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Five Elements

Five elements

The five elements usually refer to wood, fire, earth, metal, and water in East Asian philosophy. Five elements may mean:
- Five elements (Chinese philosophy), the basis of the universe according to Chinese Taoism
- Five elements (Japanese philosophy), the basis of the universe according to Japanese philosophy
- Tattva, the basis of the universe according to Hindu Samkhya philosophy

Wood

:This article describes the material produced by trees. For other uses, see Wood (disambiguation). Wood (disambiguation)]] Wood derives from woody plants, notably trees but also shrubs. Wood from the latter is only produced in small sizes, reducing the diversity of uses. Wood is a hygroscopic, cellular and anisotropic material. Dry wood is composed of fibers of cellulose (40%–50%) and hemicellulose (20%–30%) held together by lignin (25%–30%). Wood is the xylem tissue of the plant.
Uses
xylems.]] Wood has been used by man for millennia for many purposes, being many things to many people. One of its primary uses is as fuel. It may also be used as a material, for making artworks, boats, buildings, furniture, ships, tools, weapons, etc. Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters, and remains in plentiful use today. Construction wood is commonly known as timber in International English, and lumber in American English. Wood may be broken down and be made into chipboard, engineered wood, hardboard, medium-density fibreboard (MDF), oriented strand board (OSB), paper or used to make other synthetic substances.
Formation
A tree increases in diameter by the formation, between the old wood and the inner bark, of new woody layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. Where there are clear seasons, this can happen in a discrete pattern, leading to what is known as growth rings, as can be seen on the end of a log. If these seasons are annual these growth rings are annual rings. Where there is no seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be absent. Within a growth ring it may be possible to see two more or less well-defined parts. The part nearest the centre of the tree is more open textured and almost invariably lighter in color than that near the outer portion of the ring. The inner portion is formed early in the season, when growth is comparatively rapid; it is known as early wood or spring wood. The outer portion is the late wood or summer wood, being produced in the summer. In white pines there is not much contrast in the different parts of the ring, and as a result the wood is very uniform in texture and is easy to work. In hard pines, on the other hand, the late wood is very dense and is deep-colored, presenting a very decided contrast to the soft, straw-colored early wood. In ring-porous woods each season's growth is always well defined, because the large pores of the spring abut on the denser tissue of the fall before. In the diffuse-porous woods, the demarcation between rings is not always so clear and in some cases is almost (if not entirely) invisible to the unaided eye.
Knots
Knots are portions of branches included in the wood of the stem or larger branch. Branches generally originate at or near the pith (central axis) of a stem, and the living portion will increase in size through the addition of annual woody layers which are a continuation of those of the stem. The included portion is irregularly conical in shape with the tip at the pith. The fibre direction is at right angles or oblique to the grain of the stem, thus producing local cross grain. Note that a small knot may also be the result of a dormant bud. During the development of a tree the lower limbs die, but may persist for a time--often for years. Subsequent layers of growth of the stem are no longer intimately joined with the dead limb, but are laid around it. Hence dead branches produce knots which are nothing more than pegs in a hole, and likely to drop out after the tree has been sawn. In grading lumber and structural timber, knots are classified according to their form, size, soundness, and the firmness with which they are held in place. Knots materially affect checking (cracking) and warping, ease in working, and cleavability of timber. They are defects which weaken timber and depreciate its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration. The weakening effect is much more serious where timber is subjected to bending and tension than where under compression. The extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position, size, number, direction of fibre, and condition. A knot on the upper side is compressed, while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. The knot, especially (as is often the case) if there is a season check in it, offers little resistance to this tensile stress. Small knots, however, may be so located in a beam along the neutral plane as actually to increase the strength by tending to prevent longitudinal shearing. Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface. Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it. Sound knots which occur in the central portion one-fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects. Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber. Only defects of the most serious character affect the elastic limit of beams. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the quality of the wood fibre than upon defects in the beam. The effect of knots is to reduce the difference between the fibre stress at elastic limit and the modulus of rupture of beams. The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects. Sound knots do not weaken wood when subject to compression parallel to the grain. For some purposes, e.g. wall panelling, knots are considered a plus as they add visual texture to the wood, giving it a more interesting appearance.
Heartwood and sapwood
grain (centre dark spot). The dark radial lines are small knots.]] Examination of the end of a log of many species reveals a darker-colored inner portion, called the heartwood or duramen, surrounded by a lighter-colored zone called the sapwood. In some instances this distinction in color is very marked; in others, the contrast is slight, so that it is not always easy to tell where one leaves off and the other begins. The color of fresh sapwood is always light, sometimes nearly white, but more often with a decided tinge of yellow or brown. Sapwood is comparatively new wood, comprising living cells in the growing tree. All wood in a tree is first formed as sapwood. Its principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves and to store up and give back according to the season the food prepared in the leaves. The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the volume of sapwood required. Hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker sapwood for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests. Sometimes trees grown in the open may become of considerable size, 30 cm or more in diameter, before any heartwood begins to form, for example, in second-growth hickory, or open-grown pines. As a tree increases in age and diameter an inner portion of the sapwood becomes inactive and finally ceases to function, as the cells die. This inert or dead portion is called heartwood. Its name derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree. This is shown by the fact that a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed. Some species begin to form heartwood very early in life, so having only a thin layer of live sapwood, while in others the change comes slowly. Thin sapwood is characteristic of such trees as chestnut, black locust, mulberry, osage-orange, and sassafras, while in maple, ash, hickory, hackberry, beech, and pine, thick sapwood is the rule. There is no definite relation between the annual rings of growth and the amount of sapwood. Within the same species the cross-sectional area of the sapwood is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree. If the rings are narrow, more of them are required than where they are wide. As the tree gets larger, the sapwood must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume. Sapwood is thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base, because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less. When a tree is very young it is covered with limbs almost, if not entirely, to the ground, but as it grows older some or all of them will eventually die and be broken off. Subsequent growth of wood may completely conceal the stubs which will however remain as knots. No matter how smooth and clear a log is on the outside, it is more or less knotty near the middle. Consequently the sapwood of an old tree, and particularly of a forest-grown tree, will be freer from knots than the heartwood. Since in most uses of wood, knots are defects that weaken the timber and interfere with its ease of working and other properties, it follows that sapwood, because of its position in the tree, may have certain advantages over heartwood. It is remarkable that the inner heartwood of old trees remains as sound as it usually does, since in many cases it is hundreds of years, and in a few instances thousands of years, old. Every broken limb or root, or deep wound from fire, insects, or falling timber, may afford an entrance for decay, which, once started, may penetrate to all parts of the trunk. The larvae of many insects bore into the trees and their tunnels remain indefinitely as sources of weakness. Whatever advantages, however, that sapwood may have in this connection are due solely to its relative age and position. If a tree grows all its life in the open and the conditions of soil and site remain unchanged, it will make its most rapid growth in youth, and gradually decline. The annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide, but later they become narrower and narrower. Since each succeeding ring is laid down on the outside of the wood previously formed, it follows that unless a tree materially increases its production of wood from year to year, the rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider. As a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual wood production is lessened, thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings. In the case of forest-grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate. Some trees, such as southern oaks, maintain the same width of ring for hundreds of years. Upon the whole, however, as a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases. There may be decided differences in the grain of heartwood and sapwood cut from a large tree, particularly one that is mature. In some trees, the wood laid on late in the life of a tree is softer, lighter, weaker, and more even-textured than that produced earlier, but in other species, the reverse applies. In a large log the sapwood, because of the time in the life of the tree when it was grown, may be inferior in hardness, strength, and toughness to equally sound heartwood from the same log.
Different woods
There is a strong relationship between the properties of wood and the properties of the particular tree that yielded it. For every trees species there is a range of density for the wood it yields. There is a rough correlation between density of a wood and its strength (mechanical properties). For example, while mahogany is a medium-dense hardwood which is excellent for fine furniture crafting, balsa is light, making it useful for model building. The densest wood may be black ironwood. Wood is commonly classified as either softwood or hardwood. The wood from conifers (e.g. pine) is called softwood, and the wood from broad-leaved trees (e.g. oak) is called hardwood. These names are a bit misleading, as hardwoods are not necessarily hard, and softwoods are not necessarily soft. The well-known balsa (a hardwood) is actually softer than any commercial softwood. Conversely, some softwoods (e.g. yew) are harder than most hardwoods.
