February 6

February 6 is the 37th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 328 days remaining, 329 in leap years.

Events

- 337 - Julius I is elected pope.
- 1778 - American Revolutionary War: In Paris the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France signaling official recognition of the new republic.
- 1788 - Massachusetts becomes the sixth state to ratify the United States Constitution.
- 1806 - Royal Navy victory off Santo Domingo - Action of 6 February 1806.
- 1815 - New Jersey grants the first American railroad charter to a John Stevens.
- 1819 - Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles founds Singapore.
- 1820 - The first 86 African American immigrants sponsored by the American Colonization Society started a settlement in present-day Liberia
- 1840 - Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, founding document of New Zealand.
- 1843 - The first minstrel show in the United States The Virginia Minstrels opens (Bowery Amphitheatre in New York City).
- 1862 - American Civil War: Ulysses S. Grant gives the United States its first victory of the war, by capturing Fort Henry, Tennessee, known as the Battle of Fort Henry.
- 1899 - Spanish-American War: The Treaty of Paris (1898), a peace treaty between the United States and Spain is ratified by the United States Senate.
- 1900 - The international arbitration court at The Hague is created when the Netherlands' Senate ratifies an 1899 peace conference decree.
- 1922 - Achille Ratti becomes Pope Pius XI.
- 1922 - The Washington Naval Treaty was signed in Washington, DC, limiting the naval armaments of United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy.
- 1933 - The 20th Amendment to the United States Constitution goes into effect.
- 1936 - 1936 Winter Olympic Games open in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany.
- 1951 - The Broker, a Pennsylvania Railroad passenger train derails near Woodbridge Township, New Jersey. The accident kills 85 people and injures over 500 more. The wreck is one on the worst rail disasters in American history.
- 1952 - Elizabeth II becomes Queen upon the death of her father George VI. At the exact moment of succession, she was in a treehouse in a tree-top hotel in Kenya.
- 1958 - Bobby Charlton survived the Munich air disaster in Germany, which killed eight of his teammates with Manchester United F.C.
- 1959 - Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments filed the first patent for an integrated circuit.
- 1959 - At Cape Canaveral, Florida, the first successful test firing of a Titan intercontinental ballistic missile is accomplished.
- 1968 - 1968 Winter Olympic Games open in Grenoble, France.
- 1978 - The Blizzard of 1978, one of the worst Nor'easters in New England history, hit the region, with sustained winds of 65 mph and snowfall of 4" an hour.
- 1985 - Steve Wozniak leaves Apple Computer
- 1996 - A Turkish Airlines Boeing 757 crashes into the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Dominican Republic killing 189
- 1998 - Washington National Airport is renamed Ronald Reagan National Airport.
- 2004 - In Russia, a suicide-attack in a Moscow metro kills 40 commuters, and injures a hundred and twenty-nine. The blast is blamed on Chechen separatist groups.
- 2005 - Super Bowl XXXIX: The New England Patriots win their third title in four years by defeating the Philadelphia Eagles 24-21.
- 2005 - Jerrick De Leon, born 13 weeks premature, becomes the world's smallest infant to survive an open-heart procedure called an arterial switch.

