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Edward VI

Edward VI

:Edward Tudor redirects here; for another (though unlikely) Edward Tudor, see a putative younger son of Henry VII of England, thus this Edward's uncle if existed Edward VI (12 October 1537–6 July 1553) was King of England and King of Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. Edward, the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty, was England's first Protestant ruler. Although his father and predecessor, Henry VIII, had broken the link between English Catholicism and Roman Catholicism, it was during Edward's reign that the decisive move was made from Catholicism to a form of Protestantism which came to be known as Anglicanism.

Early life

Edward was born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich. He was the son of King Henry VIII of England by his wife, Jane Seymour, who died twelve days afterwards from puerperal fever. It is sometimes asserted that Jane sacrificed her life by the performance of a Caesarean section, but such assertions are without basis. Edward automatically became Duke of Cornwall upon his birth; he was, however, never created Prince of Wales, as was (and still is) customary for the heir-apparent to the Throne. Henry VIII was extremely pleased by the birth of a male heir. He had left his two previous wives, Catherine of Aragon (mother of Mary) and Anne Boleyn (mother of Elizabeth), because of their failure to produce male heirs. Both marriages had been annulled, and Anne Boleyn was also executed; Mary and Elizabeth were deemed illegitimate. Despite their illegitimacy, however, they were reinserted into the line of succession after Edward in 1544. Edward was an extremely sickly child. It has been theorised that he suffered from congenital syphilis or from tuberculosis. His frailty led Henry VIII to quickly seek to remarry; the King's last three marriages, however, did not produce any children. Edward's physical difficulties did not impede his education; on the contrary, the young prince was a very bright child, already able to speak Latin at the age of seven. He later learned to speak French and Greek; by the age of thirteen, he found himself translating books into the latter language. His principal tutors were Sir John Cheke, Leonard Cox, and Jean Belmain.

Under Somerset

Henry died on 28 January 1547. His will named sixteen executors, who were to act as a Council of Regency until Edward achieved majority at the age of eighteen. These executors were to be supplemented by twelve assistants, who would only participate when the others deemed it fit. The executors were all inclined towards religious reformation, whose most prominent opponents, Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, Stephen Gardiner (the Bishop of Winchester) and Thomas Thirlby (the Bishop of Westminster), were excluded. Henry also appointed Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford to serve as Lord Protector of the Realm and Governor of the King's Person during Edward's minority. Lord Hertford, who was Edward's uncle, was only supposed to act on the advice of the other executors. A few days after Henry's death, Lord Hertford was created Duke of Somerset and appointed to the influential positions of Lord High Treasurer and Earl Marshal. To allay all doubts regarding the validity of Henry VIII's will, all the executors sought reappointment from Edward. On 13 March 1547, Edward created a new Council of twenty-six members. The Council consisted of all the executors and assistants, except for Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton (who, whilst serving as Lord Chancellor, had illegally delegated some of his powers to other officials) and Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. The Duke of Somerset was no longer merely a "first among equals"; instead, he was allowed to act without the consent of the Council, the composition of which he was permitted to change at his whim. The Lord Protector, then, became the real ruler of England; Edward VI was demoted to a ceremonial role. Another powerful influence on Edward VI was Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. Both Cranmer and the Duke of Somerset began the process of creating a 'Protestant England'. Various Catholic rites were replaced with Protestant ones. The Duke of Somerset, however, did not encourage persecution; rather, he refrained from it, as he feared the wrath of Europe's powerful Catholic monarchs, especially the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. One of the Duke of Somerset's primary aims was to achieve a union between England and Scotland. In late 1547, an English army marched into Scotland and took control of the Lowlands. In 1548, however, Mary, the daughter of the Scottish King James V, married the Dauphin Francis, the heir-apparent to the French Throne, thereby strengthening the alliance between France and Scotland. The Duke of Somerset was hardly in a position to oppose both France and Scotland, as his own position was insecure. His brother, Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, the Lord High Admiral, had hatched a plot to depose him. Lord Seymour's conspiracy, however, was exposed in 1549. A bill of attainder was introduced and passed almost unanimously by Parliament; Lord Seymour was executed on 20 March. Later in 1549, there was another uprising, this time by poor peasants. On 8 August, taking advantage of internal strife, the French formally declared war on England. The Duke of Somerset became extremely unpopular, and was deposed by John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick. Lord Warwick did not make himself Lord Protector, and even encouraged Edward into declaring his majority as soon as he was sixteen. In 1550, Lord Warwick conciliated the peasant rebels and made peace with France, giving up all of England's possessions in Scotland without compensation.

Under Warwick

The rise of Lord Warwick was accompanied by the fall of Catholicism in England. Thomas Cranmer introduced the Book of Common Prayer for use in all Church services. All official editions of the Bible were accompanied by anti-Catholic annotations. Catholic symbols in churches were desecrated by mobs. Religious dissenters, moreover, were often persecuted and burnt at the stake. In 1550 and 1551, the most powerful Roman Catholic Bishops, Edmund Bonner (the Bishop of London), Stephen Gardiner (the Bishop of Winchester) and Nicholas Heath (the Bishop of Worcester) included, were deposed; and their places taken by Protestant reformers such as Nicholas Ridley. Meanwhile, the Duke of Somerset, who agreed to submit to Lord Warwick, was released from prison and readmitted to the Privy Council. Within a few months, he found himself powerful enough to demand the release of other political and religious prisoners. He opposed the Council's attempt to curtail the religious liberty of Edward's sister, Mary. The Duke of Somerset's opposition to the religious Reformation irked Lord Warwick. Lord Warwick attempted to increase his own prestige; on his advice, Edward created him Duke of Northumberland and bestowed honours on his numerous supporters. The Duke of Northumberland began a campaign to discredit the Duke of Somerset. The people of London were informed that the Duke of Somerset would destroy their city; Edward was told that the Duke would depose and imprison him and seize his Crown. It was also suggested that the Duke of Somerset had plotted to murder the Duke of Northumberland. In December of 1551, the Duke of Somerset was tried for treason on the grounds that he had attempted to imprison a member of the King's Council. The treason charge, however, could not be proven; instead, Somerset was found guilty of participating in unlawful assemblies, but was still sentenced to death. The Duke of Somerset was subsequently executed in January 1552. On the day after the Duke of Somerset's execution, a new session of Parliament began. It passed the Act of Uniformity 1552, under which a second Book of Common Prayer was required for church services. Unauthorised worship was punishable by up to life imprisonment.