Color
In species which show a distinct difference between heartwood and sapwood the natural color of heartwood is usually darker than that of the sapwood, and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous. This is produced by deposits in the heartwood of various materials resulting from the process of growth, increased possibly by oxidation and other chemical changes, which usually have little or no appreciable effect on the mechanical properties of the wood. Some experiments on very resinous Longleaf Pine specimens, however, indicate an increase in strength. This is due to the resin which increases the strength when dry. Such resin-saturated heartwood is called "fat lighter". Structures built of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and termites; however they are very flammable. Stumps of old longleaf pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires. Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut. Spruce impregnated with crude resin and dried is also greatly increased in strength thereby. Spruce Since the late wood of a growth ring is usually darker in color than the early wood, this fact may be used in judging the density, and therefore the hardness and strength of the material. This is particularly the case with coniferous woods. In ring-porous woods the vessels of the early wood not infrequently appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser late wood, though on cross sections of heartwood the reverse is commonly true. Except in the manner just stated the color of wood is no indication of strength. Abnormal discoloration of wood often denotes a diseased condition, indicating unsoundness. The black check in western hemlock is the result of insect attacks. The reddish-brown streaks so common in hickory and certain other woods are mostly the result of injury by birds. The discoloration is merely an indication of an injury, and in all probability does not of itself affect the properties of the wood. Certain rot-producing fungi impart to wood characteristic colors which thus become symptomatic of weakness. Ordinary sap-staining is due to fungous growth, but does not necessarily produce a weakening effect.
Structure
fungi (parquet).]] In coniferous or softwood species the wood cells are mostly of one kind, tracheids, and as a result the material is much more uniform in structure than that of most hardwoods. There are no vessels ("pores") in coniferous wood such as one sees so prominently in oak and ash, for example. The structure of the hardwoods is more complex. They are more or less filled with vessels: in some cases (oak, chestnut, ash) quite large and distinct, in others (buckeye, poplar, willow) too small to be seen plainly without a small hand lens. In discussing such woods it is customary to divide them into two large classes, ring-porous and diffuse-porous. In ring-porous species, such as ash, black locust, catalpa, chestnut, elm, hickory, mulberry, and oak, the larger vessels or pores (as cross sections of vessels are called) are localized in the part of the growth ring formed in spring, thus forming a region of more or less open and porous tissue. The rest of the ring, produced in summer, is made up of smaller vessels and a much greater proportion of wood fibres. These fibres are the elements which give strength and toughness to wood, while the vessels are a source of weakness. In diffuse-porous woods the pores are scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or row. Examples of this kind of wood are basswood, birch, buckeye, maple, poplar, and willow. Some species, such as walnut and cherry, are on the border between the two classes, forming an intermediate group. If a heavy piece of pine is compared with a light specimen it will be seen at once that the heavier one contains a larger proportion of late wood than the other, and is therefore considerably darker. The late wood of all species is denser than that formed early in the season, hence the greater the proportion of late wood the greater the density and strength. When examined under a microscope the cells of the late wood are seen to be very thick-walled and with very small cavities, while those formed first in the season have thin walls and large cavities. The strength is in the walls, not the cavities. In choosing a piece of pine where strength or stiffness is the important consideration, the principal thing to observe is the comparative amounts of early and late wood. The width of ring is not nearly so important as the proportion of the late wood in the ring. It is not only the proportion of late wood, but also its quality, that counts. In specimens that show a very large proportion of late wood it may be noticeably more porous and weigh considerably less than the late wood in pieces that contain but little. One can judge comparative density, and therefore to some extent weight and strength, by visual inspection. cherry No satisfactory explanation can as yet be given for the real causes underlying the formation of early and late wood. Several factors may be involved. In conifers, at least, rate of growth alone does not determine the proportion of the two portions of the ring, for in some cases the wood of slow growth is very hard and heavy, while in others the opposite is true. The quality of the site where the tree grows undoubtedly affects the character of the wood formed, though it is not possible to formulate a rule governing it. In general, however, it may be said that where strength or ease of working is essential, woods of moderate to slow growth should be chosen. But in choosing a particular specimen it is not the width of ring, but the proportion and character of the late wood which should govern. In the case of the ring-porous hardwoods there seems to exist a pretty definite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties. This may be briefly summed up in the general statement that the more rapid the growth or the wider the rings of growth, the heavier, harder, stronger, and stiffer the wood. This, it must be remembered, applies only to ring-porous woods such as oak, ash, hickory, and others of the same group, and is, of course, subject to some exceptions and limitations. In ring-porous woods of good growth it is usually the middle portion of the ring in which the thick-walled, strength-giving fibres are most abundant. As the breadth of ring diminishes, this middle portion is reduced so that very slow growth produces comparatively light, porous wood composed of thin-walled vessels and wood parenchyma. In good oak these large vessels of the early wood occupy from 6 to 10 per cent of the volume of the log, while in inferior material they may make up 25 per cent or more. The late wood of good oak, except for radial grayish patches of small pores, is dark colored and firm, and consists of thick-walled fibres which form one-half or more of the wood. In inferior oak, such fibre areas are much reduced both in quantity and quality. Such variation is very largely the result of rate of growth. Wide-ringed wood is often called "second-growth", because the growth of the young timber in open stands after the old trees have been removed is more rapid than in trees in the forest, and in the manufacture of articles where strength is an important consideration such "second-growth" hardwood material is preferred. This is particularly the case in the choice of hickory for handles and spokes. Here not only strength, but toughness and resilience are important. The results of a series of tests on hickory by the U.S. Forest Service show that: :"The work or shock-resisting ability is greatest in wide-ringed wood that has from 5 to 14 rings per inch (rings 1.8-5 mm thick), is fairly constant from 14 to 38 rings per inch (rings 0.7-1.8 mm thick), and decreases rapidly from 38 to 47 rings per inch (rings 0.5-0.7 mm thick). The strength at maximum load is not so great with the most rapid-growing wood; it is maximum with from 14 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3-1.8 mm thick), and again becomes less as the wood becomes more closely ringed. The natural deduction is that wood of first-class mechanical value shows from 5 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3-5 mm thick) and that slower growth yields poorer stock. Thus the inspector or buyer of hickory should discriminate against timber that has more than 20 rings per inch (rings less than 1.3 mm thick). Exceptions exist, however, in the case of normal growth upon dry situations, in which the slow-growing material may be strong and tough." The effect of rate of growth on the qualities of chestnut wood is summarized by the same authority as follows: :"When the rings are wide, the transition from spring wood to summer wood is gradual, while in the narrow rings the spring wood passes into summer wood abruptly. The width of the spring wood changes but little with the width of the annual ring, so that the narrowing or broadening of the annual ring is always at the expense of the summer wood. The narrow vessels of the summer wood make it richer in wood substance than the spring wood composed of wide vessels. Therefore, rapid-growing specimens with wide rings have more wood substance than slow-growing trees with narrow rings. Since the more the wood substance the greater the weight, and the greater the weight the stronger the wood, chestnuts with wide rings must have stronger wood than chestnuts with narrow rings. This agrees with the accepted view that sprouts (which always have wide rings) yield better and stronger wood than seedling chestnuts, which grow more slowly in diameter." In diffuse-porous woods, as has been stated, the vessels or pores are scattered throughout the ring instead of collected in the early wood. The effect of rate of growth is, therefore, not the same as in the ring-porous woods, approaching more nearly the conditions in the conifers. In general it may be stated that such woods of medium growth afford stronger material than when very rapidly or very slowly grown. In many uses of wood, strength is not the main consideration. If ease of working is prized, wood should be chosen with regard to its uniformity of texture and straightness of grain, which will in most cases occur when there is little contrast between the late wood of one season's growth and the early wood of the next.
Water content
Water occurs in living wood in three conditions, namely: (1) in the cell walls, (2) in the protoplasmic contents of the cells, and (3) as free water in the cell cavities and spaces. In heartwood it occurs only in the first and last forms. Wood that is thoroughly air-dried retains from 8-16% of water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried wood retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry. The general effect of the water content upon the wood substance is to render it softer and more pliable. A similar effect of common observation is in the softening action of water on paper or cloth. Within certain limits the greater the water content the greater its softening effect. Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of wood, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5 cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as that which a green block of the same size will support. The greatest increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected.
See also

