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Columba

Columba

:A separate article is titled Saint Columba (the Virgin). :A separate article is titled Saint Columba of Sens . :A separate article is titled Saint Columba of Spain . :A separate article is titled Columba (constellation). :See Columba (genus) for the genus of doves and pigeons. Saint Columba sometimes known as St. Columba of Iona (7 December 521 - 9 June 597), the Latinized version of the Irish name Colmcille (Old Irish Columb Cille) meaning "Dove of the church", was the outstanding figure among the Irish missionary monks who reintroduced Christianity to Scotland and the north of England during the Dark Ages. He was born to Fedhlimidh and Eithne of the Uí Néill clan in Gartan, near Lough Gartan, Donegal. On his father's side he was great-great-grandson of Niall of the Nine Hostages, an Irish king of the 5th century. He became a monk and was ordained priest. Tradition asserts that, sometime around 560, he became involved in a dispute with Saint Finnian over a psalter. Columba copied the manuscript at the scriptorium under Saint Finnian, intending to keep the copy. Saint Finnian disputed his right to keep the copy. The dispute eventually led to the pitched Battle of Cúl Dreimhne in 561, during which many men were killed. (Columba's copy of the psalter has been traditionally associated with the Cathach of St. Columba.) As penance for these deaths, Columba suggested that he work as a missionary in Scotland to help convert as many people as had been killed in the battle. He exiled himself from Ireland and never again saw his native island. In 563 he travelled to Scotland, where according to his legend he first landed at the southern tip of the Kintyre peninsula, near Southend. However, being still in sight of his native land he moved further north up the west coast of Scotland. In 563 he was granted land to found a monastery on the island of Iona off the west coast of Scotland, which became the centre of his evangelising mission to Scotland. Aside from the services he provided guiding the only outpost of literacy in the region, his reputation as a holy man led to his role as a diplomat among the tribes; there are also many stories of miracles which he performed during his work to convert the Picts. The main source of information about Columba's life is the Vita Colum Cille by Adomnán, the ninth Abbot of Iona, who died in 704. Another early source is a poem in praise of Columba, most probably also composed in the course of the 7th century. It consists of 25 stanzas of four verses of seven syllables each. Without these commemorations, Columba would be merely a shadowy name, like St Mael Rhuba, established at Applecross, or St. Donnan, who was martyred on the Isle of Eigg. The earliest recorded example of the name Arthur in a British document occurs, as Arturius, in Adomnan's vita. There it occurs as the name of a prince among the Scots, the son of Aidan, king from AD 574, far from the legendary King Arthur's familiar haunts in the southwest. The vita of Columba is also the source of the first known reference to the Loch Ness Monster. According to Adomnan Columba came across a group of Picts who were burying a man killed by the monster, and saved a swimmer with the sign of the Cross and the imprecation "You will go no further", at which the beast fled terrified, to the amazement of the assembled Picts who glorified Columba's God. Through the reputation of its venerable founder and its position as a major European center of learning, Columba's Iona became a place of pilgrimage. A network of Celtic high crosses marking processional routes developed around his shrine at Iona. Columba’s relics were finally removed in 849 and divided between Alba and Ireland. Relics of Columba were carried before Scottish armies in the reliquary made at Iona in the mid-8th century, called the Brechbennoch. O Columba spes Scotorum... "O Columba, hope of the Scots" begins a 13th century prayer in the Antiphoner of Inchcolm, the "Iona of the East". St Columba's feast day is June 9 and with Saint Patrick, March 17, and St. Brigid, February 1, is one of the three patron saints of Ireland.

See also


- Columbanus, contemporary of Columba's.
- Columba Initiative

External links


- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04136a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia:] St. Columba
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/earlychurch/features_earlychurch_iona.shtml BBC: St Columba]
- [http://jahtruth.net/lecture.htm Columba of Kells and Iona]
- [http://www.loch-ness-scotland.com/projectfolder/centreprojectcopy/archiveroom/papershtml/columba.htm Vita:] the River Nes water monster
- [http://www.cyberscotia.com/inchcolm/index.html "Inchcolm, Iona of the East"] Category:521 births Category:597 deaths Category:Saints Category:Post-Roman Scotland Category:Irish monks Category:History of Ireland Category:Medieval Gaels Category:History of Scotland Category:Medieval Scotland ja:コルンバ

Saint Columba (the Virgin)

Saint Columba (the Virgin) a female, Irish saint with dedications in Cornwall and France. The daughter of King Lodan and Queen Manigilth, both pagans , she became a christian after which the Holy ghost appeared to her in the form of a dove. The latin word for dove is columba.

The Legend

The legend of St. Columba, the Virgin, is recorded in a manuscript in the university Library of Cambridge, written by Rosecarrack in the reign of Elizabeth I and he says he gathered it from local information. This states that Columba was the daughter of an Irish king and that to escape marriage with a pagan prince she took ship for Cornwall and was followed by the prince. She landed at Trevelgue Head and was chased through the forest which is now Porth Beach, and fled up the valley, past Rialton and Treloy until she was captured at Ruthvoes, two miles south of St. Columb Major. There the prince cut off her head, and where the blood fell a spring gushed forth and the water following the course of her flight made the still un-named river which empties itself at St. Columb Porth. This legend bears many parallels with the legend of Saint Columba of Sens and the Greek legend of Arethusa a nereid (a water nymph). Arethusa, like Columba was a maiden, she preferred to remain chaste. During the course of her adventures, she decided to take a dip in the welcoming water. But as soon as she entered the river, she realized that she was not alone. For the god of this particular river (who was named Alpheius or Alpheus) was roused by the sight of Arethusa, and immediately fell in love with the nymph. Arethusa fled the advances of Alpheus. However, Alpheus was not so easily deterred - the god of the river simply assumed the form of a hunter and pursued his chosen prey. Some versions of the story say that Arethusa was chased over the sea, all the way to Sicily. Finally, she found refuge on the Island of Ortygia (which is near Syracuse), where she called upon the goddess Artemis to rescue her. Artemis responded by transforming the nymph into a spring or fountain. And this is how the nymph Arethusa became identified with a now legendary spring. Dedcations to Saint Columba the Virgin include

- St. Columb Major, Cornwall.
- St. Columb Minor, Cornwall.

See also

The following Celtic saints have similar legends in that they were all maidens who were persued and killed by pagans. All suffer decapitation where springs or wells then miraculosly gushed forth from the spot. Saint Winefred of Flintshire in Wales.
Saint Urith of Chittlehampton, Devon.
Saint Columba of Spain
Saint Columba of France.
Saint Eluned of Wales.