Later years

The fragile health of the King did not abate as his reign progressed. During his father's reign Edward had effectively been mollycoddled and kept in seclusion. Edward desperately wanted his own freedom, and indulged in the early years of his reign with other children of his age. He became extremely fond of sports such as tennis. During the winter of 1552–1553, Edward, strained by physical activities in the bitter weather, contracted a cold, which was made more serious as it was compounded by other illnesses (tuberculosis, and according to some, syphilis). Doctors tried to help by administering various medicines, but their efforts were in vain, leaving Edward in perpetual agony. Edward, who was by now dying in early 1553, was enough the master of his own destiny to have concerns about the succession. Having been brought up a Protestant, he had no desire to be succeeded by his older half-sister, Mary. At the same time, the Duke of Northumberland was eager to retain his own power. He did not find the next two individuals in the line of succession, Mary and Elizabeth, conducive to his aims. The third individual in the line of succession under Henry VIII's will was Lady Frances Brandon (the daughter of Henry's younger sister Mary by Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk); she, too, was not to Northumberland's liking. Northumberland feared that the Frances' husband, Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, would claim the Crown as his own. The Duke of Northumberland then foolishly attempted to rule through the Duchess of Suffolk's daughter, the Lady Jane Grey. Jane was married off to the Duke of Northumberland's younger son, Guilford Dudley. On 11 June 1553, Northumberland commanded senior judges to draw up a draft will for Edward. The plan was illegal for many reasons; firstly, a minor did not have the authority to make a will. Furthermore, Edward's will had not been authorised by any Act of Parliament, whilst Henry's will (which Northumberland sought to abrogate), had been specifically authorised by an Act passed in 1544. The judges at first resisted giving in to the Duke of Northumberland's demands, as it was treason to attempt to vary the laws of succession established in 1544. Edward, however, ensured their co-operation by promising a pardon under the Great Seal. The first draft of the will excluded Mary, Elizabeth, the Duchess of Suffolk and the Lady Jane from the line of succession on the theory that no woman could rule England. The Crown was to be left to the Lady Jane's heirs-male. This plan, however, was not to Northumberland's liking; the draft was changed to leave the Crown to Jane and her heirs-male. Mary and Elizabeth were excluded because they were officially illegitimate; the Duchess of Suffolk agreed to renounce her own claims.

Death

Great Seal Edward died in Greenwich on 6 July 1553, either of tuberculosis, arsenic poisoning, or syphilis. He would later be buried in Westminster Abbey. As Edward lay dying, the Duke of Northumberland (according to legend) symbolically stole the crown from him and gave it to his daughter-in-law, the Lady Jane. Edward VI's death was kept secret for a couple of days so that preparations could be made for Jane's accession. High civic authorities privately swore their allegiance to the new Queen, who was not publicly proclaimed until 10 July. But the people were much more supportive of the rightful heir under the Act of Succession, Mary. On 19 July, Mary rode triumphantly into London, and Jane was forced to give up the Crown. Jane's proclamation was revoked as an act done under coercion; her succession was correctly deemed unlawful. Thus, Edward's de jure successor was Mary I, but his de facto successor was Jane. The Duke of Northumberland was executed, but the Lady Jane and her father were originally spared. In 1554, when Mary faced Wyatt's Rebellion, the Duke of Suffolk once again attempted to put his daughter on the Throne. For this crime, both Jane and the Duke of Suffolk were executed. After Edward's death at the age of fifteen, rumours of his survival persisted. To take advantage of the people's delusions, several impostors were put forward as rightful Kings. These impersonations continued throughout Mary I's reign, and even far into Elizabeth I's reign. Mistaken identities also feature in the American author Mark Twain's novel, The Prince and the Pauper, in which the young Edward VI and a pauper boy of identical appearance accidentally replace each other.

Style and arms

Like his father, Edward VI was referred to with the styles "Majesty", "Highness" and "Grace". His official style was of the same form as his father: "Edward the Sixth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head". Edward VI's arms were the same as those used by his predecessors since Henry IV: Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England).

References

- [http://tudorhistory.org/edward/index.html Eakins, L. E. (2004). "Edward VI".]
- "Edward VI". (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
- [http://lego70.tripod.com/england/executors_of_will_1547.htm Schultz, O. (2002). "England: Minority of Edward VI: 1547".]

External links

- [http://www.archsoc.com/games/Mary.html Stevens, Garry. (2004). "Bloody Mary: Further Intrigue in the Tudor Court".]
- [http://www.leonibus.com/ Site of author C.W. Gortner, author of "The Secret Lion"] a novel about the final days of Edward VI's reign. Edward VI of England Edward VI of England Category:Londoners Category:House of Tudor Category:Henry VIII's children Category:Heirs to the English & British thrones Category:Dukes in the Peerage of England Category:English monarchs ja:エドワード6世 (イングランド王) simple:Edward VI of England

Henry VII of England

Henry VII (January 28, 1457 – April 21, 1509), King of England, Lord of Ireland (August 22, 1485 – April 21, 1509), was the founder of the Tudor dynasty.

Early Life

Born in Pembroke Castle, Wales, in 1457, Henry was the only son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort. His father died two months before he was born, which meant that the young Henry spent much of his early life with his uncle, Jasper Tudor. With the return of Edward IV to the throne in 1471, Henry was forced to flee to Brittany, where he was to spend most of the next fourteen years. After the failure of the revolt of his second cousin, Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, in 1483, Henry became the leading Lancastrian contender for the throne of England. With money and supplies borrowed from his host, Francis II, Duke of Brittany, Henry made an unsuccessful attempt to land in England but turned back after encountering Richard III's forces on the Dorset coast. Richard attempted to ensure his return through a treaty with the Breton authorities, but Henry was alerted and escaped to France. He was welcomed by the French court, who readily supplied him with troops and equipment for a second invasion.