- Tree
- List of woods
- Forestry
- Woodworm
- Wood plastic composite
- Engineered wood
- Wood as a medium
- Plywood
- Wood warping
References

- Hoadley, R. Bruce. (2000) Understanding Wood: A Craftsman’s Guide to Wood Technology. Taunton Press. ISBN 1-56158-358-8
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory. [http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr113/fplgtr113.htm The Wood Handbook: Wood as an engineering material]. General Technical Report 113. Madison, WI.
External links

- [http://www.woodbin.com/ref/wood/ WoodBin info on different kinds of wood]
- [http://wood.rleeden.no-ip.com Wood Identification Website]
- [http://internationalpaper.com/Our%20Company/Learning%20Center/How%20Paper%20Is%20Made.html How Paper Is Made]
- [http://www.trada.co.uk/ TRADA: Timber Research And Development Association]
- [http://www.sankey.ws/wetwood.html Wood moisture]
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- Category:Forestry ja:木 simple:wood

Water

:This article focuses on water as it is experienced in everyday life. See water (molecule) for information on the chemical and physical properties of pure water (H₂O, hydrogen oxide). Water (from the Old English word wæter; c.f German "Wasser", from PIE
- wod-or, "water") is a tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless (it has a slight hint of blue) substance in its pure form that is essential to all known forms of life and is known also as the most universal solvent. Water is an abundant substance on Earth. It exists in many places and forms. It appears mostly in the oceans and polar ice caps, but also as clouds, rain water, rivers, freshwater aquifers, and sea ice. On the planet, water is continuously moving through the cycle involving evaporation, precipitation, and runoff to the sea. Water fit for human consumption is called potable water. This natural resource is becoming more scarce in certain places as human population in those places increases, and its availability is a major social and economic concern.

Molecular properties

Forms of water

potable water] Water takes many different shapes on earth: water vapor and clouds in the sky, waves and icebergs in the sea, glaciers in the mountain, aquifers in the ground, to name but a few. Through evaporation, precipitation, and runoff, water is continuously flowing from one form to another, in what is called the water cycle. Because of the importance of precipitation to agriculture, and to mankind in general, different names are given to its various forms: while rain is common in most countries, other phenomena are quite surprising when seen for the first time. Hail, snow, fog or dew are examples. When appropriately lit, water drops in the air can refract sunlight to produce rainbows. Similarly, water runoffs have played major roles in human history as rivers and irrigation brought the water needed for agriculture. Rivers and seas offered opportunity for travel and commerce. Through erosion, runoffs played a major part in shaping the environment providing river valleys and deltas which provide rich soil and level ground for the establishment of population centers. Water also infiltrates the ground and goes into aquifers. This groundwater later flows back to the surface in springs, or more spectacularly in hot springs and geysers. Groundwater is also extracted artificially in wells. Because water can contain many different substances, it can taste or smell very differently. In fact, humans and other animals have developed their senses to be able to evaluate the drinkability of water: animals generally dislike the taste of salty sea water and the putrid swamps and favor the purer water of a mountain spring or aquifer.