External Links

http://www.loggia.com/myth/nymphs1.html http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/sacred_wells.html Columba
- Cornwall Columba

Saint Columba of Sens

Saint Columba of Sens born (c.257 in Spain, died beheaded in 273) at Sens, France near a fountain named d'Azon. At the age of 16 she fled Spain for Gaul (modern France) to escape the persecutions of Emperor Aurelian. She was located, and imprisoned. Legend says that while she was in prison, one of the jailers tried to rape her; a bear that was being used at a nearby amphitheatre attacked the guard and rescued her. However, she was later martyred at Meaux . A chapel was built at the grave, followed later by the Abbey of Sens. Other churches in France have borne her name. She is also said to have been patroness of the parish church of Chevilly in the Diocese of Paris, but her whole his history is somewhat legendary. In art, Saint Columba is portrayed as a crowned maiden in chains. At times she may (1) have a dog or bear on a chain, (2) hold a book and a peacock's feather, (3) be with an angel on a funeral pyre, or (4) be beheaded

See also

Saint Columba of Cornwall, UK.
Saint Columba of Spain

External Links


- [http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintc1d.htm]
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04135b.htm]
- [http://www.saintpatrickdc.org/ss/1231.htm] Columba of Sens Saint

Columba (constellation)

Columba, Latin for dove, is a small constellation just south to Canis Major and Lepus, it was cut out of the constellation Canis Major by Augustin Royer, in 1679.

Mythology

Since this constellation was invented in the 17th century, by cutting up parts of earlier constellations, there is no pre-17th century mythology associated with this constellation as a separate distinct entity.

Stars

:Stars with proper names: :
- (α Col) 2.65 Phact [Phaet, Phad, Phakt] :
- : < ? al-fakhitah The dove ? :
- : (?) < فخذ fakhð thigh :
- (β Col) 3.12 Wezn [Wazn] :
- : < وزن wazn Weight :
- (θ Col) 5.00 Al Kurud :
- : < القرود al-qurūd The monkeys :
- : (?) < الغرود alghurūd The dunes :
- (κ Col) 4.37 (or Al Kurud, see θ Col) :
- (λ Col) 4.88 Tsze :
- : < 子 (Mandarin zǐ) The son :Stars with Bayer designations: :: γ Col 4.36; δ Col 3.85; ε Col 3.86; η Col 3.96; μ Col 5.18 – runaway star; ν1 Col 6.15; ν2 Col 5.28; ξ Col 4.97; ο Col 4.81; π1 Col 6.15; π2 Col 5.50; σ Col 5.52 :Stars with Flamsteed designations: :: 72 Col 5.65

External links

ko:비둘기자리 ja:はと座 th:กลุ่มดาวนกเขา

Columba (genus)


See text The large bird genus Columba comprises a group of medium to large stout-bodied pigeons, often referred to as the typical pigeons. As with other genera in the family, the terms dove and pigeon are used interchangeably, although smaller species are more likely to be called doves. The species commonly referred to just as the "pigeon" is the feral Rock Dove. Most species in this genus are found in the Old World, but there are a few representatives in the Americas, and some species, notably the Feral Pigeon, have been introduced outside their natural range. Species are:
- Rock Dove or feral pigeon, Columba livia
- Stock Dove Columba oenas
- Trocaz Pigeon Columba trocaz
- Bolle's Pigeon Columba bollii
- Laurel Pigeon Columba junoniae
- White-crowned Pigeon Columba leucocephala
- Red-billed Pigeon Columba flavirostris
- Band-tailed Pigeon Columba fasciata
- Hill Pigeon, Columba rupestris
- Snow Pigeon, Columba leuconota
- Speckled Pigeon, Columba guinea
- White-collared Pigeon, Columba albitorques
- Pale-backed Pigeon, Columba eversmanni
- Somali Pigeon, Columba oliviae
- Wood Pigeon, Columba palumbusWood Pigeon
- Afer Pigeon, Columba unicincta
- African Olive Pigeon, Columba arquatrix
- Cameroon Olive Pigeon, Columba sjostedti
- Sao Tome Olive Pigeon, Columba thomensis
- Comoro Olive Pigeon, Columba polleni
- Speckled Woodpigeon, Columba hodgsonii
- White-naped Pigeon, Columba albinucha
- Ashy Woodpigeon, Columba pulchricollis
- Nilgiri Woodpigeon, Columba elphinstonii
- Sri Lanka Woodpigeon, Columba torringtoni
- Pale-capped Pigeon, Columba punicea
- Silvery Pigeon, Columba argentina
- Andaman Woodpigeon, Columba palumboides
- Japanese Woodpigeon, Columba janthina
- Metallic Pigeon or White-throated Pigeon, Columba vitiensis
- White-headed Pigeon, Columba leucomela
- Yellow-legged Pigeon, Columba pallidiceps
- Scaly-naped Pigeon, Columba squamosa
- Scaled Pigeon, Columba speciosa
- Picazuro Pigeon, Columba picazuro
- Bare-eyed Pigeon, Columba corensis
- Spot-winged Pigeon, Columba maculosa
- Chilean Pigeon, Columba araucana
- Ring-tailed Pigeon, Columba caribaea
- Pale-vented Pigeon, Columba cayennensis
- Peruvian Pigeon, Columba oenops
- Plain Pigeon, Columba inornata
- Plumbeous Pigeon, Columba plumbea
- Ruddy Pigeon, Columba subvinacea
- Short-billed Pigeon, Columba nigrirostris
- Dusky Pigeon, Columba goodsoni
- Eastern Bronze-naped Pigeon, Columba delegorguei
- Western Bronze-naped Pigeon, Columba iriditorques
- Sao Tome Bronze-naped Pigeon, Columba malherbii
- African Lemon-dove, Columba larvata
- Sao Tome Lemon-dove, Columba simplex
-

Dove


Subfamily Columbinae
Columba
Streptopelia
Macropygia
Reinwardtoena
Turacoena
Turtur
Oena
Chalcophaps
Henicophaps
Phaps
Ocyphaps
Geophaps
Petrophassa
Geopelia
Leucosarcia
Zenaida
Ectopistes (extinct)
Columbina
Claravis
Metropelia
Scardafella
Uropelia
Leptotila
Geotrygon
Starnoenas
Caloenas
Gallicolumba
Trugon
Microgoura (extinct?)

Subfamily Otidiphabinae
Otidiphaps

Subfamily Gourinae
Goura

Subfamily Didunculinae
Didunculus

Subfamily Treroninae
Phapitreron
Treron
Ptilinopus
Drepanoptila
Alectroenas
Ducula
Lopholaimus
Hemiphaga
Cryptophaps
Gymnophaps The doves are the 308 species of near passerine birds in the order Columbiformes. The terms dove and pigeon are used interchangeably, although smaller species are more likely to be called doves. The species commonly referred to just as the "pigeon" is the feral Rock Dove. Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks and short slender bills with a fleshy cere. The poorly constructed nests are made of sticks, and the two white eggs are incubated by both sexes. Doves feed on seeds, fruit and other soft plantstuffs. Unlike most other birds, (but see flamingo), the doves and pigeons produce "crop milk", which is secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of the crop. Both sexes produce this highly nutritious substance to feed to the young. This family occurs worldwide, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya and Australasia ecozones. It is related to the extinct dodos. The young doves and pigeons are called 'squabs'. A person who keeps pigeons is called a 'pigeon fancier'.