Rise to the throne

Having gained the support of the in-laws of the late Yorkist King Edward IV, he landed with a largely French and Scottish force in Mill Bay, Pembrokeshire, and marched into England, accompanied by his uncle, Jasper Tudor, and the experienced John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford. Wales had traditionally been a Yorkist stronghold, and Henry owed the support he gathered to his ancestry, being directly descended, through his father, from the Lord Rhys. He amassed an army of around 5000 soldiers and travelled north. Though outnumbered, and aware this was his only chance to seize the throne - Richard had reinforcements awaiting in Nottingham and Leicester - his Lancastrian forces decisively defeated the Yorkists under the King at the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485 when several of Richard's key allies, such as the Earl of Northumberland and William and Thomas Stanley, crucially switched sides or deserted the field of battle. This effectively ended the long-running Wars of the Roses between the two houses, though it wasn't the final battle. Henry's claim to the throne was tenuous and based upon a lineage of illegitimate succession. However, this was no barrier to the Throne; inheritance was not the sole method of becoming Sovereign. Claims could also be based on nomination (by the previous Sovereign), statute, prescription (de facto possession of power) and, as was the case with Henry VII, conquest. The first of Henry's concerns on attaining the monarchy was the question of establishing the strength and supremacy of his rule. His own claim to the throne was limited, but he was fortunate in that there were few other claimants to the throne left alive after the long civil war. His main worry was pretenders such as Perkin Warbeck, who pretended to be Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the Princes in the Tower. These pretenders were backed by disaffected nobles. Henry triumphed in securing his crown by a number of means but principally by dividing and undermining the power of the nobility, especially through bonds and recognizances. He also honoured his pledge of December 1483 to marry Elizabeth of York, daughter and heir of King Edward IV. The marriage took place on January 18 1486 at Westminster. This unified the warring houses, gave him a greater claim to the throne due to Elizabeth's line of descent and ensured that his children would be of royal blood. (though there is evidence that Edward was born illegitimate). Henry's first action was to declare himself king as-of the day before the battle, thus ensuring that anyone who had fought against him would, technically, be guilty of treason. It is interesting to note, therefore, that he spared Richard's designated heir, John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln. He would have cause to regret his leniency two years later, when Lincoln rebelled and attempted to set a boy pretender, Lambert Simnel, on the throne in Henry's place. Lincoln was killed at the Battle of Stoke, but Simnel's life was spared and he became a royal servant. Simnel had been put forward as "Edward VI", impersonating the young Edward, Earl of Warwick, son of George, Duke of Clarence, who was still imprisoned in the Tower of London. Henry had shown uncharacteristic leniency in dealing with Edward and did not find a pretext for executing him until he had grown into adulthood, in 1499. Edward's elder sister, Margaret Pole, who had the next best claim on the throne, inherited her father's earldom of Salisbury and survived well into the next reign.

List of Children

Henry and Elizabeth's children are:
- Arthur, Prince of Wales (September 20, 1486 – April 2, 1502).
- Margaret Tudor (November 28, 1489 – October 18, 1541).
- Henry VIII of England (June 28, 1491 – January 28, 1547).
- Elizabeth Tudor (July 2, 1492 – September 14, 1495).
- Mary Tudor (March 18, 1496 – June 25, 1533).
- Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset (February 21, 1499 – June 19, 1500).
- Edward Tudor. He may not have actually existed. Unknown dates of birth and death. Suspected to be a mistaken name for Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset. However, this name is listed in official records as a child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Edward is also mentioned in Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy by Alison Weir as having died young. She assumes the child to have been buried with his family in Westminster Abbey.
- Katherine Tudor (February 2, 1503 – February 2, 1503); Elizabeth died giving birth to Katherine.

Economic and diplomatic policies

Henry was a fiscally prudent monarch who restored the fortunes of an effectively bankrupt exchequer (Edward IV's treasury had been emptied by his wife's Woodville relations after his death and before the accession of Richard III) by introducing efficiently ruthless mechanisms of taxation. In this he was supported by his chancellor, Archbishop John Morton, whose "Morton's Fork" (the two "tines" of which being: "If the subject is seen to live frugally, tell him because he is clearly a money saver of great ability he can afford to give generously to the King. If, however, the subject lives a life of great extravagance, tell him he, too, can afford to give largely, the proof of his opulence being evident in his expenditure.") was a catch 22 method of ensuring that nobles paid increased taxes. Royal government was also reformed with the introduction of the King's Council that kept the nobility in check. Henry's policy was both to maintain peace and to create economic prosperity. Up to a point, he succeeded in both. He was not a military man, and had no interest in trying to regain the French territories lost during the reigns of his predecessors; he was therefore only too ready to conclude a treaty with France that both directly and indirectly brought money into the coffers of England. He had been under the financial and physical protection of the French throne or its vassals for most of his career as a pretender prior to his ascending to the throne of England. To strengthen his position, however, he subsidized shipbuilding, so strengthening the navy and improving trading opportunities. By the time of his death, he had amassed a personal fortune of a million and a half pounds; it did not take his son as long to fritter it away as it had taken the father to acquire it. As well as coming to terms with the French, Henry forged alliances with Spain — by marrying his son, Arthur Tudor, to Catherine of Aragon; with Scotland — by marrying his daughter, Margaret, to King James IV of Scotland; and with the Holy Roman Empire, under the emperor Maximilian I.

Later Years

In 1502, fate dealt Henry a double blow from which he never fully recovered: His heir, the recently-married Arthur, died in an epidemic at Ludlow Castle and was followed only a few months later by Henry's queen, in childbirth. Not wishing the negotiations that had led to the marriage of his elder son to Catherine of Aragon to go to waste, he arranged a dispensation for his younger son to marry his brother's widow — normally a degree of relationship that precluded marriage in the Roman Catholic Church. Henry obtained a dispensation from Pope Julius II but had second thoughts about the value of the marriage and did not allow it to take place during his lifetime. Although he made half-hearted plans to re-marry and beget more heirs, these never came to anything. On his death in 1509, he was succeeded by his second, more famous son, Henry VIII.

