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Evening Star

Evening Star

Evening Star may be:
- The planet Venus
- BR 92220 Evening Star, a BR standard class 9F locomotive and the last steam locomotive to be built by British Railways.
- Evening Star (newspaper)
- Evening Star (pub) in Brighton that has won many awards.
- A song by the heavy metal band Judas Priest found on the Hell Bent for Leather album, realised in 1978.
- A metal band from Costa Rica.
- Evening Star, an album by Robert Fripp and Brian Eno.
- The Movie, The sequel to Terms of Endearment.

Venus (Planet)

Venus, the second planet from the Sun, is named after the Roman goddess Venus. A terrestrial planet, it is sometimes called Earth's "sister planet", as the two are very similar in size and bulk composition. Although all planets' orbits are elliptical, Venus's orbit is the closest to circular, with an eccentricity of less than 1%. As Venus is closer to the Sun than the Earth, it always appears in roughly the same direction from Earth as the Sun (the greatest elongation is 47.8°), so on Earth it can usually only be seen a few hours before sunrise or a few hours after sunset. However, when at its brightest, Venus may be seen during the daytime, making it one of only two heavenly bodies that can be seen both day and night (the other being the Moon). It is sometimes referred to as the "Morning Star" or the "Evening Star", and when it is visible in dark skies it is by far the brightest star-like object in the sky. The cycle between one maximum elongation and the next lasts 584 days. After these 584 days Venus is visible in a position 72 degrees away from the previous one. Since 5
- 584 = 2920, which is equivalent to 8
- 365 Venus returns to the same point in the sky every 8 years (minus two leap days). This was known as the Sothis cycle in ancient Egypt, and was familiar to the Maya as well. Another association is with the Moon, because 2920 days equal almost exactly 99 lunations (29.5
- 99 = 2920.5). Venus has a very slow retrograde rotation, meaning that, unlike with most planets, the direction of rotation (around its axis) is the opposite of its orbital rotation (around the Sun). The very slow rotation means that the distinction between the Sidereal day (rotation relative to the stars) and the Solar day (relative to the Sun) is very significant. Solar day The pentagram has long been associated with the planet Venus and the worship of the goddess Venus, or her equivalent. It is most likely to have originated from the observations of prehistoric astronomers. When viewed from Earth, the successive conjunctions of Venus plot the points of a pentagram around the Sun every eight years, returning to its starting point after a forty year cycle. Venus was known to ancient Babylonians around 1600 BC, and to the Mayan civilization (the Mayans developed a religious calendar based on Venus's motion) and must have been known long before in prehistoric times, given that it is the third brightest object in the sky after the Sun and Moon. The Maasai people in Africa named the planet Kileken, and have a myth about it called "The Orphan Boy." The Morning Star was called the Bearer of Light ("phōsphoros" or "eōsphoros" in Greek and "Lucifer" in Latin, a term later used of the fallen angel cast out of heaven, see Isaiah 14:12). To the Jews it was known as Noga ("shining") and it was used in rabbinic literature as a symbol of beauty and purity Isaiah Its symbol is the sign also used in biology for the female sex, a stylized representation of the goddess Venus's hand mirror: a circle with a small cross underneath (Unicode: ♀). The Venus symbol also represents femininity, and in ancient alchemy stood for copper. Alchemists constructed the symbol from a circle (representing spirit) above a cross (representing matter). The association with sex and femininity is supposed to relate to the period of 266 days between the conjunction and maximum elongation of Venus, which corresponds more or less to the length of human pregnancy. The adjective Venusian is commonly used for Venus, but it is etymologically incorrect. The true adjective coming from Latin, Venereal, is avoided because of its modern association with sexually transmitted diseases. Some astronomers use Cytherean, which comes from Cythera. Other less common adjectives include Venerean, Venerian, and Veneran. The Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet as the metal star, 金星, based on the Five Elements.

Physical characteristics

Atmosphere

Venus has an atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon dioxide and a small amount of nitrogen, with a pressure at the surface about 90 times that of Earth (a pressure equivalent to a depth of 1 kilometer under Earth's oceans); its atmosphere is also roughly 90 times more massive than ours. This enormously CO₂-rich atmosphere results in a strong greenhouse effect that raises the surface temperature more than 400 °C (750 °F) above what it would be otherwise, causing temperatures at the surface to reach extremes as great as 500 °C (930 °F) in low elevation regions near the planet's equator. This makes Venus's surface hotter than Mercury's, even though Venus is nearly twice as distant from the Sun and only receives 25% of the solar irradiance (2613.9 W/m² in the upper atmosphere, and just 1071.1 W/m² at the surface). Owing to the thermal inertia and convection of its dense atmosphere, the temperature does not vary significantly between the night and day sides of Venus despite its extremely slow rotation of less than one rotation per Venusian year, meaning that, at the equator, Venus' surface rotates at a mere 6.5 km/h (4 mph). Upper atmosphere winds circling the planet approximately every 4 days help distribute the heat to other areas on the surface. The solar irradiance is so much lower at the surface of Venus because the planet's thick cloud cover reflects the majority of the sunlight back into space. This prevents most of the sunlight from ever heating the surface. Venus's bolometric albedo is approximately 60%, and its visual light albedo is even greater. Thus, despite being closer to the Sun than Earth, the surface of Venus is not as well heated and even less well lit by the Sun. In the absence of any greenhouse effect, the temperature at the surface of Venus would be quite similar to Earth. A common conceptual misunderstanding regarding Venus is the mistaken belief that its thick cloud cover traps heat, as the opposite is actually true. The cloud cover keeps the planet much cooler than it would be otherwise. The immense quantity of CO₂ in the atmosphere is what traps the heat by the greenhouse mechanism. There are strong 300 km/h (200 mph) winds at the cloud tops, but winds at the surface are very slow, no more than a few miles per hour. However, owing to the high density of the atmosphere at Venus's surface, even such slow winds exert a significant amount of force against obstructions. The clouds are mainly composed of sulfur dioxide and sulfuric acid droplets and cover the planet completely, obscuring any surface details from the human eye. The temperature at the tops of these clouds is approximately −45 °C (−50 °F). The mean surface temperature of Venus, as given by NASA, is 464 °C (864 °F). The minimal value of the temperature, listed in the table, refers to cloud tops —the surface temperature is never below 400 °C (750 °F). (This makes the surface temperature hot enough to melt lead.) The atmosphere also contains hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and carbonyl sulfide (SCO). Hydrogen sulfide reacts with sulfur dioxide, which implies that some process must be creating these components. It is unclear how the carbonyl sulfide could be formed--it is often a sign of biological activity. Some have suggested that microbes exist in the clouds (which also contain droplets of water), and produce these components from water, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide. [http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17523621.800.html New Scientist, Sept. 28, 2002, p. 16]