Symbolism

White doves are a traditional symbol of love and peace. A dove was supposed to have been released by Noah after the flood in order to find land; it came back carrying an olive branch, telling Noah that, somewhere, there was land. A dove with an olive branch has since then come to symbolize peace. In Christian iconography, a dove also symbolizes the Holy Spirit, in reference to Matthew 3:16 and Luke 3:22 where the Holy Spirit appeared as a dove at the Baptism of Jesus. Doves or other birds are often released at weddings. It should be noted that these birds, unless they are trained homing pigeons, cannot survive in the wild and will either starve to death or be easy prey for predators. In politics the name "dove" is sometimes applied to figures who favour peaceful solutions to problems as opposed to "hawks", who favour aggressive action.

Classification & species list

The family is usually divided into five subfamilies, as follows; genus order here follows Handbook of the Birds of the World (Lynx, 1997):

Subfamily Columbinae - typical pigeons & doves

Genus Columba Typical pigeons
- Rock Dove or feral pigeon, Columba livia
- Stock Dove Columba oenas
- Trocaz Pigeon Columba trocaz
- Bolle's Pigeon Columba bollii
- Laurel Pigeon Columba junoniae
- White-crowned Pigeon Columba leucocephala
- Red-billed Pigeon Columba flavirostris
- Band-tailed Pigeon Columba fasciata
- Hill Pigeon, Columba rupestris
- Snow Pigeon, Columba leuconota
- Speckled Pigeon, Columba guinea
- White-collared Pigeon, Columba albitorques
- Pale-backed Pigeon, Columba eversmanni
- Somali Pigeon, Columba oliviae
- Wood Pigeon, Columba palumbus
- Afep Pigeon, Columba unicincta
- African Olive Pigeon, Columba arquatrix
- Cameroon Olive Pigeon, Columba sjostedti
- Sao Tome Olive Pigeon, Columba thomensis
- Comoro Olive Pigeon, Columba polleni
- Speckled Woodpigeon, Columba hodgsonii
- White-naped Pigeon, Columba albinucha
- Ashy Woodpigeon, Columba pulchricollis
- Nilgiri Woodpigeon, Columba elphinstonii
- Sri Lanka Woodpigeon, Columba torringtoni
- Pale-capped Pigeon, Columba punicea
- Silvery Pigeon, Columba argentina
- Andaman Woodpigeon, Columba palumboides
- Japanese Woodpigeon, Columba janthina
- Metallic Pigeon or White-throated Pigeon, Columba vitiensis
- White-headed Pigeon, Columba leucomela
- Yellow-legged Pigeon, Columba pallidiceps
- White-crowned Pigeon, Columba leucocephala
- Scaly-naped Pigeon, Columba squamosa
- Scaled Pigeon, Columba speciosa
- Picazuro Pigeon, Columba picazuro
- Bare-eyed Pigeon, Columba corensis
- Spot-winged Pigeon, Columba maculosa
- Band-tailed Pigeon, Columba fasciata
- Chilean Pigeon, Columba araucana
- Ring-tailed Pigeon, Columba caribaea
- Pale-vented Pigeon, Columba cayennensis
- Red-billed Pigeon, Columba flavirostris
- Peruvian Pigeon, Columba oenops
- Plain Pigeon, Columba inornata
- Plumbeous Pigeon, Columba plumbea
- Ruddy Pigeon, Columba subvinacea
- Short-billed Pigeon, Columba nigrirostris
- Dusky Pigeon, Columba goodsoni
- Eastern Bronze-naped Pigeon, Columba delegorguei
- Western Bronze-naped Pigeon, Columba iriditorques
- Sao Tome Bronze-naped Pigeon, Columba malherbii
- African Lemon-dove, Columba larvata
- Sao Tome Lemon-dove, Columba simplex Sao Tome Lemon-dove, Poland ]] Genus Streptopelia
- Laughing Dove Streptopelia senegalensis
- Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto
- Barbary Dove Streptopelia risoria (domesticated; taxonomic status doubtful)
- African Collared Dove, Streptopelia roseogrisea
- Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis
- Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur
- Oriental Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis
- Dusky Turtle Dove, Streptopelia lugens
- Adamawa Turtle Dove, Streptopelia hypopyrrha
- Pink Pigeon, Streptopelia mayeri
- Island Collared Dove, Streptopelia bitorquata
- White-winged Collared Dove, Streptopelia reichenowi
- African Mourning Dove, Streptopelia decipiens
- Red-eyed Dove, Streptopelia semitorquata
- Ring-necked Dove, Streptopelia capicola
- Vinaceous Dove, Streptopelia vinacea
- Red Turtle Dove, Streptopelia tranquebarica
- Madagascar Turtle Dove, Streptopelia picturata Genus Macropygia
- Barred Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia unchall
- Slender-billed Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia amboinensis
- Brown Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia phasianella
- Dusky Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia magna
- Andaman Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia rufipennis
- Philippine Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia tenuirostris
- Ruddy Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia emiliana
- Black-billed Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia nigrirostris
- Mackinlay's Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia mackinlayi
- Little Cuckoo-dove, Macropygia ruficeps Genus Reinwardtoena