Descendants

Henry's elder daughter Margaret was married first to James IV of Scotland, and their son became James V of Scotland, whose daughter became Mary, Queen of Scots. By means of this marriage, Henry hoped to break the Auld Alliance between Scotland and France. Margaret Tudor's second marriage was to Archibald Douglas; their grandson, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley married Mary, Queen of Scots. Their son, James VI of Scotland, inherited the throne of England as James I after the death of Elizabeth I. Henry VII's other surviving daughter, Mary, married first King Louis XII of France and then, when he died of too much honeymooning, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. Their daughter Frances married Henry Grey, and her children included Lady Jane Grey, in whose name her parents and in-laws tried to seize the throne after Edward VI of England died. King Henry VII is buried at Westminster Abbey.

Bibliography

- Henry VII by S. B. Chrimes & George Bernard (1972)
- Henry VII by Jocelyn Hunt & Carolyn Towle (1998)
- Henry VII by Roger Turvey & Caroline Steinsberg (2000)
- The Son of Prophecy: Henry Tudor's Road to Bosworth (1985) by David Rees (ISBN 0851590055) is a discussion of how Henry's return to Wales was regarded by some as the fulfillment of a Messianic prophecy.

External links

- [http://www.badley.info/history/Henry-VII-England.biog.html Henry VII World History Database]

1537

Events

- January 6 - Alessandro de Medici assassinated
- August 25 - The Honourable Artillery Company, the oldest surviving regiment in the British Army, and the second most senior, was formed.
- Pope Paul III publishes the encyclical Sublimis Deus, which declares the natives of the New World to be rational beings with souls who must not be enslaved or robbed.
- Manco II establishes neo-Inca independent state at Vilacampa, Peru
- Recife is founded by the Portuguese in Brazil.
- The Spaniards bring the potato to Europe
- Christian III forces introduction of Lutheran protestantism in Denmark and Norway
- Dissolution of religious buildings by Henry VIII, including
- Bisham Priory,
- Bridlington Priory,
- Castle Acre Priory, and
- Valle Crucis Abbey
- Bisham Abbey founded by Henry VIII in place of Bisham Priory

Births

- June 28 - Philip Howard, 20th Earl of Arundel, English nobleman (died 1595)
- July 20 - Arnaud d'Ossat, French diplomat and writer (d. 1604)
- October 12 - King Edward VI of England (died 1553)
- October 12 - Lady Jane Grey, claimant to the throne of England (died 1554)
- December 5 - Ashikaga Yoshiaki, Japanese shogun (died 1597)
- December 23 - King John III of Sweden (died 1592)
- Fadrique Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva, Spanish military leader (died 1583)
- Longqing Emperor, Emperor of China
- Hieronymus Fabricius, Italian anatomist (died 1619)
- Shimizu Muneharu, Japanese military commander (died 1582)
- Jan Krzysztof Tarnowski, Polish noble (died 1567)
- Saint John Almond

Deaths

- January 6 - Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence (born 1510)
- January 6 - Baldassare Peruzzi, Italian architect and painter (b. 1481)
- February 8 - Otto von Pack, German conspirator
- July 7 - Madeleine de Valois, queen of James V of Scotland (born 1520)
- September 4 - Johann Dietenberger, German theologian
- October 24 - Jane Seymour, queen of Henry VIII of England (complications of childbirth)
- Lorenzo di Credi, Florentine painter and sculptor (born 1459)
- Jerome Emiliani, Italian humanitarian and saint (born 1481)
- Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare (born 1513)
- John Kite, Archbishop of Armagh and Bishop of Carlisle
- Pedro de Mendoza, Spanish conquistador (born 1487)
- Thomas Murner, German satirist (born 1475)
- Henry Percy, 6th Earl of Northumberland (born 1502) Category:1537 ko:1537년

1553

Events

- June 26 - Christ's Hospital and King Edward's School, Witley created by Royal Charter
- July 6 - Edward VI of England dies
- July 10 - Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England - for the next nine days
- July 18 - Lord Mayor of London proclaims Queen Mary as the rightful Queen - Lady Jane Grey willingly abdicates
- August 2 - Battle of Marciano. French forces invading Italy under Marshal Blaise de Monluc are defeated by an imperial army under the Marquis of Marignano and are forced to retreat into Siena, which is besieged by the imperialial forces.
- August 3 - Queen Mary arrives in London
- August 22 - Duke of Northumberland, supporter of Jane Grey, executed
- September Protestant bishops in England are arrested and Roman Catholic bishops are restored
- September 23 - The Sadians consolidate their power in Morocco by defeating the last of their enemies
- October 27 - Calvinists burn Michael Servetus as a heretic in Geneve
- Battle of Sievershausen - Elector Maurice of Saxony defeats the catholic forces of Margrave Albert of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Maurice is mortally wounded.
- Russia, Opening of the maritime way of the White sea by the British captain Chancellor, beginning of the trade with the England
- Shanghai is fortified for the first time.

Births

- January 22 - Mori Terumoto, Japanese warrior (d. 1625)
- May 14 - Margaret of Valois, queen of Henry IV of France (died 1615)
- July 15 - Archduke Ernest of Austria (died 1595)
- November 23 - Prospero Alpini, Italian physician and botanist (died 1617)
- December 13 - King Henry IV of France (died 1610)
- Patriarch Filaret of Moscow and All Rus' (died 1633)
- Giovanni Florio, English writer and translator (died 1625)
- Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia (died 1618)
- Jasper Heywood, English translator of Seneca (died 1598)
- Amago Katsuhisa, Japanese nobleman (died 1578)
- Luca Marenzio, Italian composer (died 1599)
- Pierre de Rostegny, French jurist (died 1631)
- William Russell, 1st Baron Russell of Thornhaugh, English military leader (died 1613)
- Mori Terumoto, Japanese nobleman
- Jacques Auguste de Thou, French historian (died 1617) See also :Category: 1553 births.