Water in biology

From a biological standpoint, water has many distinct properties that are critical for the proliferation of life that set it apart from other substances. Water carries out this role by allowing organic compounds to react in ways that ultimately allows replication. It is a good solvent and has a high surface tension, and thus allows organic compounds and living things to be transported in it. Fresh water has its greatest density at 4°C, then becoming less dense as it freezes or heats up from this point. As a stable, polar molecule prevalent in the atmosphere, it plays an important atmospheric role as an absorber of infrared radiation, crucial in the atmospheric greenhouse effect without of which, the average surface temperature would be −18° Celsius. Water also has an unusually high specific heat, which plays many roles in regulating global and regional climate, such as the Gulf Stream climate, allowing life to survive. Water is a very good solvent, chemically not unlike ammonia, and dissolves many types of substances, such as various salts and sugar, and facilitates their chemical interaction, which aids complex metabolisms. Some substances, however, do not mix well with water, including oils and other hydrophobic substances. Cell membranes, composed of lipids and proteins, take advantage of this property to carefully control interactions between their contents and external chemicals. This is facilitated somewhat by the surface tension of water. Water drops are stable due to the high surface tension of water caused by the strong intermolecular forces called cohesive forces. This can be seen when small quantities of water are put onto a nonsoluble surface such as polythene: the water stays together as drops. On extremely clean glass the water may form a thin film because the molecular forces between glass and water molecules (adhesive forces) are stronger than the cohesive forces. This property plays a key role in plant transpiration. A simple but environmentally important and unique property of water is that its common solid form, ice, floats on the liquid. This solid phase is less dense than liquid water, due to the geometry of the strong hydrogen bonds which are formed only at lower temperatures. For almost all other substances and for all other 11 uncommon phases of water ice except ice-XI, the solid form is more dense than the liquid form. Fresh water is most dense at 4°C, and will sink by convection as it cools to that temperature, and if it becomes colder it will rise instead. This reversal will cause deep water to remain warmer than shallower freezing water, so that ice in a body of water will form first at the surface and progress downward, while the majority of the water underneath will hold a constant 4°C. This effectively insulates a lake floor from the cold. While this behavior may seem obvious, even intuitive, it should be noted that almost all other chemicals are denser as solids than they are as liquids, and freeze from the bottom up. Life on earth has evolved with and adapted itself to the important features of water. The existence of abundant liquid, vapor and solid forms of water on Earth has been an important factor in the abundant colonization of Earth's various environments by life-forms adapted to those varying and often extreme conditions. Civilizations have historically flourished around rivers and major waterways; Mesopotamia, the so-called cradle of civilization, is situated between two major rivers. Large metropolises like London, Paris, New York, and Tokyo owe their success in part to their easy accessibility via water and the resultant expansion of trade. Islands with safe water ports, like Singapore and Hong Kong, have flourished for precisely this reason. In places such as North Africa and the Middle East, where water is scarcer, access to clean drinking water was and is a major factor in human development.

Astronomical position of Earth and impact on its water

Mesopotamia The coexistence of the solid, liquid, and gaseous phases of water on Earth is vital to the origin, evolution, and continued existence of life on Earth. However, if the Earth's location in the solar system were even marginally closer or further from the Sun (ie, a million miles or so), the conditions which allow the three forms to be present simultaneously would be far less likely to exist. Earth's mass allows gravity to hold an atmosphere. Water vapor and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere provides a greenhouse effect which helps maintain a relatively steady surface temperature. If Earth were less massive, a thinner atmosphere would cause temperature extremes preventing the accumulation of water except in polar ice caps (as on Mars). According to the solar nebula model of the solar system's formation, Earth's mass may be largely due to its distance from the Sun. The distance between Earth and the Sun and the combination of solar radiation received and the greenhouse effect of the atmosphere ensures that its surface is neither too cold nor too hot for liquid water. If Earth were more distant, most water would be frozen. If Earth were nearer to the Sun, its higher surface temperature would limit the formation of ice caps, or cause water to exist only as vapor. In the former case, the low albedo of oceans would cause Earth to absorb more solar energy. In the second case, a runaway greenhouse effect and inhospitable conditions similar to Venus would result. It has been proposed that life itself may maintain the conditions that have allowed its continued existence. The surface temperature of Earth has been relatively constant through geologic time despite varying solar flux, indicating that a dynamic process governs Earth's temperature via a combination of greenhouse gases and surface or atmospheric albedo. This proposal is known as the Gaia hypothesis.

Human uses of water

Gaia hypothesis All known forms of life depend on water. Water is a vital part of many metabolic processes within the body. Significant quantities of water are used during the digestion of food. (Note however that some bacteria and plant seeds can enter a cryptobiotic state for an indefinite period when dehydrated, and come back to life when returned to a wet environment) About 72% of the fat free mass of the human body is made of water. To function properly the body requires between one and seven litres of water per day to avoid dehydration, the precise amount depending on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people. However, for those who do not have kidney problems, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) dangerous to drink too little. People do often drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication, which is frequently fatal. The "fact" that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced back to a scientific source. However, leading dieticians and nutritionists will tell you that this is the RDI (Recommended Daily Intake) of water. [http://ajpregu.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/283/5/R993]. The latest dietary reference intake report by the National Research Council recommended 2.7 liters of water total (including food sources) for women and 3.7 liters for men[http://www.iom.edu/report.asp?id=18495]. Water is lost from the body in urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath. Humans require water that does not contain too much salt or other impurities. Common impurities include chemicals and/or harmful bacteria, such as crypto sporidium. Some solutes are acceptable and even desirable for perceived taste enhancement and to provide needed electrolytes.

Water as a precious resource

:See water resources for information about fresh water supplies. fresh water Because of the growth of world population and other factors, the availability of drinking water per capita is shrinking. The issue of water shortage can be solved through more production, better distribution and less waste of it. For this reason, water is a strategic resource for many countries. Many battles and wars, such as the Six-Day War in the Middle East, have been fought to gain access to it. Experts predict more trouble ahead because of the world's growing population, increasing contamination through pollution, and global warming. UNESCO's World Water Development Report (WWDR, 2003) from its World Water Assessment Program indicates that, in the next 20 years, the quantity of water available to everyone is predicted to decrease by 30%. 40% of the world's inhabitants currently have insufficient fresh water for minimal hygiene. More than 2.2 million people died in 2000 from diseases related to the consumption of contaminated water or drought. In 2004, the UK charity WaterAid reported that a child dies every 15 seconds due to easily preventable water-related diseases. Some have predicted that clean water will become the "next oil", making Canada, with this resource in abundance, possibly the richest country in the world.