Surface features

sulfur dioxide Venus has slow retrograde rotation, meaning it rotates from east to west, instead of west to east as most of the other major planets do. (Pluto and Uranus also have retrograde rotation, though Uranus's axis, tilted at 97.86 degrees, almost lies in its orbital plane.) It is not known why Venus is different in this manner, although it may be the result of a collision with a very large asteroid at some time in the distant past. If the Sun could be seen from Venus' surface, it would appear to rise and set in a 116.75 day cycle (Venus' synodic rotation period), and a Venusian year would thus last 1.92 Venusian "days". In addition to this unusual retrograde rotation, the periods of Venus' rotation and of its orbit are synchronized in such a way that it always presents the same face toward Earth when the two planets are at their closest approach (5.001 Venusian days between each inferior conjunction). This may simply be a coincidence, but there is some speculation that this may be the result of tidal locking, with tidal forces affecting Venus' rotation whenever the planets get close enough together —although the tides raised by Earth on Venus are vanishingly small. Venus has two major continent-like highlands on its surface, rising over vast plains. The northern highland is named Ishtar Terra and has Venus's highest mountains, named the Maxwell Montes (roughly 2 km taller than Mount Everest) after James Clerk Maxwell, which surround the plateau Lakshmi Planum. Ishtar Terra is about the size of Australia. In the southern hemisphere is the larger Aphrodite Terra, about the size of South America. Between these highlands are a number of broad depressions, including Atalanta Planitia, Guinevere Planitia, and Lavinia Planitia. With only the exception of Maxwell Montes, all surface features on Venus are named after real or mythological females. Venus' thick atmosphere causes meteors to decelerate as they fall toward the surface, and even large meteors will strike the surface at too low a speed to form an impact crater if they have less than a certain threshold kinetic energy. Because of this, no impact crater smaller than about 3 km (2 mi) in diameter can form. Nearly 90% of Venus's surface appears to consist of recently (in the geological sense) solidified basaltic lava, with very few meteorite craters. The oldest features present on Venus seem to be only around 800 million years old, with most of the terrain being considerably younger (though still not less than several hundred million years for the most part). This suggests that Venus underwent a major resurfacing event in the not too distant geological past. The interior of Venus is probably similar to that of Earth: an iron core about 3000 km in radius, with a molten rocky mantle making up the majority of the planet. Recent results from the Magellan gravity data indicate that Venus's crust is stronger and thicker than had previously been assumed. It is theorized that Venus does not have mobile plate tectonics as Earth does, but instead undergoes massive volcanic upwellings at regular intervals that inundate its surface with fresh lava. Other recent findings suggest that Venus is still volcanically active in isolated geological hotspots. Venus's intrinsic magnetic field has been found very weak compared to other planets in the solar system. This may be due to its slow rotation being insufficient to drive an internal dynamo of liquid iron. As a result, solar wind strikes Venus's upper atmosphere without mediation. It is thought that Venus originally had as much water as Earth, but that under the Sun's assault water vapor in the upper atmosphere was split into hydrogen and oxygen, with the hydrogen escaping into space owing to its low molecular mass; the ratio of hydrogen to deuterium (a heavier isotope of hydrogen which doesn't escape as quickly) in Venus's atmosphere seems to support this theory. Molecular oxygen is thought to have combined with atoms in the crust (large amounts of oxygen, however, remain in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide). Because of their dryness, Venus's rocks are much harder than Earth's, which leads to steeper mountains, cliffs and other features.

Venus' moon

Venus was once thought to possess a moon, named Neith after the chief goddess of Sais, Egypt (whose veil no mortal raised), first observed by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1672. German astronomers called the moon Kleinchen (literally "tiny"), and sporadic sightings by astronomers continued until 1892. These sightings have since been discredited, and are thought to have been either spurious internal reflections, mostly faint stars that happened to be in the right place at the right time, or maybe even asteroids passing by the planet. Venus is now known to be moonless.

Observations and explorations of Venus

Venus has been observed several times within the past 4000 years by a number of people, including the Greeks.

Appearance

Cultural references

:See also Venus in fiction Until it was penetrated by probes, Venus's opaque cloud layer gave science fiction writers free rein in imagining the planet's surface, and they frequently imagined it to be Earthlike. There are some religious sects who believe that Hell may be located on Venus. Its extremely high surface temperature and impenetrable cloud cover cause people to believe that the fires of Hell burn on the surface, obscured from our earthly view. Conversely, other sects consider Venus to be some form of paradise or an advanced secret base for angels/aliens to operate from.
- In Olaf Stapledon's epic Last and First Men (1930), Venus is an oceanic idyll where humans evolve the power of flight.
- In the mythology of Middle-earth (1937), by J. R. R. Tolkien, Venus is the Star of Eärendil. The star was created when Eärendil the Mariner was set in the sky on his ship, with a Silmaril bound to his brow. In fact, Tolkien chose the name directly from the ancient Old English word for the planet Venus.
- In H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos (1928–), there are mentions of the 'Lords of Venus', and conflicting indications that the Serpent People originated there.
- Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote a series of five books on Venus, featuring hero Carson Napier, who discovers that Venus (or Amtor, as it is known by the Venusians) is a world of sky-high trees, warring kingdoms and princesses in need of rescue. [http://www.tarzan.com/worlds/amtor.html]
- The H. P. Lovecraft and Kenneth Sterling short story 'In the Walls of Eryx' (1939), takes place on Venus, but is not considered part of the Cthulhu Mythos.
- The second book of the Space Trilogy (1938–1945) by C.S. Lewis, Perelandra 1943) takes place on Venus (called by the natives Perelandra), the site of a second garden of Eden.
- In the military science fiction classic Clash by Night (1943) by Henry Kuttner (writing as Lawrence O'Donnell) and C. L. Moore, underwater city-states hire mercenary companies and their battleships to fight their wars on the surface.
- Venus was the home planet of the Mekon, arch-enemy of the 1950s comic book hero Dan Dare.
- Many science-fiction movies and serials of the '50s and '60s, such as Abbott and Costello Go to Mars and Space Patrol, have used Venus' namesake goddess and her domain to contrive planetary populations of nubile women welcoming (or attacking) all-male astronaut crews.
- In the Noon Universe created by the Soviet science fiction writers Boris and Arkady Strugatsky, Venus is depicted as a extremely harsh planet covered by strange flora and fauna but also very rich in minerals and heavy metals. The novel The Land of Crimson Clouds (Strana Bagrovykh Tuch in the original) describes the first successful manned mission to Venus, although a full-scaled colonization of the planet was not initiated until much later (in 2119; see Noon: 22nd Century).
- Venus is the location of several Starfleet Academy training facilities and terraforming stations in the fictional Star Trek universe (1966–).
- In Jacqueline Susann's Yargo (1979), Venus is inhabited by bees that are as big as horses.
- Venus is briefly mentioned in Arthur C. Clarke's 3001: The Final Odyssey (1997).
- A presumably terraformed Venus was the setting of one episode of the anime Cowboy Bebop (1998). In the show, Venus was revealed to be an arid but habitable world. Much of the population lived in floating cities in the sky. In the cartoon Exosquad, terraformed Venus was portrayed as one of the three habitable planets in the solar system (the others being Earth and Mars).
- In the Japanese anime series, Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon (1992), Sailor Venus is a soldier representing the planet of the same name. In mythology, Venus is the Roman goddess of love (Aphrodite in Greek), therefore, Sailor Venus's attacks and weapons (e.g. Venus Love Me Chain and Venus Love and Beauty Shock) represent the idea of love and femininity. Her image colours are gold and orange--similar to the colour of the planet. Also, on her forehead is the planet's symbol.
- A more scientifically accurate depiction of the planet is offered in Ben Bova's novel Venus (2000, ISBN 031287216X)-

References

- Arnett, Bill (2005). [http://www.nineplanets.org/venus.html Venus]. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
- European Space Agency (2005). [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Venus_Express/ Venus Express overview]. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
- Grayzeck, Ed (2004). [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/venusfact.html Venus Fact Sheet]. NASA. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
- Grieger, Bjoern (2004). [http://www.space-vision.biz/product.venuslandscape.de.html Picture “Real Venus”]. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
- The Maya Astronomy Page (2002). [http://www.michielb.nl/maya/venus.html Venus]. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
- Mitchell, Don P. (2004). [http://www.mentallandscape.com/V_Venus.htm The Soviet Exploration of Venus]. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
- Rosenthal, David. (2003). [http://www.ridgecrest.ca.us/~n6tst/maya/newpage.html THE SOUTHERNMOST RISE OF VENUS AT UXMAL, 1997]. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
- Vienna University of Technology (2004). [http://www.vias.org/spacetrip/venus_dimensionalviews.html Venus Three-Dimensional Views]. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
- [http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1996JBAA..106...16M]
- [http://www.ibiblio.org//e-notes/VRML/Globe/Globe.htm 3D VRML Venus globe]
- [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/venusfact.html Venus Fact Sheet]

Pentagram

- http://www.mikecrowson.co.uk/pentagram.html
- http://www.symbols.com/encyclopedia/29/2914.html
- http://www.hyperflight.com/venus-five-pointed-star.htm
- [http://www.run4space.com/viewforum.php?f=8 Venus Forum]
- ko:금성 ms:Zuhrah ja:金星 simple:Venus (planet) th:ดาวศุกร์

BR standard class 9F

.]] The British Railways Standard Class 9F 2-10-0 is a class of steam locomotives, and the last steam locomotive design built by British Railways. 251 locomotives were built, numbered 92000-92250. Many lasted only a few years in service before withdrawal as steam traction was ended on the mainline in Britain.