Deaths

- February 19 - Erasmus Reinhold, German astronomer and mathematician (born 1511)
- February 25 - Hirate Masahide, Japanese diplomat and tutor of Oda Nobunaga (suicide) (born 1492)
- April 9 - François Rabelais, French writer
- July 6 - King Edward VI of England (born 1537)
- July 9 - Maurice, Elector of Saxony (b. 1521)
- August 22 - John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland (born 1501)
- October 7 - Cristóbal de Morales, Spanish composer (born 1500)
- October 16 - Lucas Cranach the Elder, German painter (born 1472)
- October 27 - Michael Servetus, Spanish theologian (burned at the stake) (born 1511)
- October 30 - Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck, German statesman and reformer (born 1489)
- Johannes Aal, Swiss theologian (born 1500)
- Erasmus Alberus, German humanist (born 1500)
- John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners, English historian and translator (born 1467)
- Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician (born 1478) See also :Category: 1553 deaths.

Kingdom of England

:This article is about the historical state called the Kingdom of England (927-1707). For the main article about the modern country, see England. The Kingdom of England was a state located in western Europe, in the southern part of the island of Great Britain. The capital of the Kingdom was Winchester, in Hampshire, until the Norman Conquest of 1066. William I of England (1066–1087) selected London as his capital. London served as the capital of the Kingdom until its end in 1707 (see Acts of Union 1707) and continues to remain the de facto capital of England. The city has also served as the capital of both the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922). Today it remains the capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the "United Kingdom"). The present monarch of the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth II, is the modern successor to the Kings and Queens of England. The title of Queen (and King) of England has however been out of use since 1707 and is incorrect when it applies to her in popular use. Elizabeth can trace her descent to the Kings of Wessex from the 1st millennium.

History

:Main article: History of England The Kingdom of England has no specific founding date. The Kingdom can trace its origins to the Heptarchy, the rule of what would later become England by seven minor Kingdoms: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Wessex. The Kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 8th century, a process that would continue during the 9th century. Alfred the Great (reigned 871–899) was the first King of Wessex to style himself "King of England". His son Edward the Elder (reigned 899–924) exceeded the military achievements of his father by establishing his rule over the Danelaw. The death of his sister Ethelfleda in 918, resulted in him usurping the rule of Mercia from his niece Aelfwynn in 919. In 927 the last kingdom of early mediaeval England, Northumbria, fell to the King of Wessex Athelstan, a son of Edward the Elder. Athelstan was the first to reign over a united England. He was not the first de jure King of England, but certainly the first de facto one. England has remained in political unity ever since. However the Kingdom was subject to invasions by the Vikings of Denmark during the late 10th century. In response Ethelred II of England ordered the slaughter of all Danish people present in England during 1002. This only managed to attract the attention and hostility of Sweyn I of Denmark and Norway. Sweyn staged four full scale invasions of England for the remainder of his life. Sweyn was proclaimed King of England in opposition to Ethelred II in 1013. He died on February 2, 1014. His son Canute the Great continued the war. Ethelred II died on April 23, 1016. His son Edmund II of England was soon defeated by Canute. Canute agreed to co-rule with Edmund II but the latter died on November 30 1016, leaving England united under Danish rule. Danish rule continued until the death of Harthacanute on June 8, 1042. He was a son of Canute and Emma of Normandy, widow of Ethelred II. Harthacanute had no heirs of his own and was succeeded by his half-brother Edward the Confessor. The Kingdom of England was independent again. Edward the Confessor of England.]] Peace only lasted until the death of childless Edward on January 4/January 5, 1066 . His brother-in-law was crowned Harold II of England. His cousin William the Bastard , Duke of Normandy immediately claimed the throne for himself. William launched an invasion of England and landed in Sussex on September 28, 1066. Harold II and his army were in York following their victory in the Battle of Stamford Bridge (September 25, 1066). They had to march across England to reach their new opponents. The armies of Harold II and William finally faced each other in the Battle of Hastings (October 14, 1066). Harold fell and William remained the victor. William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition. He was not however planning to absorb the Kingdom to the Duchy of Normandy. As a Duke, William still owed allegiance to Philip I of France. The independent Kingdom of England would allow him to rule without interference. He was crowned King of England on December 25, 1066. The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy would remain in personal union until 1204. King John of England, a fourth-generation descendant of William I, lost the continental area of the Duchy to Philip II of France during that year. The remnants of the Duchy remained in the rule of John and his descendants. They are known as the Channel Islands. John still held both the titles and land of the Duke of Aquitaine. His grandson Edward I of England defeated Llywelyn the Last and effectively conquered Wales in 1282. He created the title Prince of Wales for his eldest son Edward II in 1301. Edward II was father to Edward III of England, whose claim to the throne of France resulted in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). The end of the war found England defeated and retaining only a single city of France: Calais. The Kingdom had little time to recover before entering the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). The "Wars" was actually a civil war over possession of the throne between the House of Lancaster and the House of York. They were actually descendants of Edward III and closely related. The end of the wars found the throne held by a female line descendant of the House of Lancaster married to the eldest daughter of the House of York. Henry VII of England and his Queen consort Elizabeth of York were the founders of the Tudor dynasty which ruled the Kingdom from 1485 to 1603. 1603.]] Meanwhile, Wales retained the distinct legal and administrative system that had been established by Edward I in the late 13th century. The second Tudor monarch, Henry VIII of England, merged Wales into England under what later became known as the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543. Wales ceased to be a personal fiefdom of the king of England but was annexed to England and was representated in the English Parliament. During the reign of Mary I of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII, Calais was captured by Francis, Duke of Guise on January 7, 1558. The House of Tudor ended with the death of its last monarch, Elizabeth I of England, on March 24, 1603. Her heir was James VI of Scotland who ascended the throne of England as James I. The two British Kingdoms remained independent states under a personal union until 1707. In 1707, the Act of Union merged both Kingdoms and created the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801). Queen Anne was the last Queen of England, and the first monarch of the new kingdom. Both the English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain located in Westminster, London. At this point, England ceased to exist as a separate political entity and has since had no national government. Legally, however, the jurisdiction continued to operate as England and Wales (just as Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts) and this continued also after the Act of Union of 1800 which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Commonwealth and Protectorate

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland England was a monarchy for the entirety of its political existence since its creation about 927 up to the 1707 Act of Union, except for the eleven years of English Interregnum (1649 to 1660) that followed the English Civil War. The rule of executed King Charles I of England was replaced by that of a republic known as Commonwealth of England (1649–1653). The most prominent general of the republic, Oliver Cromwell, managed to extend its rule to Ireland and Scotland. The victorious general eventually turned against the republic, and established a new form of government known as The Protectorate, with himself as Lord Protector until his death on September 3, 1659. He was succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell. However, anarchy eventually developed, as Richard proved unable to maintain his rule. He resigned his title and retired into obscurity. The Commonwealth was re-established but proved unstable. The exiled claimant Charles II of England was recalled to the throne in 1660 in the English Restoration.