Regulating water distribution

Drinking water is often collected at springs or extracted from artificial borings in the ground, or wells. Building more wells in adequate places is thus a possible way to produce more water assuming the aquifers can supply an adequate flow. Other water sources are the rainwater and river or lake water. This surface water, however, must be purified for human consumption. This may involve removal of undissolved substances, dissolved substances and harmful microbes. Popular methods are filtering with sand which only removes undissolved material while chlorination and boiling kill harmful microbes. Distillation does all three functions. More advanced techniques exist, such as reverse osmosis. Desalination of abundant ocean or seawater is a more expensive solution used in coastal arid climates. The distribution of drinking water is done through municipal water systems or as bottled water. Governments in many countries have programs to distribute water to the needy at no charge. Others argue that the market mechanism and free enterprise are best to manage this rare resource, and to finance the boring of wells or the construction of dams and reservoirs. Reducing waste, that is using drinking water only for human consumption, is another option. In some cities, such as Hong Kong, sea water is extensively used for flushing toilets citywide in order to conserve fresh water resources. Polluting water may be the biggest single misuse of water; to the extent that a pollutant limits other uses of the water, it becomes a waste of the resource, regardless of benefits to the pollutor. Pharmaceuticals consumed by humans often end up in the waterways and can have detrimental effects on aquatic life if they bioaccumulate and if they are not biodegradable.

The impact of water on human culture

Water is considered a purifier in most religions, including Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Shinto. For instance, baptism in Christian churches is done with water. In addition, a ritual bath in pure water is performed for the dead in many religions including Judaism and Islam. In Islam, the daily Salah can only be done after ablution (Wodoo), that is, washing parts of the body in clean water. In Shinto, water is used in almost all rituals to cleanse a person or an area. Water is often believed to have spiritual powers. In Celtic mythology, Sulis is the local goddess of thermal springs; in Hinduism, the Ganga is also personified as a goddess. Alternatively, gods can be patrons of particular springs, river or lakes: for example in Greek and Roman mythology, Peneus was a river god, one of the three thousand Oceanids. The Greek philosopher Empedocles held that water is one of the four classical elements along with fire, earth and air, and was regarded as the ylem, or basic stuff of the universe. Water was considered cold and moist. In the theory of the four bodily humours, water was associated with phlegm. Water was also one of the Five Elements in traditional Chinese philosophy, along with earth, fire, wood, and metal. A common misconception about water is that it is a powerful conductor of electricity. Any electrical properties observable in water are due to the ions of mineral salts and carbon dioxide dissolved in it. Water does self-ionize (two water molecules become one hydroxide anion and one hydronium cation), but only at a very slight, almost immeasurable level. Pure water can also be electrolized into oxygen and hydrogen gases but without any dissolved ions, this is a very slow process and thus very little current is conducted. Many bottled water companies exploit another common misconception, advertising both purity and taste, even though pure water is tasteless.

External links

- [http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/phase.html Phase diagrams of water]
- [http://www.publicforuminstitute.org/issues/oceans/index.htm Oceans and Water Issues Page]
- [http://www.greenfacts.org/water-disinfectants/index.htm Scientific Facts on Water disinfectants] A faithful summary by GreenFacts of a leading scientific consensus report on Drinking Water Disinfectants published by the International Programme on Chemical Safety of the WHO.
- [http://www.hkc22.com/residentialwater.html Residential water problems and markets] Study paper from Helmut Kaiser Consultancy
- [http://www.hkc22.com/watermarketsworldwide.html Water markets worldwide] Study paper from Helmut Kaiser Consultancy
- [http://www.worldwaterforum.org/ World Water Forum]
- [http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/ World Water Assessment Program]
- [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001295/129556e.pdf United Nations' World Water Development Report]
- [http://www.gemswater.org/ United Nations GEMS/Water Programme]
- [http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ Water Structure and Behaviour]
- [http://www.wateraid.org/ WaterAid]
- [http://www.sahra.arizona.edu/newswatch/ SAHRA—Global Water Newswatch]
- [http://www.siwi.org/ Stockholm International Water Institute] (SIWI)
- [http://www.c-win.org/ California Water Impact Network (C-WIN)]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3752590.stm BBC: The water debate]
- [http://www.geocities.com/tapvsbottled/ Tap Water Vs Bottled Water] - Interesting site providing facts about tap and bottled water.
- [http://www.emagazine.com/september-october_2003/0903feat1.html E the Environmental Magazine piece on bottled water] (Oct 2003).
- [http://www.iapws.org/ International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam]
- [http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html US Geological Survey: Comprehensive discussion of the water cycle, in many languages]
- [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~etrnsfer/water.htm Why is water blue?]
- [http://www.water.org.uk/home/resources-and-links/water-for-health/ask-about/adults Water requirements in adults]
- [http://www.hkc22.com/environmentaltechnology.html/ Climate change raises markets for environmental technology, drinking water and clean energies]

References

- OA Jones, JN Lester and N Voulvoulis, Pharmaceuticals: a threat to drinking water? TRENDS in Biotechnology 23(4): 163, 2005
- Category:Beverages Category:Hydrology Category:Materials Category:Natural resources Category:Nutrition zh-min-nan:Chúi als:Wasser ko:물 ja:水 ms:Air simple:Water th:น้ำ

East Asian

East Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms. Geographically, it covers about 6,640,000 km², or 15% of the Asian continent. Culturally, it embraces those societies that are part of the Chinese cultural sphere, displaying heavy historical influence from the Classical Chinese language (including the traditional script), Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Daoism. This combination of language, political philosophy, and religion overlaps with the geographical designation of East Asia. The following countries are located in geographic East Asia:
- The People's Republic of China (including Hong Kong and Macau)
- Republic of China (Taiwan) (see political status of Taiwan)
- Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea)
- Republic of Korea (South Korea)
- Japan
- Mongolia The following peoples or societies are encompassed by cultural East Asia:
- Han Chinese society (which would also include the dispersed Chinese-dominated regions of Hong Kong, Macau, most of Singapore and Taiwan)
- Vietnamese society
- Korean society
- Japanese society The following countries or regions are sometimes considered part of East Asia. A major reason for disagreement on this question is the difference between the cultural and geographic definitions of "East Asia". Political perspective is also an important factor.
- The parts of China that are not historically Han Chinese: Xinjiang, Qinghai, Tibet (either East Asia or Central Asia)
- Vietnam (either East Asia or Southeast Asia)
- Russian Far East (either East Asia or North Asia) More than 1.5 billion people, about 40% of the population of Asia or a quarter of all the people in the world, live in geographic East Asia. The region is one of the world's most crowded places. The population density of East Asia, 230 per km², is over five times the world average.