Background

On nationalisation in 1948, British Railways had a number of heavy freight locmotives that had been built to aid the war effort. It had 666 LMS 8F class 2-8-0, numerous WD Austerity 2-8-0s and WD Austerity 2-10-0s. New heavy freight locomotives were thus not a priority. The original proposal was for a boiler from the Standard Class 7 Britannia 4-6-2 to be combined with a 2-8-2 wheel arrangement. However it is thought that R.A. Riddles preferred the 2-10-0 arrangement, as used on his Austerity 2-10-0s. The firebox had to be slightly reduced in size from the Britannias as a result. The 4' 8½" driving wheels lacked flanges on the centre axle and had reduced ones on the second and fourth. The 9F turned out to be the best of the standard designs and surprisingly was also good at running on passenger trains.

Evening Star

In 1960, 92220 Evening Star became the last steam locomotive to be built by British Railways. To mark this, she alone amongst her class was given green passenger livery and named.

Preservation

92220 Evening Star 92220 Evening Star Nine 9Fs have survived, these being 92134, 92203, 92207, 92212, 92214, 92219 and 92220 Evening Star.
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92134&NA=&CL=9F&CO=BR&BL=&WN=&LO= 92134]
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92203&NA=&CL=9F&CO=BR&BL=&WN=&LO= 92203]
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92207&NA=&CL=9F&CO=BR&BL=&WN=&LO= 92207]
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92212&NA=&CL=9F&CO=BR&BL=&WN=&LO= 92212]
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92214&NA=&CL=9F&CO=BR&BL=&WN=&LO= 92214]
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92219&NA=&CL=9F&CO=BR&BL=&WN=&LO= 92219]
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92220&NA=Evening+Star&CL=9F&CO=ANY&BL=&WN=&LO= 92220]
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92240&NA=&CL=9F&CO=BR&BL=&WN=&LO= 92240]
- [http://ukhrail.uel.ac.uk/cgi-bin/rlylocos?NO=92245&NA=&CL=9F&CO=BR&BL=&WN=&LO= 92245]

In fiction

An example of this type of locomotive can be seen on the Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends TV Series. The character's name is Murdoch the Heavy Goods Engine, who, despite his size and strength, enjoys peace and quiet.

External links

- [http://www.railuk.co.uk/steam/getsteamclass.php?item=BR9F Railuk database] 9F Category:2-10-0 locomotives

Steam locomotive

A locomotive (from lat. locus motivus) is a railway vehicle that provides the motive power for a train, and has no payload capacity of its own; its sole purpose is to move the train along the tracks. In contrast, many trains feature self-propelled payload-carrying vehicles; these are not normally considered locomotives, and may be referred to as multiple units or railcars; the use of these self-propelled vehicles is increasingly common for passenger trains, but very rare for freight (see however CargoSprinter). Vehicles which provide the motive power to haul an unpowered train, but are not generally considered locomotives because they have payload space or are rarely detached from their trains, are known as power cars. Traditionally, locomotives haul (pull) their trains. Increasingly common these days in local passenger service is push-pull operation, where a locomotive pulls the train in one direction and pushes it in the other, and is therefore optionally controlled from a control cab at the opposite end of the train. This is especially true of "High Speed Rail lines", such as the Japan’s Shinkansen and France’s TGV trains. TGV Grange class steam locomotive, at Bristol Temple Meads station, Bristol, England]]

Origins

The first successful locomotives were built by Cornish inventor Richard Trevithick. In 1804 his unnamed locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks, near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales. Although the locomotive hauled a train of 10 tons of iron and 70 passengers in five wagons over nine miles it was too heavy for the cast iron rails used at the time. The locomotive only ran three journeys before it was abandoned. In 1813, George Stephenson persuaded the manager of the Killingworth colliery where he worked to allow him to build a steam-powered machine. He built the Blucher, the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive. The flanges enabled the trains to run on top of the rails instead of in sunken tracks. This greatly simplified construction of switches (called "points" in UK) and rails, and opened the way to the modern railroad.

Benefits of locomotives

switches There are many reasons why the motive power for trains has been traditionally isolated in a locomotive, rather than in self-propelled vehicles. These include:
- Ease of maintenance - it is easier to maintain one locomotive than many self-propelled cars.
- Safety - it is often safer to locate the train's power systems away from passengers. This was particularly the case for steam locomotives, but still has some relevance for other power sources.
- Easy replacement of motive power - should the locomotive break down, it is easy to replace it with a new one. Failure of the motive power unit does not require taking the whole train out of service.
- Efficiency - idle trains do not waste expensive motive power resources. Separate locomotives mean that the costly motive power assets can be moved around as needed.
- Flexibility - large locomotives can be substituted for small locomotives where the gradients of the route become steeper and more power is needed.
- Obsolescence cycles - separating the motive power from the payload-hauling cars means that either can be replaced without affecting the other. At some times, locomotives have become obsolete when their cars are not, or vice versa.

Classification by motive power

Locomotives may generate mechanical work from fuel, or they may take power from an outside source. It is common to classify locomotives by their means of providing motive work - the common ones include:

Steam

power power The first railway locomotives (19th century) were powered by steam, first by burning wood, later coke and coal or petroleum. Because of the steam engine, some people took to calling the steam locomotives themselves "steam engines". The steam locomotive remained by far the most common type of locomotive until after World War II. The age of steam correlates highly to the coal era. The first steam locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick, and first ran on 21 February 1804, although it took some years before steam locomotive design became efficient and economically practical. Fairy Queen, built in 1855; plying between New Delhi and Alwar in India, is the longest-running steam locomotive in regular service in the world, but John Bull, built in 1831, is currently the oldest operable steam locomotive. John Bull is preserved in mostly static display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. The all-time speed record for steam trains is held by an LNER Class A4 4-6-2 Pacific locomotive of the LNER in the United Kingdom, number 4468 Mallard, which pulling six carriages (plus a dynamometer car) reached 126 mph (203 km/h) on a slight downhill gradient down Stoke Bank on 3 July 1938. Aerodynamic passenger locomotives from other countries such as Germany and the United States attained speeds very close to this, and this is generally believed to be close to the practicable upper limit for the direct-coupled steam locomotive. Before the middle of the 20th century, electric and diesel-electric locomotives began replacing steam locomotives. Steam locomotives are less efficient than their more modern diesel and electric counterparts and require much greater manpower to operate and service. British Rail figures showed the cost of crewing and fuelling a steam locomotive was some two and a half times that of diesel power, and the daily mileage achievable was far lower. As labour costs rose, particularly after the second world war, non-steam technologies became much more cost-efficient. By the end of the 1960s-1970s, most western countries had completely replaced steam locomotives in commercial service. Freight locomotives generally were replaced later. Other designs, such as locomotives powered by gas turbines, have been experimented with, but have seen little use. By the end of the 20th century, almost the only steam power still in regular use in North America and Western European countries was on heritage railways specifically aimed at tourists and/or railroad enthusiasts, known as railfans or train spotters, although some narrow gauge lines in Germany which form part of the public transport system, running to all-year-round timetables retain steam for all or part of their motive power. Steam locomotives remained in commercial use in parts of Mexico into the late 1970s. Steam locomotives are in regular use in China, where coal is a much more abundant resource than petroleum for diesel fuel. India has switched in the 1990's from steam-powered trains to electric- and diesel-powered trains. In some mountainous and high altitude rail lines, steam engines remain in use because they are less affected by reduced air pressure than diesel engines. petroleum 73096, a 4-6-0 steam loco, at Virginia Water station, April 2004.]]