28 January

January 28 is the 28th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 337 days remaining (338 in leap years).

Events

- 1521 - Diet of Worms begins, lasting until May 25.
- 1547 - Edward VI becomes King, and the first Protestant ruler of England.
- 1573 - Articles of Warsaw Confederation are signed, sanctioning religious freedom in Poland
- 1788 - The first penal colony is founded at Botany Bay, Australia.
- 1820 - Russian expedition led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev approaches the Antarctic coast.
- 1846 - Battle of Aliwal, India won by British troops commanded by Sir Harry Smith.
- 1855 - The first locomotive runs from the Atlantic to the Pacific on the Panama Railway.
- 1871 - Franco-Prussian War: France surrenders, ending the war.
- 1878 - The Yale News becomes the first daily, college newspaper in the United States.
- 1887 - In a snowstorm at Fort Keogh, Montana, USA, the world's largest snowflakes are reported, being 15 inches (38cm) wide and 8 inches (20cm) thick.
- 1902 - The Carnegie Institution is founded in Washington, DC with a $10 million gift from Andrew Carnegie.
- 1909 - United States troops leave Cuba after being there since the Spanish-American War.
- 1915 - An act of the U.S. Congress creates the United States Coast Guard.
- 1916 - Louis D. Brandeis becomes the first Jew appointed to the United States Supreme Court.
- 1917 - United States ends search for Pancho Villa.
- 1918 - Finnish Civil War: Rebels seized control of the capital, Helsinki, and members of the Senate of Finland go underground.
- 1921 - A symbolic Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is installed beneath the Arc de Triomphe in Paris to honour the unknown dead of World War I.
- 1932 - World War II: Japan occupies Shanghai.
- 1935 - Iceland becomes the first country to legalize abortion.
- 1938 - The first ski tow in America begins operation in Vermont.
- 1938 - The World Land Speed Record on a public road is broken by driver Rudolf Caracciola in the Mercedes-Benz W195
- 1945 - World War II: Supplies begin to reach China over the newly reopened Burma Road.
- 1946 - Bluenose, Canada's greatest sailing ship, founders on a Haitian reef.
- 1958 - Charles Starkweather and Caril Ann Fugate begin their murder spree with the killings of her parents and infant sister.
- 1973 - Barnaby Jones premieres on CBS.
- 1982 - US Army general James L. Dozier is rescued by Italian anti-terrorism forces after 42 days of captivity under the Red Brigades.
- 1986 - Space Shuttle Challenger breaks apart 73 seconds after liftoff killing all seven astronauts onboard. Failure blamed on leaking Solid Rocket Booster.
- 1990 - Super Bowl XXIV: The San Francisco 49ers are crowned "Team of the 1980s" by defeating the Denver Broncos, 55-10.
- 1994 - The first trial of accused murderer Lyle Menendez ends in a mistrial. He and his brother Erik are later found guilty and sentenced to life in prison without parole.
- 1996 - Super Bowl XXX: The Dallas Cowboys win their fifth Super Bowl title by defeating the Pittsburgh Steelers, 27-17.
- 1997 - Arista Records founder Clive Davis receives a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
- 1998 - Ford Motor Company announces the buyout of Volvo for $6.45 billion.
- 1998 - Gunmen hold at least 400 children and teachers hostage for several hours at an elementary school in Manila, Philippines.
- 2001 - Super Bowl XXXV: The Baltimore Ravens defeat the New York Giants, 34-7.
- 2002 - An Ecuadoran airline Boeing 727-100 crashes in the Andes mountains in southern Colombia killing 92.
- 2004 - September Dossier: Lord Hutton publishes his report into the death of UN weapons inspector Dr. David Kelly.