Births

- 1564 - Christopher Marlowe, English playwright (d. 1593)
- 1577 - Beatrice Cenci, Italian noblewoman who conspired to kill her father (d. 1599)
- 1608 - Antonio Vieira, Portuguese writer (d. 1697)
- 1611 - Chongzhen, Emperor of China (d. 1644)
- 1639 - Daniel Georg Morhof, German writer and scholar (d. 1691)
- 1664 - Mustafa II, Ottoman Sultan (d, 1703)
- 1665 - Queen Anne I of the United Kingdom (d. 1714)
- 1695 - Nicolaus II Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (d. 1726)
- 1744 - Pierre-Joseph Desault, French anatomist and surgeon (d. 1795)
- 1748 - Adam Weishaupt, founder of the Bavarian Illuminati (d. 1811)
- 1756 - Aaron Burr, Vice President of the United States (d. 1836)
- 1833 - JEB Stuart, American Confederate general (d. 1864)
- 1834 - Ema Puksec, Croatian singer (d. 1889)
- 1853 - Ignacij Klemenčič, Slovenian physicist (d. 1901)
- 1887 - Josef Frings, German Archbishop of Cologne (d. 1978)
- 1892 - William Parry Murphy, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1987)
- 1894 - Eric Partridge, New Zealand lexicographer (d. 1979)
- 1895 - Babe Ruth, baseball player (d. 1948)
- 1899 - Ramon Novarro, Mexican actor (d. 1968)
- 1901 - Ben Lyon, American actor (d. 1979)
- 1902 - George Brunies, American musician (d. 1974)
- 1903 - Claudio Arrau, Chilean-born pianist (d. 1991)
- 1905 - Władysław Gomułka, Polish leader (d. 1982)
- 1910 - Irmgard Keun, German author (d. 1982)
- 1910 - Carlos Marcello, Tunisian-born gangster (d. 1993)
- 1911 - Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States (d. 2004)
- 1912 - Eva Braun, German mistress of Adolf Hitler (d. 1945)
- 1913 - Mary Leakey, British anthropologist (d. 1996)
- 1914 - Thurl Ravenscroft, American voice actor (d. 2005)
- 1917 - Zsa Zsa Gabor, Hungarian actress
- 1918 - Lothar-Günther Buchheim, German author
- 1922 - Bill Johnston, Australian cricketer
- 1922 - Patrick Macnee, British actor
- 1922 - Denis Norden, British television abd radio personality and scriptwriter
- 1926 - Haskell Wexler, American cinematographer
- 1929 - Pierre Brice, French actor
- 1931 - Rip Torn, American actor and director
- 1931 - Mamie Van Doren, American actress
- 1932 - Camilo Cienfuegos, Cuban revolutionary (d. 1959)
- 1932 - François Truffaut, French film director (d. 1984)
- 1939 - Mike Farrell, American actor
- 1940 - Tom Brokaw, American news anchorman
- 1943 - Fabian Forte, American singer
- 1943 - Gayle Hunnicutt, American actress
- 1945 - Bob Marley, Jamaican singer and musician (d. 1981)
- 1946 - Jim Turner, American politician
- 1949 - Jim Sheridan, Irish film director
- 1950 - Natalie Cole, American singer
- 1951 - Marco Antonio, Brazilian footballer
- 1954 - Argusto Emfazie, American occultist and author
- 1956 - Kristoffer-Oscar Alexander Lövmür Angebretsen, Norwegian politician
- 1957 - Kathy Najimy, American actress and comedian
- 1957 - Robert Townsend, American comedian, actor, director, and producer
- 1958 - Barry Miller, American actor
- 1960 - Megan Gallagher, American actress
- 1962 - Axl Rose, American singer (Guns N' Roses)
- 1966 - Rick Astley, British singer
- 1972 - David Binn, American football player
- 1975 - Svend-Allan Sørensen, Danish artist
- 1976 - Kim Zmeskal, American gymnast
- 1984 - Darren Bent, English footballer
- 1991 - Kara Borden, American Causes Celebre
- 1991 - Brett R. Cohen, Great American Citizen

Deaths

- 891 - Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople
- 1378 - Jeanne de Bourbon, queen of Charles V of France (b. 1338)
- 1497 - Johannes Ockeghem, Flemish composer
- 1515 - Aldus Manutius, Italian printer
- 1585 - Edmund Plowden, English legal scholar (b. 1518)
- 1593 - Jacques Amyot, French writer (b. 1513)
- 1593 - Emperor Ogimachi of Japan (b. 1517)
- 1617 - Prospero Alpini, Italian scientist (b. 1553)
- 1685 - King Charles II of England (b. 1630)
- 1740 - Pope Clement XII (b. 1652)
- 1775 - William Dowdeswell, English politician (b. 1721)
- 1783 - Capability Brown, English landscape gardener (b. 1716)
- 1793 - Carlo Goldoni, Italian playwright (b. 1707)
- 1799 - Étienne-Louis Boullée, French architect (b. 1728)
- 1833 - Pierre André Latreille, French entomologist (b. 1762)
- 1834 - Richard Lemon Lander, British explorer (d. 1804)
- 1855 - Josef Munzinger, Swiss Federal Councilor (b. 1791)
- 1916 - Rubén Darío, Nicaraguan writer (b. 1867)
- 1918 - Gustav Klimt, Austrian painter (b. 1862)
- 1950 - Georges Imbert, Alsatian chemist (b. 1884
- 1952 - King George VI of the United Kingdom (b. 1895)
- 1976 - Vince Guaraldi, American musician (b. 1928)
- 1986 - Minoru Yamasaki, American architect (b. 1912)
- 1989 - Roy Eldridge, American musician (b. 1911)
- 1989 - Chris Gueffroy, last person killed escaping over the Berlin wall (b. 1968)
- 1989 - Barbara Tuchman, American historian (b. 1912)
- 1991 - Salvador Luria, Italian-born biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1912)
- 1991 - Danny Thomas, American singer, comedian, and actor (b. 1914)
- 1993 - Arthur Ashe, American tennis player (b. 1943)
- 1993 - Joseph Mankiewicz, American director, producer, and writer (b. 1909)
- 1994 - Joseph Cotten, American actor (b. 1905)
- 1994 - Jack Kirby, American comic book writer (b. 1917)
- 1995 - James Merrill, American poet (b. 1926)
- 1996 - Guy Madison, American actor (b. 1922)
- 1998 - Falco, Austrian singer (b. 1957)
- 1998 - Carl Wilson, American musician (The Beach Boys) (b. 1946)
- 2002 - Max Perutz, Austrian-born molecular biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (b. 1914)
- 2005 - Lazar Berman, Russian pianist (b. 1930)