External links

- [http://www.steamlocomotive.com/ Database of surviving steam locomotives in North America]
- [http://steamrailroading.com/ Information on North American steam railroads in operation]

Diesel-mechanical

Diesel locomotives vary in the form of transmission used to convey the power from a diesel engine (or engines) to the wheels. The simplest form of transmission is by means of a gearbox, in the same way as on road vehicles. Diesel trains or locomotives that use this are called diesel-mechanical and began to appear (although limited in power) even before the first world war which saw a number of simplex diesel systems built for the war, a small number of which survive and are still operational today. It has, however, been found impractical to build a gearbox which can cope with a power output of more than 400 horsepower (300 kW) without breaking, despite a number of attempts to do so. Therefore this type of transmission is only suitable for low-powered shunting locomotives, or lightweight multiple units or railcars. For more powerful locomotives, other types of transmission have to be used.

Diesel-electric

railcar refueling at Dunsmuir, California]] The most common form of transmission is electric; a locomotive using electric transmission is known as a diesel-electric locomotive. With this system, the diesel engine drives a generator or alternator; the electrical power produced then drives the wheels using electric motors. In effect, such a locomotive is an electric locomotive which carries its own generating station along with it. Early diesel-electrics were switching engines used to move rail cars around in rail yards. The first went into service in 1918 with the Jay Street Connecting Railroad. Sixteen years later, the technology began to be applied to regular mainline service as streamlined passenger trains went into operation. Actually, a petroleum distillate-electric system powered the first such train, but diesel-electric systems soon proved to be more cost-effective because of higher efficiency and lower maintenance costs. The fuel for one early high-speed run from Chicago, Illinois to Denver, Colorado only cost US$14.64 (in 1934 dollars). In the 1970s, British Rail in the United Kingdom developed a high-speed diesel-electric train called the High Speed Train or HST. This train consists of two Class 43 locomotives (also known as power cars), one at each end, and a number of "Mark 3" carriages (usually 8). A complete HST set was originally designated as a Class 253 or 254 diesel multiple unit (DMU), but due to the frequent exchanges between sets the power cars were reclassified as locomotives and given class number 43. The unpowered carriages were simultaneously reclassified as individual coaches - the number of a DMU set should identify all its associated carriages as well. The prototype HST (designated Class 252) holds the world speed record for diesel traction, having reached a speed of 143 mph, although the operating speed of the production HST in service is 125 mph (200 km/h), hence the name "Inter-City 125". A variant of the Intercity 125, the XPT, is in service on New South Wales railways in Australia, but with a lower top speed and different carriages.

Diesel-hydraulic

Alternatively, diesel-hydraulic locomotives use hydraulic transmission to convey the power from the diesel engine to the wheels. On this type of locomotive, the power is transmitted to the wheels by means of a device called a torque converter. A torque converter consists of three main parts, two of which rotate, and one which is fixed. All three main parts are sealed in a housing filled with oil. The inner rotating part of a torque converter is called a centrifugal pump (or impeller), the outer part is called a turbine wheel (or driven wheel), and between them is a fixed guide wheel. All of these parts have specially shaped blades to control the flow of oil. The centrifugal pump is connected directly to the diesel engine, and the turbine wheel is connected to an axle, which drives the wheels. As the diesel engine rotates the centrifugal pump, oil is forced outwards at high pressure. The oil is forced through the blades of the fixed guide wheel and then through the blades of the turbine wheel, which causes it to rotate and thus turn the axle and the wheels. The oil is then pumped around the circuit again and again. The disposition of the guide vanes allows the torque converter to act as a "gearbox" with continuously variable ratio. If the output shaft is loaded so as to reduce its rotational speed, the torque applied to the shaft increases, so the power transmitted by the torque converter remains more or less constant. However, the range of variability is not sufficient to match engine speed to load speed over the entire speed range of a locomotive, so some additional method is required to give sufficient range. One method is to follow the torque converter with a mechanical gearbox which switches ratios automatically, similar to an automatic transmission on a car. Another method is to provide several torque converters each with a range of variability covering part of the total required; all the torque converters are mechanically connected all the time, and the appropriate one for the speed range required is selected by filling it with oil and draining the others. The filling and draining is carried out with the transmission under load, and results in very smooth range changes with no break in the transmitted power. Diesel-hydraulic multiple units, a less arduous duty, often use a simplification of this system, with a torque converter for the lower speed ranges and a fluid coupling for the high speed range. A fluid coupling is similar to a torque converter but the ratio of input to output speed is fixed; loading the output shaft results not in torque multiplication and constant power throughput but in reduction of the input speed with consequent lower power throughput. (In car terms, the fluid coupling provides top gear and the torque converter provides all the lower gears.) The result is that the power available at the rail is reduced when operating in the lower speed part of the fluid coupling range, but the less arduous duty of a passenger multiple unit compared to a locomotive makes this an acceptable tradeoff for reduced mechanical complexity. Diesel-hydraulic locomotives are slightly more efficient than diesel-electrics, but were found in many countries to be mechanically more complicated and more likely to break down. In Germany, however, diesel-hydraulic systems achieved extremely high reliability in operation. Persistent argument continues over the relative reliability of hydraulic engines, with continuing questions over whether data was manipulated politically to favour local suppliers over German ones. In the US and Canada, they are now greatly outnumbered by diesel-electric locomotives, while they remain dominant in some European countries. The most famous diesel-hydraulic locomotive is the German V200 which were built from 1953 in a total number of 136. The only diesel-electric locomotives of the Deutsche Bundesbahn were BR 288 (V 188), of which 12 were built in 1939 by the DRG. The high reliability of the German locomotives was paralleled by higher reliability of non-German locomotives built with German-made parts compared to that of the same designs built using parts made locally to German patterns under licence. Much of the unreliability experienced outside Germany was due to poor quality control in the local manufacture of engines and transmissions, and poor maintenance due to staff used to steam locomotives working on unfamiliar and much more complex designs in unsuitable conditions and failing to follow the unit-replacement maintenance methods which were part of the German success. It is notable that diesel-hydraulic multiple units, with the advantages of modern manufacturing techniques and improved maintenance procedures, are now extremely successful in widespread use, achieving excellent reliability.

Gas turbine-electric

DRG] Main article: Gas turbine-electric locomotive Locomotives powered by gas turbines were developed in many countries in the decades after World War II. These used jet-type engines (similar to the turboshaft engines in a turbine helicopter) driving an output shaft. The normal method of transmitting power to the wheels involved an electrical transmission similar to a diesel-electric locomotive - the turbines running at constant speed driving a generator, feeding to large electric motors driving the wheels. Gas turbine locomotives are very powerful, but also very noisy (they sounded similar to a jet aircraft at takeoff). Union Pacific operated the largest fleet of turbine locomotives and used them extensively, at one point claiming that the turbines hauled 10% of the railroad's freight. Their efficiency was quite low, but this was initially not a problem; Union Pacific's gas turbines were fueled with cheap 'Bunker C' (later No.6) heavy fuel oil. This cheap fuel source vanished when improved refinery techniques allowed it to be 'cracked' into lighter petroleum grades. After the oil crisis in the 1970s and the subsequent rise in fuel costs, gas turbine locomotives became uneconomic to operate, and many were taken out of service. This type of locomotive is now rare.