- Great Cuckoo-dove, Reinwardtoena reinwardtii
- Pied Cuckoo-dove, Reinwardtoena browni
- Crested Cuckoo-dove, Reinwardtoena crassirostris Genus Turacoena
- White-faced Cuckoo-dove, Turacoena manadensis
- Black Cuckoo-dove, Turacoena modesta Genus Turtur
- Emerald-spotted Wood Dove, Turtur chalcospilos
- Black-billed Wood Dove, Turtur abyssinicus
- Blue-spotted Wood Dove, Turtur afer
- Tambourine Dove, Turtur tympanistria
- Blue-headed Wood Dove, Turtur brehmeri Genus Oena
- Namaqua Dove, Oena capensis Genus Chalcophaps
- Emerald Dove, Chalcophaps indica
- Stephan's Dove, Chalcophaps stephani Genus Henicophaps
- New Guinea Bronzewing, Henicophaps albifrons
- New Britain Bronzewing, Henicophaps foersteri Genus Phaps, bronzewing pigeons
- Common Bronzewing, Phaps chalcoptera
- Brush Bronzewing, Phaps elegans
- Flock Bronzewing, Phaps histrionica Genus Ocyphaps
- Crested Pigeon, Ocyphaps lophotes Genus Geophaps
- Spinifex Pigeon, Geophaps plumifera
- Squatter Pigeon, Geophaps scripta
- Partridge Pigeon, Geophaps smithii Genus Petrophassa, rock pigeons
- Chestnut-quilled Rock Pigeon, Petrophassa rufipennis
- White-quilled Rock Pigeon, Petrophassa albipennis Genus Geopelia
- Diamond Dove, Geopelia cuneata
- Zebra Dove, Geopelia striata
- Peaceful Dove, Geopelia placida
- Barred Dove, Geopelia maugei
- Bar-shouldered Dove, Geopelia humeralis Genus Leucosarcia
- Wonga Pigeon, Leucosarcia melanoleuca Wonga Pigeon] Genus Zenaida
- Socorro Dove, Zenaida graysoni
- Eared Dove, Zenaida auriculata
- Zenaida Dove, Zenaida aurita
- Galapagos Dove, Zenaida galapagoensis
- White-winged Dove, Zenaida asiatica
- Pacific Dove, Zenaida meloda
- Mourning Dove, Zenaida macroura Genus Ectopistes
- Passenger Pigeon Ectopistes migratorius (extinct) Genus Columbina Ground Doves
- Common Ground Dove, Columbina passerina
- Plain-breasted Ground Dove, Columbina minuta
- Ecuadorian Ground Dove, Columbina buckleyi
- Ruddy Ground Dove, Columbina talpacoti
- Picui Dove, Columbina picui
- Croaking Ground Dove, Columbina cruziana
- Blue-eyed Ground Dove, Columbina cyanopis Genus Claravis
- Blue Ground Dove, Claravis pretiosa
- Purple-winged Ground Dove, Claravis godefrida
- Maroon-chested Ground Dove, Claravis mondetoura Genus Metropelia
- Bare-faced Ground Dove, Metriopelia ceciliae
- Moreno's Ground Dove, Metriopelia morenoi
- Black-winged Ground Dove, Metriopelia melanoptera
- Golden-spotted Ground Dove, Metriopelia aymara Genus Scardafella
- Inca Dove, Scardafella inca
- Scaled Dove, Scardafella squammata Genus Uropelia
- Long-tailed Ground Dove, Uropelia campestris Genus Leptotila
- White-tipped Dove, Leptotila verreauxi
- White-faced Dove, Leptotila megalura
- Grey-fronted Dove, Leptotila rufaxilla
- Grey-headed Dove, Leptotila plumbeiceps
- Pallid Dove, Leptotila pallida
- Brown-backed Dove, Leptotila battyi
- Grenada Dove, Leptotila wellsi
- Caribbean Dove, Leptotila jamaicensis
- Grey-chested Dove, Leptotila cassini
- Ochre-bellied Dove, Leptotila ochraceiventris
- Tolima Dove, Leptotila conoveri Genus Geotrygon, quail-doves
- Purplish-backed Quail-dove, Geotrygon lawrencii
- Veracruz Quail-dove, Geotrygon carrikeri
- Costa Rica Quail-dove, Geotrygon costaricensis
- Russet-crowned Quail-dove, Geotrygon goldmani
- Sapphire Quail-dove, Geotrygon saphirina
- Grey-headed Quail-dove, Geotrygon caniceps
- Crested Quail-dove, Geotrygon versicolor
- Rufous-breasted Quail-dove, Geotrygon chiriquensis
- Olive-backed Quail-dove, Geotrygon veraguensis
- White-faced Quail-dove, Geotrygon albifacies
- Lined Quail-dove, Geotrygon linearis
- White-throated Quail-dove, Geotrygon frenata
- Key West Quail-dove, Geotrygon chrysia
- Bridled Quail-dove, Geotrygon mystacea
- Violaceous Quail-dove, Geotrygon violacea
- Ruddy Quail-dove, Geotrygon montana Genus Starnoenas
- Blue-headed Quail Dove, Starnoenas cyanocephala Genus Caloenas Caloenas
- Nicobar Pigeon, Caloenas nicobarica Genus Gallicolumba
- Luzon Bleeding-heart, Gallicolumba luzonica
- Mindanao Bleeding-heart, Gallicolumba criniger
- Mindoro Bleeding-heart, Gallicolumba platenae
- Negros Bleeding-heart, Gallicolumba keayi
- Sulu Bleeding-heart, Gallicolumba menagei
- Cinnamon Ground Dove, Gallicolumba rufigula
- Sulawesi Ground Dove, Gallicolumba tristigmata
- White-bibbed Ground Dove, Gallicolumba jobiensis
- Caroline Ground Dove, Gallicolumba kubaryi
- Polynesian Ground Dove, Gallicolumba erythroptera
- White-throated Ground Dove, Gallicolumba xanthonura
- Friendly Ground Dove, Gallicolumba stairi
- Santa Cruz Ground Dove, Gallicolumba sanctaecrucis
- Thick-billed Ground Dove, Gallicolumba salamonis
- Marquesas Ground Dove, Gallicolumba rubescens
- Bronze Ground Dove, Gallicolumba beccarii
- Palau Ground Dove, Gallicolumba canifrons
- Wetar Ground Dove, Gallicolumba hoedtii
- Norfolk Island Ground Dove, Gallicolumba norfolciensis (extinct) Genus Trugon
- Thick-billed Ground Pigeon, Trugon terrestris Genus Microgoura
- Choiseul Pigeon, Microgoura meeki (probably extinct)