Holidays and Observances

- Feast day of Saint Paul Miki and companions
- National holiday for the Sami people
- Waitangi Day - New Zealand

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/6 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050206.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- February 5 - February 7 - January 6 - March 6 -- listing of all days February 06 ko:2월 6일 ms:6 Februari ja:2月6日 simple:February 6 th:6 กุมภาพันธ์

February 6

February 6 is the 37th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 328 days remaining, 329 in leap years.

Events

Births

Deaths

Holidays and Observances

- Feast day of Saint Paul Miki and companions
- National holiday for the Sami people
- Waitangi Day - New Zealand

External links

337

Events
- February 6 - Julius is elected pope.
- June 17 - Constantius II announces the restoration of Athanasius to the Patriarch of Alexandria.
- September 9 - Constantine II, Constantius II, and Constans succeed their father Constantine the Great as co-emperors of the Roman Empire.
- A number of descendants of Constantius I Chlorus, as well as powerful nobles, are executed. Responsibility for this purge is denied by the three Augusti.
- November 25 - Athanasius enters Alexandria.
- Paul I becomes Patriarch of Constantinople.
- Shapur II of Persia begins a war with the Roman Empire.
- Constantine the Great outlaws crucifiction witin the Roman Empire. Births
- Fa-hsien, Chinese Buddhist monk and traveler (approximate date) Deaths
- May 22 - Constantine I, Roman emperor
- September - Hannibalianus, King of the Pontus and grandson of Constantine I (executed)
- September - Dalmatius, Caesar and grandson of Constantine I (executed)
- September - Flavius Dalmatius, son of Constantius I Chlorus and father of Hannibalianus and Dalmatius (executed)
- September - Julius Constantius, son of Constantius I Chlorus and father of Julian (executed)
- September - Patricius Optatus (executed)
- September - Ablavius, Prefect of the Imperial Guard (executed)
- Eustathius, Patriarch of Antioch (probable date)
- Alexander, Patriarch of Constantinople Other Uses Over The Years
- Late 2002 - Present - AFI makes a mystery using the numbers 336 and 337. People are still trying to figure it out. Go to http://board.despairfaction.com for more information. Category:337 ko:337년

Pope Julius I

Julius I, pope from 337 to 352, was a native of Rome and was chosen as successor of Marcus after the Roman see had been vacant four months. He is chiefly known by the part he took in the Arian controversy. After the Eusebians had, at a synod held in Antioch in 341, renewed their deposition of Athanasius, they resolved to send delegates to Constans, emperor of the West, and also to Julius, setting forth the grounds on which they had proceeded. The latter, after expressing an opinion favourable to Athanasius, adroitly invited both parties to lay the case before a synod to be presided over by himself. This proposal, however, the Eastern bishops declined to accept. On his second banishment from Alexandria, Athanasius came to Rome, and was recognised as a regular bishop by the synod held in 342. It was through the influence of Julius that, at a later date, the council of Sardica in Illyria was held, which was attended only by seventy-six Eastern bishops, who speedily withdrew to Philippopolis and deposed Julius, along with Athanasius and others. The three hundred Western bishops who remained, confirmed the previous decisions of the Roman synod; and by its 3rd, 4th, and 5th decrees relating to the rights of revision claimed by Julius, the council of Sardica perceptibly helped forward the pretensions of the Papacy. Julius on his death in April 352 was succeeded by Liberius. See also Pope Julius II Original text from the 9th edition (1880) of an unnamed encyclopedia Julius I Julius I Julius I Julius 1 Julius ko:교황 율리오 1세