Electric

Main article: Electric locomotive Electric locomotive The electric locomotive is supplied externally with electric power, either through an overhead pickup or through a third-rail. While the cost of electrifying track is rather high, electric trains and locomotives are significantly cheaper to run than diesel ones, and are capable of superior acceleration as well as regenerative braking, making them ideal for passenger service in densely populated areas. Almost all high speed train systems (e.g. ICE, TGV, Shinkansen) use electric power, because the power needed for such performance is not easily carried on board. For example the most powerful electric locomotives that are used today on the channel tunnel freight services use 7 MW of power. The world speed record for a wheeled train was set in 1990 by a French TGV which reached a speed of 515.3 km/h (320 mph). While recently designed electrified railway systems invariably operate on alternating current, many existing direct current systems are still in use—e.g. in South Africa, Spain, and the United Kingdom (750 V and 1500 V); Netherlands (1500 V); Belgium, Italy, Poland (3000 V), and the cities of Mumbai and Chicago, Illinois (which will be switched to AC by 2025). A small number of electric locomotives can also operate off battery power to enable short journeys or shunting to occur on non-electrified lines or yards. Pure battery locomotives also found usage in mines and other underground workings where diesel fumes or smoke are not safe and where external electricity supplies could not be used. Battery locomotives are also used on many underground railways for maintenance operations as they are required to operate in areas where the electricity supply has been temporarily disconnected. See also: Railway electrification system

Electro-diesel

Main article: Electro-diesel locomotive These are special locomotives that can either operate as an electric locomotive or a diesel locomotive. Dual-mode diesel-electric/third-rail locomotives are operated by the Long Island Rail Road and Metro-North Railroad between non-electrified territory and New York City because of a local law banning diesel-powered locomotives in Manhattan tunnels. For the same reason Amtrak operates a fleet of dual-mode locomotives in the New York area. British Rail operated dual diesel-electric/electric locomotives designed to run primarily as electric locomotives. This allowed railway yards to remain un-electrified as the third-rail power system is extremely hazardous in a yard area.

Magnetic levitation

third-rail The newest technology in trains is magnetic levitation (maglev). These electrically powered trains have a special open motor which floats the train above the rail without the need for wheels. This greatly reduces friction. Very few systems are in service and the cost is very high. The experimental Japanese magnetic levitation train has reached 552 km/h (343 mph). The transrapid maglev train connects Shanghai's airport with the city. The first commercial maglev trains ran in the 1980s in Birmingham, United Kingdom, providing a low-speed shuttle service between the airport and its railway station. Despite the huge interest and excitement in the technology it was abandoned and replaced by a cable-hauled guideway a few years later.

Classification by use

The three main categories of locomotives are often subdivided in their usage in rail transport operations. There are passenger locomotives, freight locomotives and switcher (or shunting) locomotives. These categories mainly depend on manoeuvrability, traction power and speed. Some locomotives are designed to work in mountain railways.

References

[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11164 An engineer's guide from 1891] [http://www.keveney.com/Locomotive.html Animated engines, Steam Locomotive] 1 Locomotive Category:Rail transport ja:機関車 ko:기관차

British Railways

British Railways (BR), later rebranded as British Rail, ran the British railway system from the nationalisation of the 'Big Four' British railway companies in 1948 until its privatisation in stages between 1994 and 1997. This period saw massive changes in the nature of the railway network: steam traction was eliminated in favour of diesel and electric power, passengers replaced freight as the main source of business, and the network was severely rationalised.

History

Background

The rail transport system in Great Britain developed during the 19th century. After the grouping of 1923 by the Railways Act 1921 there were four large British railway companies, each dominating its own geographic area. These were the Great Western Railway (GWR), the London, Midland and Scottish Railway (LMS), the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER) and the Southern Railway (SR). The London Underground and the Glasgow Subway were independent concerns and there was a small number of independent light railways and industrial railways, which did not contribute significant mileage to the system. Neither were non-railway-owned tramways considered part of the system. During the Second World War the railways were taken into state control. They were heavily damaged by enemy action and were run down aiding the war effort.

Nationalisation

The Transport Act 1947 made provision for the nationalisation of the network, as part of a policy of nationalising public services by Clement Attlee's Labour Government. British Railways came into existence on 1 January 1948 with the merger of the Big Four, under the control of the Railway Executive of the British Transport Commission (BTC). The Northern Counties Committee lines owned by the LMS in Northern Ireland were quickly sold to the Stormont Government, becoming part of the Ulster Transport Authority (UTA) in 1949.

British Railways

1949 The new system was split geographically into six regions along the lines of the Big Four:
- Eastern Region (ER) — southern LNER lines.
- North Eastern Region (NER) — northern LNER lines in England and all ex-LMS lines east of Skipton.
- London Midland Region (LMR) — LMS lines in England and Wales and most ex-LNER lines west of Skipton.
- Scottish Region — LMS and LNER lines in Scotland.
- Southern Region — SR lines.
- Western Region (WR) — GWR lines. These regions would form the basis of the BR business structure until the 1980s. They retained a level of independence, though there was also some centralisation.

1955 Modernisation Plan

1980s]] After the Second World War, Britain's railways fell behind others in the world. Countries like Japan, USA and France were experimenting with new diesels and electrics. However, Britain wasn't, and the run down network deteriorated even more because of painfully slow rebuilding. Finally, and lately, came the modernisation plan for Britain's railways. It cost the government much more than it should have, because of bad timing. The 1955 Modernisation Plan, detailed in the British Transport Commission's (BTC) Modernisation and Re-equipment of British Railways, argued for spending £1,240 million over a period of 15 years. Services were to be made more attractive to passengers and freight operators, thus recovering traffic which was being lost to the roads. There were three important areas:
- Electrification of principal express routes, the Eastern Region of British Railways, Kent, Birmingham and Central Scotland,
- Large-scale introduction of diesel and electric traction with new coaching stock to replace steam locomotives
- Resignalling and track renewal A government White Paper was produced in 1956, stating that modernisation would help eliminate BR's financial deficit by 1962. However the modernisation plan failed to take into account the effect that mass road transport would have upon the traditional role of the railways, and as a result much money was wasted by heavy investment in things like marshalling yards, at a time when small wagon-load traffic was in rapid decline. Much money was also wasted by the rapid introduction of new classes of diesel locomotives into fleet service without an adequate period of prototype testing, which resulted in several classes being scrapped within a very few years of their being built. The failure of the Modernisation Plan led to a distrust of British Rail's financial planning abilities by the Treasury which was to dog BR for the rest of its existence.

The Beeching Axe and the end of steam

marshalling yard Main article:Beeching Axe In 1963, BR chairman Dr Richard Beeching published the Re-Shaping of British Railways calling for major rationalisation of the system. Many rural routes were unprofitable in the face of increasing competition from road hauliers and the private car. The Beeching Axe fell on most branch lines and some main lines. Some of these lines have since become heritage railways. The early 1960s also saw the "Great Locomotive Cull", with mass withdrawals of steam types, and their replacement with diesels, fewer of which were needed on the shrinking system. Steam traction's last stand came in the North-West of England in August 1968. The use of steam locomotives on independent industrial lines, particularly by the National Coal Board (NCB), continued into the 1970s. Many locomotives were preserved, having not been scrapped immediately on withdrawal, but most fell victim to the cutter's torch.
From 1958 to 1974 the West Coast Main Line was electrified in stages at the French voltage of 25 kV 50Hz AC overhead line electrification. Many commuter lines around London and Glasgow were also electrified, and the Southern Region extended its 750 V DC third rail system to the Kent coast. However electrification never reached system-wide level as on many other European railways.

British Rail

Europe]] Steam traction on British Railways ended in August 1968 after the system was rebranded British Rail. This introduced the double-arrow logo, still used by National Rail to represent the industry as a whole (though some cynics claimed the logo meant the railway "didn't know if it was coming or going"); the standardised typeface used for all communications and signs; and the "rail blue" livery which was applied to nearly all locomotives and rolling stock. In 1973 the TOPS system for classifying locomotives and multiple units was introduced, and is the basis of the classification system. Hauled rolling stock continued to carry numbers in a separate series. Also during this time, yellow warning panels, characteristic of British railways, were added to the front of diesel and electric locomotives and multiple units in order to increase the safety of track workers. The major engineering works were split off into a separate company, British Rail Engineering Limited (BREL), in 1970.