Subfamily Otidiphabinae - pheasant pigeon

Genus Otidiphaps
- Pheasant Pigeon, Otidiphaps nobilis

Subfamily Gourinae - crowned pigeons

Pheasant Pigeon Genus Goura crowned pigeons
- Western Crowned Pigeon, Goura cristata
- Southern Crowned Pigeon, Goura scheepmakeri
- Victoria Crowned Pigeon, Goura victoria

Subfamily Didunculinae - tooth-billed pigeon

Genus Didunculus
- Tooth-billed Pigeon, Didunculus strigirostris

Subfamily Treroninae - green & fruit doves

Genus Phapitreron
- White-eared Brown Dove, Phapitreron leucotis
- Amethyst Brown Dove, Phapitreron amethystina
- Dark-eared Brown Dove, Phapitreron cinereiceps Genus Treron green pigeons
- Cinnamon-headed Green Pigeon, Treron fulvicollis
- Little Green Pigeon, Treron olax
- Pink-necked Green Pigeon, Treron vernans
- Orange-breasted Green Pigeon, Treron bicincta
- Pompadour Green Pigeon, Treron pompadora
- Thick-billed Green Pigeon, Treron curvirostra
- Grey-cheeked Green Pigeon, Treron griseicauda
- Sumba Green Pigeon, Treron teysmannii
- Flores Green Pigeon, Treron floris
- Timor Green Pigeon, Treron psittacea
- Large Green Pigeon, Treron capellei
- Yellow-footed Green Pigeon, Treron phoenicoptera
- Bruce's Green Pigeon, Treron waalia
- Madagascar Green Pigeon, Treron australis
- African Green Pigeon, Treron calva
- Pemba Green Pigeon, Treron pembaensis
- Sao Tome Green Pigeon, Treron sanctithomae
- Pin-tailed Green Pigeon, Treron apicauda
- Sumatran Green Pigeon, Treron oxyura
- Yellow-vented Green Pigeon, Treron seimundi
- Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon, Treron sphenura
- White-bellied Green Pigeon, Treron sieboldii
- Whistling Green Pigeon, Treron formosae Genus Ptilinopus, fruit doves
- Black-backed Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus cinctus
- Black-banded Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus alligator
- Red-naped Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus dohertyi
- Pink-headed Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus porphyreus
- Flame-breasted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus marchei
- Cream-bellied Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus merrilli
- Yellow-breasted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus occipitalis
- Red-eared Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus fischeri
- Jambu Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus jambu
- Maroon-chinned Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus subgularis
- Black-chinned Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus leclancheri
- Scarlet-breasted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus bernsteinii
- Wompoo Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus magnificus
- Pink-spotted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus perlatus
- Ornate Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus ornatus
- Tanna Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus tannensis
- Orange-fronted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus aurantiifrons
- Wallace's Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus wallacii
- Superb Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus superbus
- Many-coloured Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus perousii
- Purple-capped Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus porphyraceus
- Palau Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus pelewensis
- Rarotonga Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus rarotongensis
- Mariana Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus roseicapilla
- Rose-crowned Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus regina
- Silver-capped Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus richardsii
- Grey-green Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus purpuratus
- Makatea Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus chalcurus
- Atoll Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus coralensis
- Red-bellied Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus greyii
- Rapa Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus huttoni
- White-capped Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus dupetithouarsii
- Red-moustached Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus mercierii
- Henderson Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus insularis
- Coroneted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus coronulatus
- Beautiful Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus pulchellus
- Blue-capped Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus monacha
- White-bibbed Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus rivoli
- Yellow-bibbed Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus solomonensis
- Claret-breasted Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus viridis
- White-headed Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus eugeniae
- Orange-bellied Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus iozonus
- Knob-billed Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus insolitus
- Grey-headed Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus hyogaster
- Carunculated Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus granulifrons
- Black-naped Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus melanospila
- Dwarf Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus nanus
- Negros Fruit Dove, Ptilinopus arcanus
- Orange Dove, Ptilinopus victor
- Golden Dove, Ptilinopus luteovirens
- Whistling Dove, Ptilinopus layardi Genus Drepanoptila
- Cloven-feathered Dove, Drepanoptila holosericea Genus Alectroenas blue pigeons
- Madagascar Blue Pigeon, Alectroenas madagascariensis
- Comoro Blue Pigeon, Alectroenas sganzini
- Seychelles Blue Pigeon, Alectroenas pulcherrima Genus Ducula imperial pigeons Ducula
- Pink-bellied Imperial Pigeon, Ducula poliocephala
- White-bellied Imperial Pigeon, Ducula forsteni
- Mindoro Imperial Pigeon, Ducula mindorensis
- Grey-headed Imperial Pigeon, Ducula radiata
- Grey-necked Imperial Pigeon, Ducula carola
- Green Imperial Pigeon, Ducula aenea
- White-eyed Imperial Pigeon, Ducula perspicillata
- Blue-tailed Imperial Pigeon, Ducula concinna
- Pacific Imperial Pigeon, Ducula pacifica
- Micronesian Imperial Pigeon, Ducula oceanica
- Polynesian Imperial Pigeon, Ducula aurorae
- Nukuhiva Imperial Pigeon, Ducula galeata
- Red-knobbed Imperial Pigeon, Ducula rubricera
- Spice Imperial Pigeon, Ducula myristicivora
- Purple-tailed Imperial Pigeon, Ducula rufigaster
- Cinnamon-bellied Imperial Pigeon, Ducula basilica
- Finsch's Imperial Pigeon, Ducula finschii
- Shinning Imperial Pigeon, Ducula chalconota
- Island Imperial Pigeon, Ducula pistrinaria
- Pink-headed Imperial Pigeon, Ducula rosacea
- Christmas Imperial Pigeon, Ducula whartoni
- Grey Imperial Pigeon, Ducula pickeringii
- Peale's Imperial Pigeon, Ducula latrans
- Chestnut-bellied Imperial Pigeon, Ducula brenchleyi
- Vanuatu Imperial Pigeon, Ducula bakeri
- New Caledonian Imperial Pigeon, Ducula goliath
- Pinon's Imperial Pigeon, Ducula pinon
- Bismarck Imperial Pigeon, Ducula melanochroa
- Collared Imperial Pigeon, Ducula mullerii
- Zoe's Imperial Pigeon, Ducula zoeae
- Mountain Imperial Pigeon, Ducula badia
- Dark-backed Imperial Pigeon, Ducula lacernulata
- Timor Imperial Pigeon, Ducula cineracea
- Pied Imperial Pigeon, Ducula bicolor
- Torresian Imperial Pigeon, Ducula spilorrhoa
- White Imperial Pigeon, Ducula luctuosa Genus Lopholaimus
- Topknot Pigeon, Lopholaimus antarcticus Genus Hemiphaga
- New Zealand Pigeon, Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae Genus Cryptophaps
- Sombre Pigeon, Cryptophaps poecilorrhoa Genus Gymnophaps, mountain pigeons
- Papuan Mountain Pigeon, Gymnophaps albertisii
- Long-tailed Mountain Pigeon, Gymnophaps mada
- Pale Mountain Pigeon, Gymnophaps solomonensis

See also


- Alphabetical species list
- Exotic pigeons
- peace symbol
- peace movement
- militarism
- Pigeon intelligence
- Homing pigeon
- Carrier pigeon
- Pigeon racing
- Pigeon sport
- War pigeon
- Cher Ami
- Clay pigeon
- Discrimination abilities of pigeons
- Dovecote

Sources


- [http://www.gamebird.com/dove.html Pigeon and dove information]
- A molecular phylogeny of the dove genera Streptopelia and Columba; Auk 118, 4 (2001): 874-887
- Category:Heraldic birds Category:Peace symbols ko:비둘기 ja:鳩 simple:Dove ]

7 December

December 7 is the 341st day (342nd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 24 days remaining.