Births

- 1457 - King Henry VII of England (d. 1509)
- 1540 - Ludolph van Ceulen, German mathematician (d. 1610)
- 1582 - John Barclay, Scottish writer (d. 1621)
- 1600 - Pope Clement IX (d. 1669)
- 1608 - Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, Italian physiologist and physicist (d. 1679)
- 1611 - Johannes Hevelius, Polish astronomer (d. 1687)
- 1622 - Adrien Auzout, French astronomer (d. 1691)
- 1701 - Charles Marie de La Condamine, French mathematician and geographer (d. 1774)
- 1706 - John Baskerville, English printer (d. 1775)
- 1712 - Tokugawa Ieshige, Japanese shogun (d. 1761)
- 1717 - Mustafa III, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1774)
- 1719 - Johann Elias Schlegel, German critic and poet (d. 1749)
- 1755 - Samuel Thomas von Sömmering, German physician (d. 1830)
- 1784 - George Hamilton Gordon Aberdeen, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1860)
- 1822 - Alexander Mackenzie, second Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1892)
- 1833 - Charles George 'Chinese' Gordon, British soldier and administrator (d. 1885)
- 1841 - Henry Morton Stanley, Welsh-born explorer and journalist (d. 1904)
- 1853 - José Martí, Cuban revolutionary (d. 1895)
- 1857 - William Seward Burroughs, American inventor (d. 1898)
- 1873 - Colette, French writer (d. 1954)
- 1874 - Vsevolod Meyerhold, Russian theatre director (d. 1940)
- 1879 - Francis Picabia, French-born painter and poet (d. 1953)
- 1880 - Herbert Strudwick, English cricketer (d. 1970)
- 1884 - Auguste Piccard, Swiss physicist (d. 1962)
- 1886 - Marthe Bibesco, Romanian writer (d. 1973)
- 1887 - Arthur Rubinstein, Polish pianist and conductor (d. 1982)
- 1890 - Robert Stroud, American convict, the Birdman of Alcatraz (d. 1963)
- 1892 - Ernst Lubitsch, German-born film director (d. 1947)
- 1897 - Valentin Kataev, Russian writer (d. 1986)
- 1910 - John Banner, Austrian actor (d. 1973)
- 1910 - Arnold Moss, American character actor (d. 1989)
- 1912 - Jackson Pollock, American painter (d. 1956)
- 1922 - Robert W. Holley, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1993)
- 1923 - Ivo Robić, Croatian singer (d. 2001)
- 1927 - Hiroshi Teshigahara, Japanese director (d. 2001)
- 1929 - Acker Bilk, English jazz clarinetist
- 1929 - Claes Oldenburg, Swedish-American artist
- 1933 - Susan Sontag, American writer and activist (d. 2004)
- 1935 - David Lodge, English author
- 1936 - Alan Alda, American actor, writer, and director
- 1936 - Ismail Kadare, Albanian writer
- 1941 - Joel Crothers, American actor (d. 1985)
- 1944 - John Tavener, English composer
- 1945 - Robert Wyatt, English musician
- 1948 - Mikhail Baryshnikov, Russian dancer
- 1948 - Charles Taylor, leader of Liberia
- 1950 - Barbi Benton, American actress
- 1951 - Leonid Kadeniuk, Ukrainian cosmonaut
- 1954 - Rick Warren. Pastor, Author of The Purpose Driven Life
- 1960 - Robert von Dassanowsky, American cultural historian, writer, and producer
- 1962 - Sam Phillips, American singer
- 1968 - Sarah McLachlan, Canadian singer and songwriter
- 1968 - DJ Muggs, American musician (Cypress Hill)
- 1968 - Rakim, American rapper
- 1969 - Kathryn Morris, American actress
- 1974 - Tony Delk, American basketball player
- 1976 - Mark Madsen, American basketball player
- 1976 - Jarrod Montague, American drummer (Taproot)
- 1977 - Daunte Culpepper, American football player
- 1977 - Joey Fatone, American singer (
- NSYNC)
- 1978 - Gianluigi Buffon, Italian footballer
- 1978 - Jamie Carragher, English footballer
- 1978 - Papa Bouba Diop, Senegalese footballer
- 1979 - Pixie, English model
- 1980 - Nick Carter, American singer (Backstreet Boys)
- 1981 - Rick Razzano, American football player
- 1981 - Elijah Wood, American actor

Deaths

- 814 - Charlemagne (b. 742)
- 1061 - Duke Spytihněv II of Bohemia (b. 1031)
- 1271 - Isabella of Aragon, queen of Philip III of France (b. 1247)
- 1443 - Robert le Maçon, Chancellor of France
- 1547 - King Henry VIII of England (b. 1491)
- 1596 - Sir Francis Drake, English explorer and soldier (b. ca. 1540)
- 1599 - Cristofano Malvezzi, Italian composer (b. 1547)
- 1613 - Thomas Bodley, English diplomat and library founder (b. 1545)
- 1621 - Pope Paul V (b. 1550)
- 1681 - Richard Allestree, English royalist churchman (b. 1619)
- 1672 - Pierre Séguier, Chancellor of France (b. 1588)
- 1687 - Johannes Hevelius, Polish astronomer (b. 1611)
- 1697 - John Fenwick, English conspirator
- 1725 (O.S.) - Tsar Peter I of Russia, (b. 1672)
- 1754 - Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian historian and writer (b. 1684)
- 1903 - Augusta Holmès, French composer (b. 1847)
- 1912 - Gustave de Molinari, Belgian economist (b. 1819)
- 1935 - Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov, Russian composer (b. 1859)
- 1939 - William Butler Yeats, Irish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1865)
- 1949 - Jean-Pierre Wimille, French race car driver (b. 1908)
- 1953 - James Scullin, ninth Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1876)
- 1960 - Zora Neale Hurston, American author (b. 1891)
- 1965 - Tich Freeman, English cricketer (b. 1888)
- 1965 - Maxime Weygand, French soldier (b. 1867)
- 1971 - Donald Winnicott, British psychoanalyst (b. 1896)
- 1973 - John Banner, Austrian actor (b. 1910)
- 1977 - Freddie Prinze, American actor (b. 1954)
- 1983 - Frank Forde, fifteenth Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1890)
- 1986 - Crew of Space Shuttle Challenger:
- Greg Jarvis (b. 1944)
- Christa McAuliffe (b. 1948)
- Ronald McNair (b. 1950)
- Ellison Onizuka (b. 1946)
- Judith Resnik (b. 1949)
- Francis R. Scobee (b. 1939)
- Michael J. Smith (b. 1945)
- 1988 - Klaus Fuchs, German physicist (b. 1911)
- 1991 - Red Grange, American football player (b. 1903)
- 1994 - Hal Smith, American actor (b. 1916)
- 1996 - Joseph Brodsky, Russian-born poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1940)
- 1996 - Jerry Siegel, American cartoonist (b. 1914)
- 1999 - Torgny T:son Segerstedt, Swedish sociologist and philosopher (b. 1908)
- 2001 - Curt Blefary, baseball player (b. 1943)
- 2002 - Astrid Lindgren, Swedish author (b. 1907)
- 2004 - Lloyd M. Bucher, US Navy officer (b. 1927)
- 2004 - Don Cholito, Puerto Rican radio host (b. 1923)
- 2004 - Elroy Hirsch, American football player (b. 1923)
- 2005 - Jim Capaldi, English singer and songwriter (b. 1944)
- 2005 - Karen Lancaume, French actress (suicide) (b. 1973)

Holidays and observances

- Catholicism - Feast day of St. Thomas Aquinas

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/28 BBC: On This Day] ---- January 27 - January 29 - December 28 - February 28 — listing of all days ko:1월 28일 ms:28 Januari ja:1月28日 simple:January 28 th:28 มกราคม