Sectorisation

1970 In the 1980s the regions of BR were abolished and the system sectorised into five sectors. The passenger sectors were InterCity (express services), Network SouthEast (London commuter services) and Regional Railways (regional services). Trainload Freight took trainload freight, Railfreight Distribution took non-trainload freight, Freightliner took intermodal traffic and Rail Express Systems took parcels traffic. The maintenance and remaining engineering works were split off into a new company, BRML (British Rail Maintenance Limited). The new sectors were further subdivided into divisions. This ended the "BR blue" period as new liveries were adopted gradually. Infrastructure remained the responsibility of the Regions until the "Organisation for Quality" initiative in 1991, when this too was transferred to the sectors.

Privatisation

1991 franchises]] On the advice of the Adam Smith Institute, under John Major's Conservative Government's Railways Act 1993 British Rail was split up and privatised. This was a continuation of the policy of Margaret Thatcher's Conservative government's privatisation of publicly-owned services. The unpopular Conservative Government was facing a Labour victory at the May 1997 General Election and so privatisation was rushed through and was finished in November 1997. BR was privatised within the business structure that was in place. Passenger services in each sector were franchised out to private companies, mostly bus operators. The Association of Train Operating Companies (ATOC) was created to organise ticketing and market the rail services using the National Rail brand. Freight operations were sold but mostly bought by one company, EWS. Railtrack controlled infrastructure. The Shadow Strategic Rail Authority was created to oversee and advise the government. The British Railways Board remained with some residual functions. Privatisation has had mixed results. Passenger growth has been stimulated, but this has been at extra cost to the taxpayer and passengers, who have seen steady fare increases since 1997. Freight has also increased; however, there is debate as to whether these increases in passengers and freight have been due to privatisation, or simply to an improved economy which usually results in more travel. Some analysts have pointed out that a similar rise in passenger numbers occurred in the late 1980s when the economy was buoyant, only to fall again in the recession of the early 1990s; however, recent passenger-journey numbers have climbed back to the level last seen in the 1950s. Railtrack's management proved to be incompetent and the Labour government refused to continue to subsidise the losses of shareholders. It went insolvent, was put in receivership and was replaced by a not-for-profit publicly owned Network Rail. Some saw this as the first step towards renationalisation. Given the costs this is unlikely at present although some studies have recommended this as a cheaper choice than the current subsidies to commercial companies. The Shadow Strategic Rail Authority's power became real when it dropped part of its name, becoming the Strategic Rail Authority (SRA). The functions of the SRA were later transferred to the Department for Transport. There has been some controversy over the decision to withhold subsidies from Railtrack, which forced it to become insolvent. Recent press reports have indicated that the then transport minister Stephen Byers deliberately forced the company to become insolvent, as this would remove any obligation on the government to provide compensation to Railtrack's shareholders, who would lose their investment.

Network

The BR network, with the trunk routes of the West Coast Main Line, East Coast Main Line, Great Western Main Line and Midland Main Line, remains unchanged. The Beeching Axe fell on many branch lines and some other main lines.

Locomotives and rolling stock

Locomotives

Steam locomotives

BR inherited a number of locomotives from the constituent "Big Four" companies, the vast majority of which were steam locomotives. BR also built 2537 steam locomotives in the period 1948-1960: 1538 were to pre-nationalisation designs, and 999 to its own standard designs. These locomotives were destined to lead short lives, some as little as 5 years against a design life of over 30 years, because of the decision to end the use of steam traction in 1968.

Diesel locomotives

Electric locomotives

Coaches

- British Carriage and Wagon Numbering and Classification
- Coaches of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway
- Coaches of the Great Western Railway
- Coaches of the Southern Railway
- Coaches of the London and North Eastern Railway
- British Rail Mark 1
- British Rail Mark 2
- British Rail Mark 3
- British Rail Mark 4 Freight wagons and industrial tankers.
- Coal trucks.
- Parcels vans and mail wagons.
- Industrial and oil tankers.
- Flat-cars and car-transporters.
- Gravel hoppers.

Multiple units

Gravel hoppers
- Multiple units.
- Diesel and electric multiple units.
- Pacer units. Pacer units were an unsuccessful 1980's attempt to replace its elderly Mark 1 diesel multiple units with newer trains based on bus bodies, except they jolted badly when stopping, the litter bins were too small and the folding doors regularly jammed in bad weather!

External links

- [http://www.brb.gov.uk The British Railways Board]
- [http://ndad.ulcc.ac.uk/datasets/AH/britrail.htm British Railways Board history]
- [http://www.railwayforum.com/Educational/british_railways_from_1948.htm British railways from 1948]
- [http://www.numberseventy.co.uk/ferroequinology.htm Ferroequinology] category:British Rail(ways) Category:British railway companies

Brighton

Brighton on the southern Sussex coast is one of the largest and most famous seaside resorts in England. Brighton and Hove form a single conurbation. Brighton's lively atmosphere is a direct contrast to its near neighbour, Hove which has quieter and more refined character. The two boroughs were joined together to form the unitary authority of Brighton & Hove in 1997, which in 2000 was granted city status by the Queen as part of the millennial celebrations, following competition from other large towns which coveted city status.

Early history

While any British history predating the first mentions by literate Romans is, by definition, consigned to an obscured landscape known intimidatingly as 'prehistory', a few things are known about the area. Whitehawk Camp — a natural viewpoint — is bisected by Manor Road. The centre of this early Neolithic causewayed enclosure c.3500BC is someway toward the aerial mast on the south side of Manor Road, opposite the grandstand. There are four concentric circles of ditches and mounds, broken or 'causewayed' in many places. Significant vestiges of the mounds remain and you can trace their arc with the eye. The building of a new housing estate in the early nineties over the South Eastern portion of the enclosure resulted in damage to the archeology, the loss of the ancient panoramic view and a diminishment in atmosphere of the historical site. More of prehistoric Brighton and Hove can be observed just north of the small retail park on Old Shoreham Road, built over the site of the town's football ground in the late 1990's, where you can visit The Goldstone. There is a plaque telling us it was believed to be in use (ceremonial? geomantic?) around 2000BC. A standing stone circle nearby (today's Hove Park) is documented up to 1820, when the farmer had had one too many 'antiquarians' traipsing over his crop and buried the stones. city status After a scholarly review, Paul Harwood of Birmingham's Institute of Archaeology & Antiquity noted that "there are a concentration of Beaker burials on the fringes of the central chalklands around Brighton, and a later cluster of Early and Middle Bronze Age ‘rich graves' in the same area." Of considerable interest from the middle Bronze Age is the Hove Amber Cup. During nineteenth century building work near Palmeira Square, workmen tasked with removing an earth mound 'excavated' a significant burial mound. A defining point on the landscape since at least 1500BC, this 20 foot high tomb yielded, amongst other treasures, the Hove Amber Cup. Made of translucent red Baltic Amber and approximately the same size as a regular china teacup, the impressive artefact can be seen in Hove Museum. Undoubtedly the single most impressive pre-Roman site in Brighton is Hollingbury Camp. Commanding panoramic views over Brighton, this Celtic Iron Age encampment is circumscribed by substantial earthwork outer walls. As a 'ball park figure', its diameter is about 300 meters. Hollingbury is one of numerous 'hillforts' found across southern Britain. Cissbury Ring, at a distance of about ten miles from Hollingbury and quite awesome in its construction, is reckoned by some to have been the tribal 'Capital'. Having conquered Britannica (43AD), and after brutally surpressing the Boudicaen counter-invasion (61AD), the Romans built villas throughout Sussex and indeed there was a villa in Brighton. At the time of its construction in the late first or second century AD there was a river running along what is now the tarmac of London Road. The villa was sited more or less at the water's edge, immediately south of Preston Park — which area itself would perhaps have been part of the outer grounds. The villa was excavated in the 1930s prior to the building of a (now gone) garage on the site. Numerous artefacts were found as well as the foundations of the building. In the thirties, the garage owner had a small display of Roman statues and broaches in the forecourt shop. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contains the first mention of a settlement in the area at Beorthelm's-tun (the town of Beorthelm). In the Domesday Book, Brighton was called Bristemestune and a rent of 4000 herring was established. From the manorial system, Preston manor lingers on today as a museum. Although the present day manor house is relatively recent in construction, the church — St Peters, currently under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust — is fourteenth century. A medieval fresco depicting the murder of Thomas a Beckett was discovered under paint following a fire in the early part of the twentieth century. As such, it is among the oldest art in Brighton. In June 1514, the fishing village then known as Brighthelmstone was burnt to the ground by the French as part of a war between the two which began as a result of the Treaty of Westminster (1511). Later on in Henry's reign, the residents of the town petitioned the monarch for defensive cannon. Part of their 'pitch' was an illustrated map (1545) showing the French raid of 1511. A display copy of the map can be seen in Hove Museum.