1778

1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- The term thoroughbred was first used in the United States in an advertisement in a Kentucky gazette to describe a New Jersey stallion called Pilgarlick.
- January 18 - Third Pacific expedition of Capt. James Cook, with ships HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first view O'ahu then Kaua'i in the Hawaiian Islands, which he names the "Sandwich Islands."
- February 5 - South Carolina becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.
- February 6 - American Revolutionary War: In Paris the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France signaling official recognition of the new republic.
- February 23 - American Revolutionary War: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and begins to train the Continental Army.
- July 10 - American Revolutionary War: Louis XVI of France declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain.
- July 27 - American Revolution: First Battle of Ushant - British and French fleets fight to a standoff.
- August 26 - Triglav, at 2,864 metres above sea level the highest peak of Slovenia, was ascended for the first time by four brave men: Luka Korošec, Matevž Kos, Štefan Rožič and Lovrenc Willomitzer on Sigismund Zois's initiative.
- September - The Massachusetts Banishment Act, providing punishment for Loyalists, is passed.
- November 26 - In the Hawaiian Islands, Captain James Cook becomes the first European to discover Maui.
- France introduced the first state-controlled brothel.
- The first settlement was made in the area of what is now Louisville, Kentucky by 13 families under Col. George Rogers Clark.
- Phillips Academy, the most prestigious secondary boarding school in the United States, was founded by Samuel Phillips Jr.

Births

- January 3 - Antoni Melchior Fijałkowski, Polish bishop (d. 1861)
- February 22 - Rembrandt Peale, American artist (d. 1860)
- March 19 - Edward Pakenham, British general (d. 1815)
- April 10 - William Hazlitt, English essayist (d. 1830)
- May 18 - Charles William Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, British politician (d. 1854)
- August 11 - Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, German patriot (d. 1852)
- September 8 - Clemens Brentano, German poet (d. 1842)
- September 19 - Henry Peter Brougham, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1868)
- November 1 - Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (d. 1837)
- December 17 - Sir Humphry Davy, English chemist (d. 1829)

Deaths

- January 10 - Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish botanist (b. 1707)
- February 18 - Joseph Marie Terray, French statesman (b. 1715)
- February 20 - Laura Bassi, Italian scholar (b. 1711)
- March 5 - Thomas Augustine Arne, English compoer (b. 1710)
- March 7 - Charles De Geer, Swedish industrialist and entomologist (b. 1720)
- March 13 - Charles le Beau, French historian (b. 1701)
- April 22 - James Hargreaves, English weaver, carpenter, and inventor (b. 1720)
- May 16 - Robert Darcy, 4th Earl of Holderness, English diplomat and politician (b. 1718)
- May 30 - Voltaire, French philosopher (b. 1694)
- June 12 - Philip Livingston, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1716)
- June 16 - Konrad Ekhof, German actor (b. 1720)
- June 24 - Pieter Burmann the Younger, Dutch philologist (b. 1714)
- July 2 - Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Swiss philosopher (b. 1712)
- July 2 - Bathsheba Ruggles, American murderer (b. 1746?)
- August 5 - Charles Clémencet, French historian (b. 1703)
- August 12 - Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, British general and politician (b. 1714)
- November 9 - Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Italian artist (b. 1720)
- November 20 - Francesco Cetti, Italian Jesuit scientist (b. 1726) Category:1778 ko:1778년 ms:1778

American Revolutionary War

The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known, especially internationally, as the American War of Independence, was a war fought primarily between Great Britain and revolutionaries within thirteen British colonies in North America. The war began largely as a colonial revolt against the economic policies of the British Empire, and eventually widened far beyond British North America, with France, Spain, and the Netherlands entering the war against Great Britain. Additionally, many American Indians fought on both sides of the conflict. Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture colonial coastal cities, but control of the countryside largely eluded them. French involvement proved decisive, with a naval victory in the Chesapeake leading to the surrender of a British army at the Battle of Yorktown in 1781. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 recognized the independence of the United States of America. Because a great number of colonists fled the thirteen colonies and settled in the north, the war also paved the way for the eventual creation of what would become Canada. The terms American Revolutionary War and American Revolution are often used interchangeably, though the American Revolution included political and social developments before and after the war itself. This article refers solely to the military campaign; for a broader perspective, including the origins and aftermath of the war, see the American Revolution.