Events


- 1732 - The Royal Opera House opens at Covent Garden, London.
- 1776 - Marquis de Lafayette attempts to enter the American military as a major general.
- 1787 - Delaware becomes the first state to ratify the United States Constitution.
- 1815 - Michel Ney, Marshal of France, is executed by firing squad, after having been convicted of treason for his support of Napoleon Bonaparte.
- 1917 - World War I: The United States declares war on Austria-Hungary.
- 1941 - World War II: Attack On Pearl Harbor - The Imperial Japanese Navy attacks the U.S. Pacific Fleet and its defending Army Air Corps and Marine air forces at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.
- 1946 - A fire at the Winecoff Hotel in Atlanta, Georgia kills 119 people.
- 1949 - Chinese Civil War: The government of the Republic of China moves from Nanking to Taipei.
- 1962 - Prince Rainier III of Monaco revises the principality's constitution, devolving some of his power to advisory and legislative councils.
- 1965 - Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras simultaneously lift mutual excommunications that had been in place since 1054.
- 1966 - A fire at an army barracks in Erzurum, Turkey kills 68 people.
- 1970 - The first ever general election on the basis of direct adult franchise are held in Pakistan for 313 National Assembly seats.
- 1971 - Pakistan President Yahya Khan announces formation of a Coalition Government at Centre with Nurul Amin as Prime Minister and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto as Vice-Prime Minister.
- 1972 - Apollo 17, the last Apollo moon mission, is launched. The crew take the photograph known as "The Blue Marble" as they leave the Earth.
- 1975 - Indonesia invades East Timor.
- 1982 - In Texas, Charles Brooks, Jr. becomes the first person to be executed by lethal injection in the United States.
- 1983 - Two jetliners collide at Madrid Barajas International Airport, Madrid killing 93 people.
- 1987 - PSA Flight 1771 crashes near Paso Robles, California, killing all 43 on board, after a disgruntled passenger shoots his ex-boss on the flight, then shoots both pilots and himself.
- 1988 - Spitak Earthquake: In Armenia an earthquake measuring 6.9 on the Richter scale kills nearly 25,000, injures 15,000 and leaves 400,000 homeless.
- 1988 - Yasser Arafat recognizes the right of Israel to exist.
- 1989 - In their third and final fight, Sugar Ray Leonard retains the WBC Super-Middleweight Championship of the World , defeating Roberto Duran.
- 1993 - In South Africa, the Transitional Executive Council is established.
- 1995 - The Galileo spacecraft arrives at Jupiter, a little more than six years after it was launched by Space Shuttle Atlantis during Mission STS-34.
- 2003 - The Conservative Party of Canada is officially recognized after the merger of the Canadian Alliance and Progressive Conservative Party of Canada.
- 2004 - Hamid Karzai is inaugurated as President of Afghanistan.
- 2004 - John Kufuor is re-elected as President of Ghana.
- 2005 - Rigoberto Alpizar, a passenger on American Airlines Flight 924 who allegedly claimed to have a bomb, is shot and killed by a team of U.S. federal air marshals at Miami International Airport.

Births


- 521 - Saint Columba, Irish Christian missionary to Scotland (d. 597)
- 1545 - Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, consort of Mary I of Scotland (d. 1567)
- 1561 - Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (d. 1625)
- 1598 - Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Italian artist (d. 1680)
- 1637 - Bernardo Pasquini, Italian composer (d. 1710)
- 1670 - John Aislabie, English director of the South Sea Company (d. 1742)
- 1761 - Marie Tussaud, French-born museum proprietress and waxwork modeller (d. 1850)
- 1764 - Claude Victor-Perrin, duc de Belluno, French marshal (d. 1841)
- 1784 - Allan Cunningham, British poet (d. 1842)
- 1801 - Johann Nestroy, Austrian dramatist and actor (d. 1862)
- 1810 - Theodor Schwann, German physiologist (d. 1882)
- 1810 - Josef Hyrtl, Austrian anatomist (d. 1894)
- 1823 - Leopold Kronecker, German mathematician (d. 1891)
- 1847 - George Grossmith, British actor and comic writer (d. 1912)
- 1860 - Sir Joseph Cook, sixth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1947)
- 1863 - Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer (d. 1945)
- 1863 - Richard Sears, American department store founder (d. 1914)
- 1873 - Willa Cather, American novelist (d. 1947)
- 1879 - Rudolf Friml, American composer (d. 1972)
- 1887 - Ernst Toch, Austrian composer (d. 1964)
- 1888 - Joyce Cary, Irish author (d. 1957)
- 1888 - Hamilton Fish, American politician (d. 1991)
- 1903 - Danilo Blanuša, Croatian mathematician (d. 1987)
- 1904 - Konstantin Sokolsky, Russian singer
- 1905 - Gerard Kuiper, Dutch-born American astronomer (d. 1973)
- 1910 - Louis Prima, American musician (d. 1978)
- 1912 - Daniel Jones, British composer (d. 1993)
- 1915 - Eli Wallach, American actor
- 1922 - Howard Zinn, American historian and activist
- 1924 - Mário Soares, President of Portugal
- 1927 - Helen Watts, British contralto
- 1928 - Noam Chomsky, American linguist and political writer
- 1932 - Ellen Burstyn, American actress
- 1942 - Harry Chapin, American singer and songwriter (d. 1981)
- 1942 - Peter Tomarken, American game show host
- 1943 - Bernard C. Parks, former Chief of the Los Angeles Police Department.
- 1944 - Daniel Chorzempa, American organist
- 1945 - Marion Rung, Finnish singer
- 1947 - Johnny Bench, American baseball player
- 1948 - Gary Morris, American singer and actor
- 1948 - Mads Vinding, Danish bassist
- 1949 - Tom Waits, American singer, composer, and actor
- 1954 - Mark Hofmann, American forger and bomber
- 1956 - Larry Bird, American basketball player and Olympic gold medalist
- 1958 - Tim Butler, British bassist (Psychedelic Furs)
- 1966 - C. Thomas Howell, American actor
- 1967 - Tino Martinez, American baseball player
- 1971 - Vladimir Akopian, Soviet-born Armenian chess player
- 1971 - Chasey Lain, American adult film actress
- 1972 - Hermann Maier, Austrian skier, Alpine Skiing World Cup winner and Olympic gold medalist
- 1972 - Tammy Lynn Sytch, American professional wrestler
- 1973 - Terrell Owens, American football player
- 1974 - Nicole Appleton, Canadian-born singer
- 1975 - Jamie Clapham, British footballer
- 1980 - John Terry, English international footballer
- 1987 - Aaron Carter, American singer
- 1988 - Emily Browning, Australian actress
- 2003 - Princess Catharina-Amalia of the Netherlands