18th and 19th century

Brighton remained a small fishing village up until the 18th century. Brighthelmstone began to change in 1753 when Dr Richard Russell of Lewes published his thesis on sea bathing, which proclaimed the benefit to health of the salt water of Brighton. He set up house there and before long, the rich and the sick had started to make their way to the seaside. Currently approaching the conclusion of its ambitious restoration, Marlborough House on the Steine was built by Robert Adam in 1765 and purchased shortly afterwards by the eponymous Duke. By 1780, development of the Regency terraces had started and the town quickly became the fashionable resort of Brighton. The growth of the town was further encouraged when, in 1786, the young Prince Regent later King George IV, rented a farmhouse in order to escape from public life. Eventually he spent much of his leisure time in the town and constructed the exotic-looking Royal Pavilion, which is the town's best-known landmark. The Kemp Town estate (at the heart of the Kemptown district) was constructed between 1823 and 1855, and is a good example of Regency architecture. Visitors were further encouraged by the arrival of the London and Brighton Railway in 1840, which also established one of the first railway-owned locomotive works.

Piers

The Brighton Marine Palace and Pier, generally known as the Palace Pier before being oficially renamed Brighton Pier in 2000, opened in May 1899 and is still popular. It suffered a large fire on 4 February 2003 but the damage was limited and most of the pier was able to reopen the next day. The older West Pier, built in 1866 by Eugenius Birch, has been closed and deteriorating since 1975, awaiting renovation. The West Pier is one of only two Grade 1 listed piers in the UK, the other being Clevedon Pier. Plans by The West Pier Trust to renovate the pier with help from Heritage Lottery Fund have been opposed by some local residents who claimed that the proposed new onshore structures — which the renovators needed to pay for the work on the pier — would obstruct their view of the sea. The restoration was also opposed by the owners of the Brighton Pier, who reportedly saw its subsidised rebuilding, were it to happen, as unfair competition. The West Pier partially collapsed on December 29, 2002 when a walkway connecting the concert hall and pavilion fell into the sea after being battered by storms. On January 20, 2003 a further collapse saw the destruction of the concert hall in the middle of the pier. On March 28, 2003 the pavilion at the end of the pier caught fire. Firefighters were unable to save the building from destruction because of the precarious (ie: there wasn't one) state of the walkway. The cause of the fire remains unknown. On May 12, 2003, another fire broke out, consuming most of what was left of the concert hall. Arson was suspected. The West Pier Trust refers to the fires as the work of 'professional arsonists', (notwithstanding that there is no evidence linking the fires to the owners of the Palace Pier). On June 23, 2004 high winds caused the middle of the pier to completely collapse. Despite all these setbacks, the owner of the site West Pier Trust remained adamant they would soon begin full restoration work. Finally, in December 2004, the Trust admitted defeat, after their plans were rejected by the Heritage Lottery Fund and subsequent less ambitious plans to restore only the oldest, structural parts of the pier were also rejected by English Heritage. However, in September 2005 the Trust revealed in their newsletter that they are forming further plans to rebuild the original structure with help from private funding. Brighton had one further major pier, the Brighton Chain Suspension Pier ("Chain Pier") of 1823. The pier was primarily intended as a landing stage, Brighton having no natural harbour, but it also featured a small number of attractions including initially a camera obscura. An esplanade with an entrance toll-booth controlled access to the pier which was roughly in line with today's New Steine. The Chain Pier survived the construction of the West Pier, but a condition for permission to build the Palace Pier was that the builders would dismantle the oldest pier. They were saved this task by a storm which destroyed the already closed and rather decrepit pier on December 4, 1896. The stubby remains of some of the pier's iron piles, sunk ten feet into bedrock, can still be seen at the most extreme low tides.

IRA bombing

:Main article: Brighton hotel bombing In the early hours of October 12th 1984 an IRA bomb exploded in the Grand Hotel where leading members of the governing Conservative Party were staying. Four people were killed in the blast (including Sir Anthony Berry), and another subsequently died of her injuries. The Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, narrowly escaped injury, although members of her Government were injured — most notably Norman Tebbit. However, no member of the cabinet was killed.

Brighton today

In Brighton, the area occupied by the original fishing village has become The Lanes — a collection of narrow alleyways now filled with a mixture of antique shops, restaurants, bistros and pubs. That name was derived from 'Laine', which was apparently an old unit of Anglo-Saxon field measurement. The North Laine area still keeps the original spelling. The city has a large LGBT community, mainly based in the Kemptown area of the city. Every August sees a large annual LGBT Pride event which has now become one of the most popular such events in the UK calendar. The biggest arts festival in England—the Brighton Festival—takes place in May each year. Brighton is home to two universities, the University of Sussex and the University of Brighton, as well as a public school, Brighton College. It is sometimes known as 'London by the Sea' because of its lively atmosphere and cosmopolitan nature and also because of the large number of visitors from London. In the summer, thousands of young students from all over Europe gather in the city to attend language courses. Part of the beach has been designated an official nudist area — one of very few naturist beaches in the United Kingdom to be located adjacent to an urban area. nudist Since the 1978 demolition of the Art Deco open-air swimming lido at Black Rock, the most easterly part of Brighton's seafront, the area has been developed considerably and now features one of Europe's largest marinas. However, the site of the pool itself remains empty except for a skate park and graffiti wall, and further development is planned for the area including a high-rise hotel which has aroused considerable local controversy, mirroring the situation with proposals for the site of the King Alfred leisure centre in neighbouring Hove. Brighton is considered a fairly progressive town due to the large numbers of political movements and activities, for instance SchNEWS, a local newsletter. This has been demonstrated by the Green Party taking 22% of the vote of the Brighton Pavilion constituency in the 2005 general election, versus just 1% nationally.

Brighton nightlife

Brighton is renowned for its lively music scene, having spawned a number of successful bands in recent years, including Fatboy Slim, The Levellers, British Sea Power, The Eighties Matchbox B-Line Disaster, The Go! Team, The Kooks, The Love Gods, Johnny Truant, Electrelane and The Electric Soft Parade. Brighton is also fast becoming home of a thriving hardcore punk scene with bands such as The Permenant, Johnny Truant, and The Deepend making an impact at a national level. It boasts a number of record labels, including Skint Records, LOCA Records, Stompaphunk, Supercharged Music, Kayotix, Catskills, Tru Thoughts and others. A healthy free party scene has been in action since the early 90s. There are a large number of bars and nightclubs in Brighton, though due to problems with binge-drinking, alcohol consumption on the street is now banned in some areas. Some of the most important clubs in the UK dance music scene are based in Brighton, including The Beach, Honey Club and The Ocean Rooms, and the now defunct Escape and Zap clubs. There are also a range of alternative venues including The Sussex Arts Club, the Concorde 2, the Freebutt and the Hanbury Ballroom. Additionally, Brighton has a lively gay and lesbian scene. Brighton is the home of Brighton & Hove Albion F.C. and the Hove ground of Sussex County Cricket Club. The cricket ground is one of only four in the UK with permanent lighting, and though not a test ground, is used for international one day matches.