Combatants

Colonists

Colonists were divided over which side to support in the war. About 40 to 45 percent of the colonial population supported the struggle for independence, and were known as "Patriots" (or "Whigs"). About 15 to 20 percent supported the British Crown during the war, and were known as "Loyalists" (or "Tories"). Loyalists fielded perhaps 50,000 men during the war years in support of the British Empire. In some areas, the American Revolutionary War was a civil war. When the war began, the American revolutionaries did not have a professional army (also known as a "regular" or "standing" army). Each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local militia. Militiamen served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were generally reluctant to go very far from home, and would often come and go as they saw fit. Militia typically lacked the training and discipline of regular troops, but could be effective when led by talented officers. Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Continental Congress established (on paper) a regular army—the Continental Army—in June of 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war. Although as many as 250,000 Patriots may have served as regulars or militiamen in the eight years of the war, there were never more than 90,000 total men under arms for the revolutionaries in any given year. Armies in North America were small by European standards of the era; the greatest number of men that Washington personally commanded in the field at any one time was fewer than 17,000.

European nations

commander-in-chief Early in 1775, the British army consisted of about 36,000 men worldwide, but wartime recruitment steadily increased this number. Additionally, over the course of the war the British hired about 30,000 German mercenaries, popularly known in the colonies as "Hessians" because many of them came from Hesse. Germans would make up about one-third of the British troop strength in North America. By 1779, the number of British and German troops stationed in North America was over 60,000, though these were spread from Canada to Florida. France, the Netherlands and Spain entered the war against Great Britain in an attempt to dilute Britain's emerging superpower status. Early on, all three countries quietly provided financial assistance to the American rebels. France officially entered the war in 1778 and soon sent troops, ships, and military equipment to fight against the British for the remainder of the war. Spain entered the war in 1779, officially as an ally of France, not the United States—Spain was not keen on encouraging similar rebellions in her own empire. The Netherlands entered the war late in 1780, but was soon overwhelmed by the British.

Blacks and Native Americans

African-Americans, slaves and free blacks, served on both sides during the war. Black soldiers served in northern militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South, where slaveowners feared arming slaves. Lord Dunmore, the Royal Governor of Virginia, issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British, and Sir Henry Clinton issued a similar edict in New York in 1779. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms. Many of the rest served as orderlies, mechanics, laborers, servants, scouts and guides, although more than half died in smallpox epidemics that swept the British forces, and a number were driven out of the British lines when food ran low. Despite Dunmore's promises, the majority were not given their freedom. In response, and because of manpower shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. All-black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many were slaves promised freedom for serving in lieu of their masters; another all-black unit came from Haiti with French forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought as Patriots. Most American Indian communities east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, many divided over the question of which side to support. Most Native Americans who joined the fight fought against the United States, since native lands were threatened by ever expanding Anglo-American settlement. An estimated 13,000 warriors fought on the British side; the largest group, the Iroquois Confederacy, fielded about 1,500 warriors against the Patriots.

War in the North

Massachusetts, 1774 to 1776

Iroquois Confederacy In 1774, the British parliament effectively abolished the provincial government of Massachusetts. Lieutenant General Thomas Gage, already the commander-in-chief of British troops in North America, was also appointed governor of Massachusetts and was instructed by King George's government to enforce royal authority in the troublesome colony. However, popular resistance compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in Boston. Gage commanded four regiments of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Patriots. On the night of 18 April 1775, General Gage sent 900 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at Concord, Massachusetts. Several Patriot riders — including Paul Revere — alerted the countryside, and when the British troops entered Lexington on the morning of 19 April, they found 75 minutemen formed up on the village common. Shots were exchanged, and the British moved on to Concord, where there was more fighting. By the time the "redcoats" (as the British soldiers were called) began the return march, several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road. A running fight ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily. With the Battle of Lexington and Concord — the "Shot heard 'round the world" — the war had begun. Afterwards, thousands of Patriot militiamen converged on Boston, bottling up the British in the city. Late in May, Gage received by sea about 4,500 reinforcements and a trio of generals who would play a vital role in the war: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. They formulated a plan to break out of the city. On June 17, 1775, British forces under General Howe seized the Charlestown peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill. The battle was technically a British victory, but losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. Thus the siege was not broken, and General Gage was soon replaced by Howe as commander-in-chief for the British. In July of 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces. The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March of 1776, heavy cannons that had been captured by Patriots at Fort Ticonderoga were moved to Boston, a difficult feat engineered by Henry Knox. When the guns were placed upon Dorchester Heights, overlooking the British positions, Howe's situation became untenable. The British evacuated the city on March 17, 1776 and sailed for temporary refuge in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The colonial militia dispersed, and in April Washington took most of the Continental Army to fortify New York City.