Other subregions of Asia

- Southeast Asia
- South Asia (Indian Subcontinent)
- Central Asia
- Southwest Asia or West Asia (One definition of the Middle East is synonymous with Southwest Asia)
- North Asia (Siberia)
- Northern Eurasia (Extends into Europe)
- Central Eurasia (Extends into Europe)

Five elements (Chinese philosophy)

In traditional Chinese philosophy, natural phenomena can be classified into the Five Elements (): wood, fire, earth, metal, and water (木, 火, 土, 金, 水; mù, huǒ, tǔ, jīn, shǔi). These elements were used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. Five phases is another way of translating wǔxíng — literally, "five goings". Traditional Taijiquan schools relate them to footwork and refer to them as five "steps". The doctrine of five phases describes both a generating (生, shēng) cycle and an overcoming or restraining (克, kè) cycle of interactions between the phases. In the generating cycle, wood generates fire; fire generates earth; earth generates metal; metal generates water; water generates wood. In the overcoming cycle, wood overcomes earth; earth overcomes water; water overcomes fire; fire overcomes metal; metal overcomes wood.
Image:Interactions of Five Chinese Elements.png
The doctrine of five phases was employed in many fields of early Chinese philosophy, including seemingly disparate fields such as music, traditional Chinese medicine, and military strategy.

Correlations between the five elements and other categories

The Yuèlìng chapter (月令篇) of the Lǐjì (禮記) and the Huáinánzǐ (淮南子) make the following correlations: (see also pentatonic scale) (note: The Chinese word 青includes the range in the spectrum from green to blue, with shades down to black.) Some other correspondences are shown below: ^- Qí-lín (麒麟) was also associated later. The elements have also been correlated to the eight trigrams of the I Ching:

References

- Feng Youlan (Yu-lan Fung), A History of Chinese Philosophy, volume 2, p. 13
- Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, volume 2, pp. 262-23

External links

- [http://www.char4u.com/chinese-zodiac-sign.php Chinese Zodiac Chart] Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth. Category:Chinese astronomy Category:Chinese martial arts terms Category:Chinese thought Category:Traditional Chinese medicine Category:Numerology ja:五行思想

Five elements (Japanese philosophy)

The , lit. "five great," of Japanese tradition come largely from Onmyodo and Japanese conceptions of Chinese concepts such as feng shui. Unlike the system of scientific chemical elements, the godai do not represent fundamental parts that all things are composed of; rather, they represent categories and concepts by which all things can be likened, and therefore analysed in a spiritual, philosophical manner. Like in Chinese philosophy, each is associated with a number of attributes, such as color, direction, and physical and emotional attributes of people. Paying attention to the balance of these elements, and manipulating them, plays a central role in certain types of Japanese herbal medicine, and in the magics employed by ninja, ascetic monks, and others in anime and other fictional formats. The Japanese elements are perhaps best known in the West for their use in Miyamoto Musashi's famous text Gorin no sho (The Book of Five Rings), in which he explains different aspects of swordsmanship by assigning each aspect to an element.

The Elements

The five elements are, in ascending order of power, 地 (chi) Earth, 水 (sui) Water, 火 (ka or hi) Fire, 風 (fuu) Wind, and 空 (kuu). This last is usually translated as "Void" when referring to the elements, but refers to Sky in most other contexts, and is therefore sometimes translated as Heaven. Sometimes a sixth element is added, representing Consciousness.

Chi

Chi, meaning "Earth", represents the hard, solid objects of the world. The most basic example of Chi is in a stone. Stones are highly resistant to movement or change, as is anything heavily influenced by Chi. In people, the bones, muscles and tissues are represented by Chi. Emotionally, Chi is predominantly associated with stubbornness, stability, physicality, and gravity. In the mind, it is confidence; and emotionally it is a desire to have things remain as they are; a resistance to change. When under the influence of this chi mode or 'mood,' we are aware of our own physicality and sureness of action. (Note: This is a separate concept from the energy-force, pronounced in Chinese as qi or ch'i and in Japanese as ki, and written alternatively as 気,氣, or 气.)

Sui

Sui, meaning "Water", represents the fluid, flowing, formless things in the world. Outside of the obvious example of rivers and the like, plants are also categorized under Sui, as they adapt to their environment, growing and changing according to the direction of the sun and the changing seasons. Blood and other bodily fluids are represented by Sui, as are mental or emotional tendencies towards adaptation and change. Sui can be associated with emotion, defensiveness, adaptability, flexibility, suppleness, and magnetism.

Ka

Ka or Hi, meaning "Fire", represents the energetic, forceful, moving things in the world. Animals, particularly predators, capable of movement and full of forceful energy, are primary examples of Ka objects. Bodily, Ka represents our metabolism and body heat, and in the mental and emotional realms, it represents drive and passion. Ka can be associated with motivation, desire, intention, and an outgoing spirit.

Fū

Fū, meaning "Wind", represents those things that, even moreso than Sui objects, grow, expand, and enjoy freedom of movement. Aside from air, smoke, and the like, Fū can in some ways be best represented by the human mind. As we grow physically, we learn and expand mentally as well, in terms of our knowledge, our experiences, and our personalities. Fū represents breathing, and the internal processes associated with respiration. Mentally and emotionally, it represents an 'open-minded' attitude and carefree feeling. It can be associated with will, elusiveness, evasiveness, benevolence, compassion, wisdom, and electricity.

Kū

Kū, most often translated as "Void", but also meaning "Sky" or "Heaven", represents those things beyond our everyday experience, particularly those things composed of pure energy. Atoms, their component particles, and atomic forces fall under this category, as do people in a higher state of consciousness. Bodily, Kū represents spirit, thought, and creative energy. It represents our ability to think and to communicate, as well as our creativity. It can also be associated with power, creativity, spontaneity, inventiveness, nuclear reactions. Kū is of particular importance as the highest of the elements. In martial arts, particularly in fictional tales where the fighting discipline is blended with magic or the occult, one often invokes the power of the Void to connect to the quintessential creative energy of the world. A warrior properly attuned to the Void can sense his surrounding and act without thinking, and without using his physical senses.