Transport

Sussex County Cricket Club] Brighton railway station was built by the London & Brighton Railway in 1840, and in 1970 was saved from redevelopment. The station provides fast and frequent connections to London Gatwick Airport, London Victoria, London Bridge, and via the Thameslink line, King's Cross, London Luton Airport and Bedford. Volk's Electric Railway, which runs along the beach, is claimed to be the world's oldest operating electric railway. Brighton & Hove Bus and Coach Company operates the local bus service with over 250 buses. The company started in the 1880s and has been owned by the Go-Ahead Group since 1993.

Notable Inhabitants

- Aubrey Beardsley, born in Brighton 1872, later lived at Lower Rock Gardens, Kemptown.
- Sir Edward Burne-Jones, 1880 to 1898.
- Rudyard Kipling, 1897 to 1903.
- Prince Peter Alexeevich Kropotkin, 1912 to 1917.
- Ida Lupino, C1914 to C1949.
- Sir Winston Churchill, attended school.
- Dame Anna Neagle, lived at Lewes Crescent, Kemptown.
- Lord Lawrence Olivier & Joan Plowright, 1960 to 1978.
- Dame Flora Robson, 1960 to 1975.
- Dusty Springfield, lived at Wilbury Road, Hove & formed The Springfields there.
- Aleister Crowley, died in a nursing home in Brighton in December 1947. Ashes scattered at Devil's Dyke.
- Graham Greene
- Richard Attenborough
- Dora Bryan
- Vivien Leigh
- Paul McCartney, musician, currently lives in Hove.
- Gaz Coombes, lead singer of Supergrass (current).
- Phil Hartnoll, of band Orbital (current).
- Keith Tyson and Rachael Whiteread, both Turner Prize winners.
- Ken Livingstone, Mayor of London.
- Captain Sensible
- Bjork
- Nick Cave
- Katie Price, model
- Julian Clarey
- James Herbert, author.
- Jimmy Somerville, 1990s pop star.
- Mark Williams, star of The Fast Show and the Harry Potter films.
- Patsy Palmer, ex-Eastenders television actress.
- Patrick Bergin, star of films Sleeping with the Enemy and Patriot Games.
- Cate Blanchett (current).

Brighton in literature

- Jane Austen: Pride and Prejudice
- Jane Austen: Mansfield Park
- William Makepeace Thackeray: Vanity Fair
- Graham Greene: Brighton Rock
- Helen Zahavi: Dirty Weekend
- The fictional seaside town of Watermouth — the setting of Malcolm Bradbury's campus novel The History Man — bears a lot of resemblance to Brighton.
- Patrick Hamilton: West Pier
- Patrick Hamilton: Hangover Square
- Henry James: The Golden Bowl
- Robert Rankin: The Most Amazing Man Who Ever Lived (1995) Featuring an unnamed seaside town on the south coast with two piers!
- Robert Rankin: The Brightonomicon (2005)
- Nigel Richardson: Breakfast In Brighton (ISBN 0575402016)
- Louise Rennison: The "Confessions of Georgia Nicolson" series
- Phillip Reeve: Infernal Devices (2005) (Fictional)

Brighton in film

- Brighton Rock (1947) John Boulting
- Quadrophenia (1979) Franc Roddam
- Oh! What A Lovely War (1969)
- Dirty Weekend (1993)
- The End Of The Affair
- Me Without You
- Mona Lisa (1986)
- Circus (2000)
- Carry On Girls (1973)
- Carry On At Your Convenience (1971)
- The Chalk Garden (1963)
- Wimbledon (2004)
- MirrorMask (2005)

External links

- [http://www.brighton-hove.gov.uk/ Brighton & Hove City Council]
- [http://www.mybrightonandhove.org.uk/ My Brighton and Hove] Local history
- [http://www.brighton.virtualmuseum.info/ Brighton Museum & Art Gallery] Holds two galleries devoted to local history, with a number of objects that can be viewed online.
- [http://www.citylibraries.info/pictures/ Brighton & Hove in Pictures] Collection of images from the city's library and museum collections.
- [http://www.westpier.co.uk/ Brighton West Pier Trust] site with information about the restoration plans, photos etc.
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/southern_counties/3834005.stm West Pier victim of summer storms] — BBC News story on June 2004 collapse
- [http://www.mmhistory.org.uk/students/samglen/!past.htm 1998 Interview with Dr. Fred Gray, Historian for the West Pier Trust]
- [http://www.urban75.org/photos/brighton/ Photographs and panoramas of Brighton]
- [http://www.flickr.com/groups/brighton/ Photographs of Brighton]
- [http://www.terramedia.co.uk/brighton/ History of the early film industry and cinemas in Brighton & Hove]
- [http://www.webbikeworld.com/motorcycles/ace-cafe/ace-cafe-reunion.htm The 2005 Ace Café Reunion - Brighton Burn-up]
- [http://www.buses.co.uk/history/fleethist/busnamesintro.htm list of notable residents] Category:Brighton and Hove Category:Coastal cities Category:English seaside resorts Category:Towns in East Sussex Category:Former non-metropolitan districts

Hell Bent for Leather

Hell Bent for Leather (UK title: Killing Machine) is an album by Judas Priest. They released it in March 1979, but copyrighted and published in November 1978. When "Killing Machine" was going to be released in the US, the American branch of Columbia/CBS did not like the "murderous implications" of the album title and it was re-titled Hell Bent for Leather for stateside release. The track "The Green Manalishi (With the Two-Pronged Crown)" was added to the running order, as it was not on the UK release. __NOTOC__

Track listing

# "Delivering The Goods" # "Rock Forever" # "Evening Star" # "Hell Bent For Leather" # "Take On The World" # "Burnin' Up" # "The Green Manalishi (With The Two-Pronged Crown)" # "Killing Machine" # "Running Wild" # "Before The Dawn" # "Evil Fantasies" Category:Judas Priest albums Category:1978 albums Category:1979 albums Category:Heavy metal albums

Evening Star (album)

Evening Star (1975) is an album by the British ambient musicians Robert Fripp and Brian Eno. The first three tracks are serene, gentle tape-looped guitar textures performed by Robert Fripp and accented with treatments, synthesizer and piano by Brian Eno. Track four, "Wind on Wind", is an excerpt from Eno’s solo project Discreet Music, which was released after this album. Eno had originally intended Fripp to use the material which became Discreet Music as a backing tape to play over in improvised live performances. The second half of the album is a dissonant twenty-eight minute piece titled "An Index of Metals", in which guitar notes are accumulated in a loop, with distortion increasing as the track progresses.

Track listing

#"Wind on Water" - 5:30 #"Evening Star" - 7:48 #"Evensong" - 2:53 #"Wind on Wind" - 2:56 #"An Index of Metals" - 28:36

Personnel

- Robert Fripp: guitar
- Eno: tape loops, synthesizer, piano Category:Brian Eno albums Category:Robert Fripp albums Category:1975 albums

Robert Fripp

Robert Fripp (born May 16, 1946 in Wimborne Minster, Dorset, England) is a guitarist and a composer, perhaps best known for his founding role in the band King Crimson. His work, spanning more than three decades, encompasses a variety of musical styles. He is married to Toyah Willcox.

Biography

Early career

Fripp's earliest professional work began in 1967, when he auditioned for a band being formed by bassist Peter Giles and drummer Michael Giles. Though unsuccessful as a live act, Giles, Giles and Fripp did manage to release two singles, as well as an album, The Cheerful Insanity of Giles, Giles, and Fripp.

Early King Crimson

Following the band's breakup, Fripp, along with drummer Michael Giles, made plans for the formation of King Crimson in 1968, with Greg Lake, Peter Sinfield and Ian McDonald. Their first album, In the Court of the Crimson King, was released in late 1969, to mixed critical reviews. King Crimson broke up shortly after the release of the first album, to be re-formed again several times over the years. Robert Fripp has remained the only consistent member of the band.

Side projects

During King