Canada, 1775 to 1776

During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. Congress had initially invited French-Canadians to join them as the fourteenth colony, but when that failed to happen, an invasion of Canada was authorized in an attempt to drive the British from the Canadian provinces. Two expeditions were undertaken. On September 16, 1775, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, capturing Montreal on November 13. General Guy Carleton, the governor of Canada, escaped to Quebec. The second expedition, led by Colonel Benedict Arnold, set out from Fort Western (present day Maine) on September 25. The expedition was a logistical nightmare, and many men succumbed to smallpox. By the time Arnold reached Quebec in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Nevertheless, Arnold demanded the surrender of the city, to no avail. Montgomery joined Arnold, and they attacked Quebec on December 31, but were soundly defeated by Carleton. Montgomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and many men were taken prisoner. The Patriots held on outside Quebec until the spring of 1776, and then withdrew. Another attempt was made by the Patriots to push back towards Quebec, but failed at Trois-Rivières on June 8, 1776. Carleton then launched his own invasion, and defeated Arnold in a naval battle on Lake Champlain (the Battle of Valcour Island) in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion of Canada had begun. The invasion of Canada ended as an embarrassing disaster for the Patriots, but Arnold's improvised navy on Lake Champlain managed to delay the fateful British counter thrust (the Saratoga Campaign) until 1777.

New York and New Jersey, 1776 to 1777

Having withdrawn from Boston, the British now focused on capturing New York City. General Howe, with the services of his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, began amassing troops on Staten Island in July of 1776. General Washington, with a smaller army of about 20,000 men, unwittingly violated a cardinal rule of warfare, and divided his troops about equally between Long Island and Manhattan, thus allowing the Howes to engage only one half of the Continental Army at a time. In late August, the Howes transported about 22,000 men (including 9,000 "Hessians") to Long Island. In the Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776, the British expertly executed a surprise flanking maneuver, driving the Patriots back to the Brooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe then laid siege to the works, but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime evacuation to Manhattan. Having taken Long Island, the Howes moved to seize Manhattan. On September 15, General Howe landed about 12,000 men on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Patriots withdrew to Harlem Heights, where they skirmished the next day, but held their ground. When Howe moved to encircle Washington's army in October, the Patriots again fell back, and a battle at White Plains was fought on October 28, 1776. Once more Washington retreated, but Howe, instead of aggressively pursuing the withdrawal, returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November, taking almost 3,000 prisoners. Four days later, Fort Lee, across the Hudson River from Fort Washington, was also taken. Hudson River is an iconic image of American history.]] General Lord Cornwallis continued to chase Washington's army through New Jersey, until the Patriots withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December. With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing Patriot army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 of the rebels. He controlled much of New York and New Jersey, and was in a good position to resume operations in the spring, with the rebel capital of Philadelphia in striking distance. The outlook of the Continental Army — and thus the revolution itself — was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote Thomas Paine, who was with the army on the retreat. The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Spirits were low, popular support was wavering, and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair. Washington reacted by taking the offensive, stealthily crossing the Delaware on Christmas night and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton, but was outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully attacked the British rearguard at Princeton on January 3, 1777. Washington then entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, having retaken much of New Jersey, and having secured two bold, morale-boosting victories in quick succession to reinvigorate the flagging revolution.