1547

Events

- January 16 - Grand Duke Ivan IV of Muscovy becomes the first Tsar of Russia.
- January 28 - Edward VI succeeds his father Henry VIII as King of England.
- February 20 - Edward VI of England is crowned at Westminster Abbey
- March 31 - Henry II succeeds his father Francis I as King of France
- April 24 - Battle of Mühlberg - Emperor Charles V defeats the forces of the Schmalkaldic League under the Elector John Frederick of Saxony.
- September 10 - Battle of Pinkie. An English army under the Duke of Somerset, Protector of England, defeats a Scottish army under James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, the Regent. The English seize Edinburgh.
- First printed book in the Lithuanian language. Author - Martynas Mazvydas.
- Increased immigration of Huguenots to Kent, especially Canterbury
- Chambre Ardente established in Paris

Births

- February 24 - Don John of Austria, military leader (died 1578)
- March 1 - Rudolph Goclenius, German philosopher (died 1628)
- June 28 - Cristofano Malvezzi, Italian organist and composer (died 1599)
- September 14 - Johan van Oldenbarnevelt, Dutch statesman (died 1619)
- September 22 - Philipp Nikodemus Frischlin, German philologist and poet (died 1590)
- September 29 - Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish writer (died 1616)
- October 18 - Justus Lipsius, Flemish humanist (died 1606)
- November 12 - Claude of Valois, daughter of King Henry II of France (died 1575)
- December 5 - Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (d. 1625)
- Matteo Perez d' Aleccio, Italian painter (died 1616)
- Mateo Alemán, Spanish novelist and man of letters (died 1609)
- Peter Bales, English calligraphist (died 1610)
- Marc Antonio Ingegneri, Italian composer (died 1592)
- Oichi, Japanese noblewoman
- Krzysztof Mikolaj Piorun Radziwill, Polish nobleman (died 1603)
- Richard Stanyhurst, English translator of Virgil (died 1618)
- Nicolaus Taurellus, German philosopher and theologian (died 1606)
- Roemer Visscher, Dutch writer (died 1620)
- Stanislaw Zolkiewski, Polish nobleman (died 1620) See also :Category: 1547 births.

Deaths

- January 13 - Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English poet (born 1517)
- January 16 - Johannes Schöner, German astronomer and cartographer (b. 1477)
- January 18 - Pietro Bembo, Italian cardinal and scholar (born 1470)
- January 28 - King Henry VIII of England (born 1491)
- June 21 - Sebastiano del Piombo, Italian painter (b. 1485)
- July 31 - King Francis I of France (born 1494)
- December 2 - Hernán Cortés, Spanish conquistador (born 1485)
- Jörg Breu the Younger, German painter (born 1510)
- Saint Cajetan, born in Vicenza (born 1480)
- Vittoria Colonna, marchioness of Pescara (born 1490)
- Edward Hall, English chronicler and lawyer (born 1498)
- Meera, Rajput princess
- Daniel, Metropolitan of Moscow
- Konrad Peutinger, German humanist and antiquarian (born 1465) See also :Category: 1547 deaths. Category:1547 ko:1547년

Protestantism

Protestantism is a movement within Christianity, representing a split from within the Roman Catholic Church during the mid-to-late Renaissance in Europe —a period known as the Protestant Reformation. Commonly considered one of the three major branches of Christianity (along with Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy), the term "Protestant" represents a diverse range of theological and social perspectives, churches and related organizations.

Definition and origins

Originally, "protestant" meant "to be a witness for something" rather than "to be against something", as the current popular interpretation of the word seems to imply. The prefix "pro" means "for" in Latin. The Latin adjective "protestans" refers to "a person who gives public testimony for something or who proves or demonstrates something." The term Protestant originally applied to the group of princes and imperial cities who "protested" the decision by the 1529 Diet of Speyer to reverse course, and enforce the 1521 Edict of Worms. The 1521 edict forbade Lutheran teachings within the Holy Roman Empire. The 1526 session of the Diet had agreed to toleration of Lutheran teachings (on the basis of Cuius regio, eius religio) until a General Council could be held to settle the question, but by 1529, the Catholic forces felt they had gathered enough power to end the toleration without waiting for a Council. In a broader sense of the word, Protestant began to be used as the collective name for a sudden movement of separation from the Roman Catholic Church, the beginning of which is ordinarily connected with the public disputes raised by Martin Luther. Later, John Calvin, French theologian among the Swiss; Zwinglian, and Reformed churches figured prominently in a movement that embraced a wider, more international diversity of churches. A third major branch of the Reformation, which encountered conflict with the Catholics, as well as with the Lutherans and the Reformed, is sometimes called the Radical Reformation. Some Western, non-Catholic, groups are labeled as Protestant (such as the Religious Society of Friends, for example), even if the sect acknowledges no historical connection to Luther, Calvin or the Roman Catholic Church. In German-speaking and Scandinavian lands, the word "Protestant" still refers to Lutheran churches in contrast to Reformed churches, while the common designation for all churches originating from the Reformation is "Evangelical". As an intellectual movement, Protestantism grew out of the Renaissance and universities, attracting some learned intellectuals, as well as politicians, professionals, and skilled tradesmen and artisans. The new technology of the printing press allowed Protestant ideas to spread rapidly, as well as aiding in the dissemination of translations of the Bible in native tongues. Nascent Protestant social ideals of liberty of conscience, and individual freedom, were formed through continuous confrontation with the authority of the Bishop of Rome, and the hierarchy of the Catholic priesthood. The Protestant movement away from the constraints of tradition, toward greater emphasis on individual conscience, anticipated later developments of democratization, and the so-called "Enlightenment" of later centuries.

Basic theological tenets of the Reformation

During the Reformation, several Latin slogans emerged, illustrating the Reformers' concern that the authorities of the Church had distorted the message of justification before God, and salvation in Jesus Christ. The Reformers believed it was necessary to return to the simplicity of the Gospel in terms of the issues designated by these slogans. A protestant is a member or adherent of any denomination of the Western Christian church that rejects papal authority and some fundamental Roman Catholic doctrines, and believes in justification by faith.

The Solas

There were five Solas, four discussed here. The fifth,