Deaths


- 43 BC - Cicero, Roman politician and author (b. 106 BC)
- 283 - Pope Eutychian
- 1254 - Pope Innocent IV
- 1279 - King Boleslaus V of Poland (b. 1226)
- 1295 - Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford, English politician (b. 1243)
- 1498 - Alexander Hegius von Heek, German humanist
- 1562 - Adrian Willaert, Flemish composer
- 1632 - Emperor Sissinios of Ethiopia (b. 1607)
- 1649 - Charles Garnier, French Jesuit missionary (b. 1606)
- 1672 - Richard Bellingham, English-born Massachusetts colonial magistrate (b. 1592)
- 1683 - John Oldham, English poet (smallpox) (b. 1653)
- 1683 - Algernon Sydney, English politician (b. 1623)
- 1723 - Jan Santini Aichel, Bohemian architect (b. 1677)
- 1725 - Florent Carton Dancourt, French dramatist and actor (b. 1661)
- 1775 - Charles Saunders, Ontario-born British admiral
- 1793 - Joseph Bara, French revolutionary (b. 1780)
- 1815 - Michel Ney, French marshall (executed) (b. 1769)
- 1817 - William Bligh, British naval officer (b. 1745)
- 1874 - Constantin von Tischendorf, German biblical scholar (b. 1815)
- 1902 - Thomas Nast, German cartoonist (b. 1840)
- 1906 - Élie Ducommun, Swiss journalist and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1833)
- 1941 - Isaac C. Kidd, American rear admiral (b. 1884)
- 1943 - Per Imerslund, Norwegian "det ariske idol" (The aryan idol) (b. 1912)
- 1947 - Nicholas M. Butler, American president of Columbia University and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1862)
- 1956 - Huntley Gordon, Canadian actor (b. 1887)
- 1970 - Rube Goldberg, American cartoonist (b. 1883)
- 1975 - Thornton Wilder, American playwright (b. 1897)
- 1978 - Alexander Wetmore, American ornithologist (b. 1886)
- 1985 - Robert Graves, British author (b. 1895)
- 1985 - Potter Stewart, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. 1915)
- 1990 - Joan Bennett, American actress (b. 1910)
- 1993 - Félix Houphouët-Boigny, President of Côte d'Ivoire (b. 1905)
- 1993 - Wolfgang Paul, German physicist and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913)
- 1998 - Martin Rodbell, American scientist and Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1925)
- 2003 - Carl F. H. Henry American theologian and publisher (b. 1913)
- 2003 - Azie Taylor Morton, Treasurer of the United States (b. 1936)
- 2003 - Raúl Vale, Venezuelan entertainer (b. 1944)
- 2004 - Frederick Fennell, American conductor (b. 1914)
- 2004 - Jerry Scoggins, American singer (b. 1913)
- 2005 - Devan Nair, 3rd President of Singapore (b. 1923)
- 2005 - Bud Carson, American football player/coach (b. 1931)

Holidays and observances


- R.C. Saints - Saint Ambrose: Memorial
- Also see December 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- United States - Pearl Harbor Day (observance)
- International Civil Aviation Day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/7 BBC: On This Day] ---- December 6 - December 8 - November 7 - January 7 -- listing of all days ko:12월 7일 ms:7 Disember ja:12月7日 simple:December 7 th:7 ธันวาคม

521

Events
- Future Byzantine emperor Justinian becomes consul.
- Samson of Dol is ordained as a bishop. Births
- December 7 - Saint Columba at Gartan, Donegal Deaths
- Jacob of Serugh, Syrian writer Category:521 ko:521년

597

Events
- Saint Augustine is created Archbishop of Canterbury.
- The King's School is founded in Canterbury. Births
- Emperor Kōtoku, emperor of Japan Deaths
- June 9 - Saint Columba
- Fredegund, queen of Neustria
- Zhiyi, founder of the Tiantai sect of Buddhism. Category:597 ko:597년

Old Irish

Old Irish is the name given to the oldest form of the Irish language which can be more or less fully reconstructed from extant sources. It dates from the 6th to the 10th century, when it gives way to Middle Irish. Old Irish first appears in the margins of Latin religious manuscripts dating as early as the 6th century. A large number of early Irish literary texts, though recorded in manuscripts of the Middle Irish period such as Lebor na hUidre and the Book of Leinster, are essentially Old Irish in character. It should be noted that while Old Irish is the ancestor to Modern Irish, Scots Gaelic and Manx Gaelic, it is most definitely distinct from these. In general, Old Irish possesses much more inflection than its descendants, and also employs drastically different phonetic and grammatical structures. A great deal of what is known about Old Irish comes from a small number of individuals, such as Dr. Rudolf Thurneysen (1857-1940), and Osborn Bergin. Even today their books are regarded as required material for any Old Irish enthusiasts. Fragments, mainly personal names, of an earlier form of the language, known as Primitive Irish, are known from inscriptions in the Ogham alphabet in Ireland and western Britain, dating as late as the 4th century.

Phonology

Consonants

The consonant inventory of Old Irish is shown in the chart below. represent fortis sonorants whose precise articulation is unknown, but which were probably longer, tenser, and generally more strongly articulated than their lenis counterparts . Some details of Old Irish phonetics are not known. may have been pronounced or , as in Modern Irish. may have been the same sound as and/or . and may have been pronounced and respectively. The difference between and may have been that the former were trills while the latter were flaps.

Vowels

The inventory of Old Irish monophthongs is: The distribution of short vowels in unstressed syllables is a little complicated. All short vowels may appear in unstressed final open syllables (an open syllable is one with no coda consonant), after both broad and slender consonants. The front vowels and are often spelled ae and ai after broad consonants, which might indicate a retracted pronunciation here, perhaps something like and . All ten possibilities are shown in the following examples: In unstressed closed syllables (that is, those with a syllable coda), the quality of a short vowel is almost entirely predictable by whether the surrounding consonants are broad or slender. Between two broad consonants, the vowel is , as in dígal 'vengeance' (nom.). Between a broad and a slender consonant the vowel is , as in dliged 'law' (nom./acc.). Before a slender consonant the vowel is , as in dígail 'vengeance' (acc./dat.), and dligid 'law' (gen.). The chief exceptions to this pattern are that frequently appears when the following syllable contained an
- ū in Proto-Celtic (for example, dligud 'law' (dat.) < PC
- dligedū), and that or frequently appears after a broad labial (for example, lebor 'book'; domun 'world'). The inventory of Old Irish diphthongs is shown in this chart:

Orthography

As with most medieval languages, the orthography of Old Irish is not fixed, so the following statements are to be taken as generalizations only; individual manuscripts may very greatly from these guidelines. The Old Irish alphabet consists of the following eighteen letters of the Latin alphabet: :a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u In addition, the acute accent and the superdot are used as diacritics with certain letters:
- The acute accent indicates a long vowel: á, é, í, ó, ú are long vowels
- The superdot indicates the lenition of f and s: is silent, is pronounced
- The superdot is also sometimes used on m and n with no change in pronunciation, when these letters are used to mark the nasalization mutation: , . A number of digraphs are also used: :The letter i is placed after a vowel letter to indicate that the following consonant was slender: ai, ei, oi, ui; ái, éi, ói, úi :The letter h is placed after c, t, p to indicate a fricative: ch, th, ph :The diphthongs are also indicated by digraphs: áe/aí, ía, uí, áu, óe/oí, úa, éu, óu, iu, au, eu In word-initial position, when no initial consonant mutation has applied, the consonant letters have the following values; they are broad before back vowels (a, o, u) and slender before front vowels (e, i):
- b:
- c:
- d:
- f:
- g:
- h: See discussion below
- l:
- m:
- n:
- p:
- r:
- s:
- t: Although Old Irish has both a sound and a letter h, there is no consistent relationship between the two. Vowel-initial words are sometimes written with an unpronounced h, especially if they are very short (the preposition i "in" was sometimes written hi) or if they need to be emphasized (the name of Ireland, Ériu, was sometimes written Hériu). On the other hand, words that begin with the sound /h/ are usually written without it, for example a ór "her gold". If the sound and the spelling cooccur, it is by coincidence, as ní hed "it is not". After a vowel or l, n, or r the letters c, p, t can stand for either voiced or voiceless stops; they can also be written double with either value:
- mac or macc "son"
- bec or becc "small"
- op or opp "refuse"
- brat or bratt "mantle"
- brot or brott "goad"
- derc "hole"
- derc "red"
- daltae "fosterling"
- celtae "who hide"
- anta "of remaining"
- antae "who remain" After a vowel the letters b, d, g stand for the fricatives or their slender equivalents:
- dub "black"
- mod "work"
- mug "slave"
- claideb "sword"
- claidib "swords" After m, b is a stop, but after d, l and r it is a fricative:
- imb "butter"
- odb "knot (in a tree)"
- delb "image"
- marb dead After n and r, d is a stop
- bind "melodious"
- cerd "art, skill" After n, l, and r, g is usually a stop, but it is a fricative in a few words:
- long "ship"
- delg or delc "thorn"
- argat or arggat "silver"
- ingen "daughter"
- bairgen "loaf of bread" After vowels m is usually a fricative, but sometimes a (nasal) stop, in which case it is also often written double:
- dám "company"
- lom or lomm "bare" The digraphs ch, ph, th do not occur in word-initial position except under lenition, but wherever they occur they are pronounced .
- ech "horse"
- oíph "beauty"
- áth "ford" The letters l, n, and r are written double when they indicate the tense sonorants, single when they indicate the lax sonorants. (But the tense sonorants are usually written single in word-initial position.)
- corr "crane"
- cor "putting"
- coll "hazel"
- col "sin"
- sonn "stake"
- son "sound"

Grammar

Sentence structure

Old Irish follows the typical VSO (verb-subject-object) structure shared by most Celtic languages. Verbs are all fully conjugated, and have most of the forms typical of Indo-European languages, i.e. present, imperfect, past, future and preterite tenses, indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative moods, and active and passive voices. The only verbal form lacking in Old Irish is the infinitive (present to a limited degree in Modern Irish), the meaning of which Old Irish conveyed with verbal noun constructions. Personal pronouns, when used as direct objects, are infixed into the verb with which they are associated. Nouns possess four cases (nominative, genitive, accusative a.k.a. objective, and dative), and two numbers - the singular and the plural. A third number, dual, is attested to a limited degree with somewhat distinct forms, though it is almost always preceded by the cardinal dá, meaning "two". What equate to prepositions in English are generally in the same placement as Old Irish, though a good many with verbal overtones are actually infixed into the verbs themselves.

Verbs

Verbs stand initially in the sentence (preceded only by some particles, forming a 'verbal complex' and very few adverbs). Most verbs have, in addition to the tenses, voices, and moods named above, two sets of forms: a conjunct form, and an absolute form. The conjunct form typically consists of one or more preverbs (particles some of which are historically of prepositional origin, compare a-, e-, in-, etc. in Latin verbs, though not directly related and verbal prefixes in Germanic languages), followed by a verb stem which bears the bulk of the conjugation. Personal pronouns as direct objects are infixed between the preverb and the verbal stem, along with various other particles that modify the verb's meaning (including the negative) or indicate certain special sentence structures. The absolute form is used when no infixes are necessary, and any other necessary elements are given in another part of the sentence. A single verb can stand as an entire sentence in Old Irish, in which case emphatic particles such as -sa and -se are affixed to the end of the verb.

References


-
-
-
-
- Category:Irish language Irish, Old Category:History of Ireland Category:History of Scotland Category:Medieval Scotland

Ireland

:This page is about the island of Ireland. For the state also called Ireland, see Republic of Ireland. :For an explanation of terms like Ulster, Northern Ireland, (Great) Britain and United Kingdom see British Isles (terminology) . British Isles (terminology)] Ireland (Irish: Éire) is the third-largest island in Europe. It lies in the Atlantic Ocean and it is composed of the Republic of Ireland (officially, Ireland), which covers five sixths of the island (south, east, west and north-west), and Northern Ireland; part of the United Kingdom, which covers the northeastern sixth of the island. The population of the island is approximately 5.8 million people; 4.1 million in the Republic of Ireland (1.6 million in Greater Dublin) and 1.7 million in Northern Ireland (0.6 million in Greater Belfast). Belfast 2003. Scotland, the Isle of Man and Wales are visible to the east]]

Geography

Wales with more details).]] A ring of coastal mountains surrounds low central plains. The highest peak is Carrauntuohill (Irish: Corrán Tuathail), which is 1041 m (3414 feet). The island is bisected by the River Shannon, at 259 km (161 mi) the longest river in Ireland or Britain. The island's lush vegetation, a product of its mild climate and frequent but soft rainfall, earns it the sobriquet "Emerald Isle". The island's area is 84,079 km² (32,477 mile²). Ireland is divided into four provinces: Connacht, Leinster, Munster and Ulster. In Irish these are referred to as Cúige's ( Cúige - meaning fifths). Previously there were five provinces - Connacht, Munster, Ulster, Leinster and Meath, comprising the counties of Meath, Westmeath and Longford. These were further divided into 32 counties for administrative purposes. Six of the Ulster counties remain under British sovereignty as Northern Ireland following Ireland's partition in 1922 (the remaining 26 forming present-day Republic of Ireland); since the UK's 1974 reshuffle these county boundaries no longer exist in Northern Ireland for administrative purposes, although Fermanagh District Council is almost identical to the county. In the Republic, the county boundaries are still adhered to for local government, albeit with Tipperary and Dublin subdivided (some cities also have their own administrative regions). For election constituencies, some counties are merged or divided, but constitutionally the boundaries have to be observed. Across Ireland, the 32 counties are still used in sports and in some other cultural areas and retain a strong sense of local identity. Ireland's least arable land lies in the south-western and western counties. These areas are largely spectacularly mountainous and rocky, with beautiful green vistas.

Politics

Dublin Politically, Ireland is divided into:
- The Republic of Ireland, with its capital in Dublin. This state is often simply referred to internally and internationally as "Ireland" in English or "Éire" in Irish. Technically