Saratoga Campaign, 1777

In the summer of 1777, the British launched a new expedition from Canada. Led by General Burgoyne, the intention was to seize the Lake Champlain and Hudson River corridor, effectively isolating New England from the rest of the American colonies. Burgoyne's invasion had two components: he would lead about 10,000 men along Lake Champlain towards Albany, New York, while a second column of about 2,000 men, led by Barry St. Leger, would move down the Mohawk River valley and link up with Burgoyne in Albany. Burgoyne set off in early July, recapturing Fort Ticonderoga from the retreating Patriots without firing a shot. He then proceeded overland towards Albany, but Patriots slowed his progress through the wilderness by destroying bridges and felling trees in his path. Running short on supplies, in August Burgoyne sent a detachment to raid nearby Bennington, Vermont. The raiders were decisively defeated by local Patriot militia, depriving Burgoyne of nearly 1,000 men and the much-needed supplies. decisively defeated commanded both American Indians and white Loyalists during the American Revolutionary War.]] Meanwhile, St. Leger—half of his force American Indians led by Joseph Brant—had laid siege to Fort Stanwix on the Mohawk River. About 800 Patriot militiamen and their Indian allies marched to relieve the siege, but were ambushed and scattered by British and Indians on August 6 at the Battle of Oriskany. Iroquois warriors fought on both sides of the battle, marking the beginning of a civil war within the Six Nations. When a second relief expedition approached, this time led by Benedict Arnold, the siege was lifted, and St. Leger's expedition returned to Canada. Burgoyne was on his own. Burgoyne pushed on towards Albany, his forces now reduced to about 6,000 men. A Patriot army of about 8,000 men, commanded by the newly arrived General Horatio Gates, had entrenched about 10 miles (16 km) south of Saratoga, New York. Burgoyne sent 2,000 men to outflank the Patriot position, but was checked by Generals Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan in the first battle of Saratoga on September 19, 1777. After the battle, the two armies dug in. Burgoyne was in trouble now, but he hoped that help from the south might be on the way. All along, Burgoyne had suggested that his invasion from Canada might be supported by a British offensive up the Hudson River from Howe's location in New York City. However, British war planners did not coordinate their efforts. General Howe had instead sailed away from New York on an expedition to capture Philadelphia (see next section). British General Henry Clinton, left in command at New York, did indeed sail up the Hudson in October, capturing several forts and burning Kingston (at the time the Patriot capital of New York), but his efforts were not enough to affect the events at Saratoga. Patriot militiamen, many of them outraged by the reported murder of an American woman at the hands of Burgoyne's Indian allies, flocked to Gates's army, swelling his force to 11,000 by the beginning of October. Burgoyne, his position becoming desperate, launched a new offensive, the second battle of Saratoga on October 7. The attack was repelled, and General Arnold, though relieved of command by Gates, rushed to the battle and led a decisive counterattack. Badly beaten, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17. Saratoga was the turning point of the war. Patriot confidence and determination, suffering from Howe's successful occupation of Philadelphia, was renewed. Even more importantly, the victory encouraged France to enter the war against Great Britain. Spain and the Netherlands soon did the same. For the British, the war had now become much more complicated.

Philadelphia Campaign, 1777 to 1778

Having secured New York City in his 1776 campaign, in 1777 General Howe concentrated on capturing the capital of Philadelphia. He moved slowly, landing 15,000 troops in late August at the northern end of Chesapeake Bay, about 55 miles (90 km) southwest of Philadelphia. Washington positioned his 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia, but was outflanked and driven back at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. The Continental Congress once again abandoned the city. British and Patriot forces maneuvered around each other for the next several days, clashing in minor encounters such as the so-called "Paoli Massacre." On September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington, and marched into Philadelphia unopposed. After taking the city, the British garrisoned about 9,000 troops in Germantown, five miles (8 km) above Philadelphia. Washington unsuccessfully attacked Germantown in early October, and then retreated to watch and wait. Meanwhile, the British secured the Delaware River by taking (with difficulty) forts Mifflin and Mercer in November. General Washington's problems at this time were not just with the British. In the so-called Conway Cabal, some politicians and officers unhappy with Washington's recent performance as commander-in-chief secretively discussed his removal. Washington, offended by the behind-the-scenes maneuvering, laid the whole matter openly before Congress. His supporters rallied behind him, and the episode abated. Washington and his army encamped at Valley Forge in December of 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, where they would stay for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. However, the army eventually emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by Baron von Steuben. Meanwhile, there was a shakeup in the British command, with General Clinton replacing Howe as commander-in-chief. French entry into the war had changed British war strategy, and Clinton was ordered by the government to go on the defensive in the North. He abandoned Philadelphia and marched back towards New York City. Washington's army shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal, and forced a battle at Monmouth on June 28, 1778, the last major battle in the North. Washington's second-in-command, General Charles Lee, ordered a controversial retreat during the battle, angering Washington and allowing Clinton's army to escape. By July, Clinton was in New York City, and Washington was again at White Plains. Both armies were back where they had been two years earlier. With the exception of scattered minor actions in the North, like the Battle of Stony Point, the focus of the war now shifted elsewhere.

