pastoral care and psychology, the historical development of Judaism; and academic biblical criticism. Emphasis is placed not on Jewish law, but rather on sociology and modern Jewish philosophy.

Buddhism

The original Buddhist clergy were the Sanghas, the order of monks and the order of nuns, which were founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime of missionary work in the 5th century BCE. These monks and nuns followed the patimokkha, a strict code of poverty and discipline. In modern times, however, the role of Buddhist clergy can vary greatly across different countries. For instance, in Korea, Japan, and—in some cases—Tibet, Buddhist priests may marry, which is forbidden under the patimokkha. On the other hand, countries practicing Theravada Buddhism, such as Thailand, Burma, and Sri Lanka, tend to take a much more conservative view of monastic life. In the United States, depending on the sect of Buddhism, clergy are ordained through education, training, and experience. Buddhist priests take on the role of "minister" or "pastor" within the temple organization and use the title Reverend. Today, Buddhist clergy function in a similar way as their Christian counterparts. They counsel, lead study classes, write articles for newsletters, and perform weddings, funerals, and other rites of passage. They also participate in interfaith activities, serving as chaplains in hospitals, police and fire departments, the military, and corrections institutions.

Islam

Orthodox Islam is non-clerical. The term "imam" is generically used to refer to various forms of religious leadership, ranging from the leader of a small group prayer to a scholar of religion, none of which involve any sort of religious ordination. In other branches of Islam, the term "imam" has more specific meanings.

Rome

Rome (Italian and Latin: Roma) is the capital of Italy and of its Latium region. It is located on the Tiber and Aniene rivers, near the Mediterranean Sea, at . The Vatican City, a sovereign enclave within Rome, is the seat of the Roman Catholic Church and the home of the Pope. Rome is the largest city and comune in Italy; the comune or municipality is one of the largest in Europe with an area of 1290 square kilometers. Within the city limits, the population is 2,823,807 (2004); almost 4 million live in the general area of Rome as represented by the province of Rome. The current mayor of Rome is Walter Veltroni. With a GDP of €75 billion (higher than New Zealand's and equivalent to Singapore's — all three have roughly the same population of around 4 million), in the year 2001 the comune of Rome produced 6.5% of Italy's total GDP, the highest rate among all of Italy's cities. The city's history extends nearly 2,800 years, during which time it has been the seat of ancient Rome (the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic, Roman Empire), and later the Papal States, Kingdom of Italy and Italian Republic.

History

Demographics

Throughout its long history Rome has been a centre of learning, trade and commerce. The native Italian population have shared their city throughout the ages with migrants from across Europe and the wider world. In ancient times a large proportion of the population were foreign merchants, slaves, officials and their descendants who came from across the wide empire which bore the city's name. Today the population is very diverse with immigrants thought to make up as much as 20% of the population of the city.

Economy

Today Rome has a dynamic and diverse economy concentrating on innovation, technologies, communications and the service sector. They produce 6.5% of the national GDP (more than any other city in the Italy) and continues to grow at a higher rate than those in the rest of the country. Tourism is inevitably one of Rome's chief industries. The city is also a centre for banking, publishing, insurance, fashion, high-tech industries, housing, cinema (particularly at the famous Cinecittà studios, dubbed the "Hollywood on the Tiber"), and the aerospace industries. Many international headquarters, government ministries, conference centres, sports venues and museums are located in Rome's principal business districts: the E.U.R. (Esposizione Universale Roma); the Torrino (further south from the E.U.R.); the Magliana; the Parco de' Medici-Laurentina and the so-called Tiburtina-valley along the ancient Via Tiburtina.

Transportation

Esposizione Universale Roma district.]] Esposizione Universale Roma) from the park around the artificial lake. Rome, EUR district.]] Rome has an intercontinental airport named Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport - FCO, but more commonly known as Fiumicino, which also is Italy's chief airport, and the Giovan-Battista Pastine international airport (commonly referred to as Ciampino Airport), a joint civilian and military airport southeast of the city-center, along the Via Appia, which handles mainly charter flights and regional European flights including some low-cost airlines. A third airport, called Aeroporto dell'Urbe, is located in the north of the city along the ancient Via Salaria and handles mainly helicopters and private flights. A fourth airport, called Aeroporto di Centocelle, in the eastern part of Rome between the Via Prenestina and the Via Casilina, has been abandoned for some years now, but is currently being redeveloped as one of the largest public parks in Rome. A subway system operates in Rome called the "Metropolitana" or Rome Metro which was opened in 19

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