Representations of the Godai

Void.]] The most common representations today of the five elements, outside of martial arts and fictional references (such as in anime), are found in Buddhist architecture. Many pagodas (仏塔 buttou) in Japan are of the Gojū no Tō (五重塔) style, meaning they have five tiers or levels. Each tier, naturally, represents one of the elements, beginning with Chi (earth) at the bottom, and ending with Kū (Void or Sky) at the top. Often, the spire at the top is also divided into five sections. Japanese stone lanterns as seen in Zen gardens and Buddhist temples also represent the five elements. The bottom-most piece, touching the ground, represents Chi; the next section, often shaped to look like a lotus flower, represents Sui; Ka is represented by the section encasing the lantern's light or flame, while Fū and Kū are represented by the last two sections, top-most and pointing towards the sky.

Reference

- Miller, Jeff (June 1996). "[http://www.ninjutsu.co.uk/uraomote/96/june.html#elem 5 Element Codes Part 1]." Ninjutsu - Ura & Omote. Category:Japanese philosophy ja:五大

Tattva

According to the Indian school of Samkhya philosophy, the Tattva are a way of directly "experiencing" the 5 alchemical elements. So they are therefore the logical progression of the previous elemental grade where the elements were first discussed and symbolic ways of working with them described. The student is then taught a method of directly learning the "theoretical" structure of the elemental worlds.

A Brief History of the Tattvas

There are six main schools of thought on Tattvic philosophy. The original Tattva system was developed by the Indian Maharshi Kapila as part of his Samkhya philosophy. This was about 700BCE, but the roots of Tattvic philosophy go back to at least 2000BCE. Kapila's Samkhya philosophy system divides the universe into five basic Tattvic shapes, which when countercharged become 25 Tattvas. The word Tattva is comprised of two words, Tat (meaning that) and Tvam (meaning thou). Tattva basicially means thatness, that is, the real being of anything. It is generally translated as meaning quality. Further, Tat represents the Godhead and Tvam the individual, giving a meaning (which fits in well with Hermetic Philosophy) of "That (which is the Universe) art thou." This is similar to the Hermetic axiom of "As above, so below", and is directly related to the concepts of the Macrocosm (Tat, Godhead) and Microcosm (Tvam, individual). The Hatha Yoga School of Tattvic Philosophy links the energy found in breathing (Prana) with the cycle of the five Tattvas. The eighth chapter of the Shivagama is The Science of Breath and the Philosophy of the Tattvas. It is written within this work that "The Universe came out of the Tattvas; it goes on by the instrumentality of the Tattvas; it disappears into the Tattvas; by the Tattvas is known the nature of the Universe." The Tattvas are the five modifications of the Great Breath, Prana, which is described as the life principle of the Universe (macrocosm) and man (microcosm). Prana consists of an ocean of the five Tattvas. The Buddhist texts of Indian Tantra describe 7 energy centres (chakras) in connection with the five Tattvas. This finds its ultimate refinement in the Tibetan Buddhist fivefold chakra system, which is part of their fivefold division of esoteric symbolism for categorising the Universe. The Tattvas correspond to the five lower chakras in the Indian scheme of energy centres, and to all five psychic centres of the Tibetan chakra scheme. H.P. Blavatsky's Theosophical Society, based in Adyar, India, derived the bulk of their knowledge on Tattvas from Rama Prasad, who taught the Tattvic philosophy of the Hatha Yoga School. The Theosophists combined these teachings with those of the Esoteric Tibetan Buddhist tradition. On top of this they conjectured two more Tattvas, to make a total of seven, which allowed them to directly match the Tattvas to there sevenfold system, in particular to the seven Chakras. The Tattvas they added were Adi, which is egg shaped, and Anupadaka, which is a crescent moon containing a radiant white sun. The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn incorporated the Theosophical Tattva system, however discarding the sixth and seventh conjectured Tattvas, The Golden Dawn utilised Kapila's Sankhya Tattva system of 25 countercharges. This was the only Eastern concept that the Golden Dawn introduced into their system. It was perhaps influenced by the mention of Tattvas in Bulwer-Lytton's novel Zanoni, which was very likely the first mention of Tattvas in Western literature. In Zanoni the poisoning of the main character was neutralised by the magical visualization of the Apas Tattva. The Golden Dawn system parallels the five Tattvas to the Western Doctrine of the 5 elements, the four primary elements and quintessence.

The Tattvic Philosophy in Western Tradition

The Tattvas are the astral form of the Elements, upon which the Physical elements are based. The process of how the Tattvic elements become manifest is a complex process, which will be described briefly below. From the Sun, a solar wind constantly streams forth. It is a partially electro-magnetic nitrous gas, which is very subtle and non-physical in nature. This is the Prana (Life Matter) of the Eastern Mysteries. The Earth's magnetic field captures this incorporeal nitre as the wind streams past our planet. This unmanifest substance circulates around the planet in a series of fivefold waves, each of which comprises five sub-waves. These waves are constantly rising and falling. It becomes more and more physical as it passes through our atmosphere. A salt is formed as this nitre passes through water vapour. This is "a most subtle virgin earth," the Prima Materia of the alchemists. The Tattva flows start at sunrise and flow from Spirit, to Air, to Fire, to Water, to Earth. Each sub-Tattva takes four minutes and 48 seconds to transit a given spot, meaning it takes a total of 24 minutes for each main Tattva. Thus it takes a total of two hours for a primary flow of all five Tattvas to transit. The Earth's electromagnetic field and ley lines are vitalised by these currents. (Note: There are different schools of thought as to the timing of the Tattva flows. This is just one school of thought and was used by the Golden Dawn system.) All five Tattvas are considered to be ethers. The atoms of the ether bring the atoms of the atmosphere into the necessary state of vibration for us to perceive it. Each of the Tattvic ethers is related to one of the five senses. Rama Prasad gives the example that Light is the manifestation of the Tejas Tattva (the luminiferous ether) within the atmosphere, that is, matter is brought into the correct visual vibration for us to perceive it. In Nature's Finer Forces, Tattvas are defined as the following: "a mode of motion; the central impulse, which keeps matter in a certain vibratory state; a distinct form of vibration. Also, "every form and every motion is a manifestation of these Tattvas singly or in conjunction." The first statement reflects what hermetic science states of the nature of the alchemical processes, that is, "to raise the vibrations of matter" and thus bring it into the condition of harmony, Quintessence. Modern Physics concurs with this ancient knowledge that all matter is energy at various vibratory rates. The second statement, that all matter and motion is a manifestation of the Tattvas is a direct parallel with the Western Doctrine of Elements, which also asserts that all matter is comprised of varying proportions of the subtle elements. The other direct parallel between the Eastern and Western systems is that Tattvic philosophy asserts that Akasha is the most important Tattva. Akasha is what Western Tradition calls Spirit, or Quintessence, and like the four base elements all deriving from Spirit, "it is out of Akasha that every form comes, and it is in Akasha that every form lives." The Western Tradition's Doctrine of Elements is exemplified by the Enochian system of magick. Compared with the Tattvas, the Enochian system has been more intellectualised. This seems only natural in that (in psychological terms) the Western tradition is one of "thinking" and the Eastern tradition is one of "feeling." Modern Enochian magickians have proposed a direct correlation between the Elements and the Forces of modern science. This is perhaps very relevant to the Tattvas, in that as "ethers" they are subtle and intangible, something that gives form to matter. Akasha/Spirit is correlated to the hypothesised "Superforce" of the Grand Unified Field theory of Relativity. Air and Fire are in juxtaposition in Enochian, compared to the Vayu and Tejas of Tattvic Philosophy, but are equated to the weak and strong nuclear forces of physics. Water/Apas is linked to electromagnetism and Earth/Prithivi is linked to Gravity.