War in the West

Main article: Frontier warfare during the American Revolution Frontier warfare during the American Revolution in the dead of winter led to the capture of General Henry Hamilton, Lieutenant-Governor of Canada.]] West of the Appalachian Mountains, the American Revolutionary War was an "Indian War." The British and the Continental Congress both courted American Indians as allies (or urged them to remain neutral), and many Native American communities became divided over what path to take. Like the Iroquois Confederacy, tribes such as the Cherokees and the Shawnees split into factions. Delawares under White Eyes signed the first Indian treaty with the United States, but other Delawares joined the British. The British supplied their Indian allies from forts along the Great Lakes, and tribesmen staged raids on Patriot settlements in New York, Kentucky, Pennsylvania and elsewhere. Joint Iroquois-Loyalist attacks in the Wyoming Valley and at Cherry Valley in 1778 helped provoke the scorched earth Sullivan Expedition into western New York during the summer of 1779. On the brutal western front, every man, woman, and child — regardless of race — was a potential casualty. In the Ohio Country, the Virginia frontiersman George Rogers Clark attempted to neutralize British influence among the Ohio tribes by capturing the outposts of Kaskaskia and Vincennes in the summer of 1778. When General Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, retook Vincennes, Clark returned in a surprise march in February of 1779 and captured Hamilton himself. However, a decisive victory in the West eluded the United States even as their fortunes had risen in the East. The low point on the frontier came in 1782 with the Gnadenhütten massacre, when Pennsylvania militiamen, unable to track down enemy warriors, executed nearly 100 Christian Delaware noncombatants, mostly women and children. Later that year, in the last major encounter of the war, a party of Kentuckians was soundly defeated by a superior force of British regulars and Native Americans. For generations in the United States, the exploits of George Rogers Clark were practically the only stories told about the Revolution in the West; other parts of the tale were apparently best left unremembered.

War in the South

During the first three years of the American Revolutionary War, the primary military encounters were in the North. One notable exception was in June of 1776, when General Henry Clinton sailed south to attack Charleston, South Carolina. This ended in humiliating defeat for the British, and the revolutionaries remained in control of the southern colonies for the next three years. Starting in 1778, the British once again turned their attention to the colonies of Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia, where they hoped to regain control with the assistance of southern Loyalists. On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps of 3,500 men from Clinton's army in New York captured Savannah, Georgia. A joint Franco-Patriot attempt to retake Savannah failed on October 9, 1779. In this assault Count Casimir Pulaski, the Polish commander of Patriot cavalry, was mortally wounded. With Savannah secured, Clinton could now launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed so miserably in 1776.

Carolinas, 1780 to 1781

cavalry in 1782.]] Clinton finally moved against Charleston in 1780, blockading the harbor in March, and building up about 10,000 troops in the area. Inside the city, General Benjamin Lincoln commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British Colonel Banastre Tarleton cut off the city's supply lines in victories at Monck’s Corner in April and Lenud’s Ferry in early May, Charleston was surrounded. The besiegers dug trenches closer and closer to the city until, on May 12, 1780, General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the American Civil War. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South’s biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war, and paving the way for what seemed like certain conquest of the South. The regiment of the southern Continental Army on their way to aid Charleston turned back after to North Carolina after their destination city fell. Colonel Tarleton pursued them and caught up to them on May 29, 1780. The affair that followed is the subject of much debate. Tarleton claims to have soundly defeated the Americans, but the common American verision says that Tarleton's forces either ignored the American attempt to surrender or fired upon them as they were in the process of doing so. The event became known as the Waxhaw massacre. The American verision of the story quickly spread through the colonies. “Bloody Tarleton” became a hated name among the rebels, and “Tarleton’s quarter”—referring to his reputed lack of mercy (or “quarter”)—soon became a Patriot rallying cry. With these events, organized Patriot resistance in the South had collapsed, though the war was carried on by partisans such as Francis Marion. General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The Continental Congress dispatched the "hero of Saratoga," General Horatio Gates, to the rescue with a new army. But Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina. The tables were quickly turned on Cornwallis, however. One wing of his army was utterly defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain on October 7, 1780, delaying his move into North Carolina. Kings Mountain was noteworthy because it was not a battle between British redcoats and Patriot troops: It was a battle between American Loyalists and American Patriots. The Revolutionary War was in many ways a civil war; this was especially true in the South. Gates was replaced by George Washington's most dependable subordinate, General Nathanael Greene. Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General Daniel Morgan, a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton’s troops at the