Symbols and Colours

Each of the Tattvas has a corresponding symbol and colour, which can be considered an atomic form of the element when it is viewed clairvoyantly. These symbols differ from the Western Tradition symbols and colour attributions, and also vary slightly between the various Tattvic philosophies. Each of the Tattvas and their attributes will be described separately below. Akasha The Akasha Tattva is associated with the Spirit of Western Tradition and is the sonoriferous ether (sound). It is represented by some as a black or indigo Vesica Piscis, which is almond shaped. It represents the womb of the Universal Mother. In other versions, such as the Golden Dawn tradition, Akasha is symbolised by an oval or egg shape. Akasha is "every colour" or "clear." Black can also be seen as the absorption of all other colours, and its "flashing" (complimentary) colour is luminous. The quote given before, that Akasha is the most important Tatva, in that all forms come from and live in it, is of particular importance. The Akasha Tattva, when used as a "doorway" for scrying can allow one to scan for information within what Theosophists have termed the Akashic Record. The Akashic record contains, as the quote states, all forms. It could be compared with the "collective unconscious" of Jungian psychology. It contains all memories of human experience, but beyond it contains all future "history" in seed form. Vayu Vayu is the tangiferous ether (touch). It is associated with the element of Air in Western Tradition. It is represented by a sky-blue circle. Tejas Tejas is the luminiferous ether (sight/light/colour). It is associated with the element of Fire in Western Tradition. It is represented by a red equilateral triangle. The Fire of Tejas is considered to be Agni, which is the Vedic sacrificial fire and the interior fire of Kundalini Yoga. Apas Apas is the gustiferous ether (taste). It is associated with the element of Water in Western Tradition. It is represented in the Tibetan version as a purple half circle. The Golden Dawn depicted Apas as a white or silver crescent, with the two points up. Prithivi Prithivi is the odoriferous ether (smell). It is associated with the element of Earth in Western Tradition. It is represented by a yellow square. The sub-Tattvas are represented by placing a smaller Tattvic symbol within the larger main Tattvic symbol. This gives a total of 25 Tattvas: Spirit of Spirit, Air of Spirit, Fire of Spirit, Water of Spirit, Earth of Spirit; Air of Air, Fire of Air, Water of Air, Earth of Air, Spirit of Air; Fire of Fire, Water of Fire, Earth of Fire, Spirit of Fire, Air of Fire; Water of Water, Earth of Water, Spirit of Water, Air of Water, Fire of Water; & Earth of Earth, Spirit of Earth, Air of Earth, Fire of Earth, Water of Earth. Clairvoyance and the Tattvas Within the Western Tradition, the Tattvas are primarily used to help develop the faculty of astral clairvoyance. The symbol of the Tattvas is placed upon cards. Sub-Tattvas are placed within the larger Tattva image. The process of scrying is started by sitting comfortably and gazing fixedly at the Tattvic symbol until it is thoroughly assimilated. The edges of the Tattvic symbol will appear luminous after several minutes, as the flashing (or complimentary) colour appears on the retina. This complimentary colour is considered to be the astral counterpart of the actual colour. While meditating on the chosen Tattva, one should also "feel" the attributes of the associated element, letting the entire consciousness be filled with the appropriate sensations. For example with the Vayu Tattva, one could imagine a breeze blowing around and through them, concentrating on how this airy breeze feels, smells, tastes and sounds. Once the Tattva has been completely assimilated the card can be set aside and the eyes closed. The Tattvas symbol should appear in its flashing colour. This symbol serves as a doorway through which one travels. When entering through the symbol one should feel themselves pass through a 'veil' or membrane. Once on the other side, one should take a moment to adjust to their new surroundings, taking note of what the new surroundings consist of. A guide can be summoned to accompany you on your exploration of the surroundings, who can explain aspects of the environment to you, and take you to important entities who live within the realm (According to 'safety' and 'protocol' various esoteric groups insist on the following: when first met, a guide should be tested with elemental signs, and the highest magickal names associated with the element. If the guide responds correctly to the signs, then it can be followed in good faith.) It is important to show all due courtesy to a guide, and thank it for its time and co-operation and bid it farewell. It is also of benefit to ask its permission to summon it again when you next return to this Tattva. This initial entry point is also where one departs from, stepping backwards through the portal. Once back on the other side, one should visualise the portal closing. This process is intended to allow one to enter into the actual element (Tattva flow), initially via "active imagination" and eventually by spontaneous clairvoyance. By scrying the astral current we are attempting to see beyond the material manifestation of an element by transmuting the physical Element into its astral state. The intent is to learn about the vital principle, which the element represents. Within the astral this vital principle becomes perceptible to us as living beings of approximately human form. Everything within this astral environment is of a form and appearance that is highly symbolic of the meanings and intentions of what it represents. On the physical plane humans have obscured this process of dressing in a ways not symbolic of their true natures. Most animals however still retain a degree of symbolism, such as bright colours often representing the dangerous nature of the animal (especially in the case of tropical fish, tree frogs, and spiders). On the astral, Elementals may masquerade for a while in deceptive form, buts its true form is always constant with its Element and character. (More from the 'traditions': To try and 'force' them into assuming their true form one can test them by using God Names, Grade/Elemental signs, Invoking/Banishing forms of the Elemental pentagrams). Deep scanning of an entity's core ideals and feelings allows one to compare how it "feels" with how it "appears," and if the feelings don't match with its outward appearance then deception can be detected. [More from the 'traditions': Every opportunity to question entities encountered should be taken, being sure to respect and appreciate them as sentient beings. All due courtesy should be shown to them in accordance with their rank, deference and humility being shown to the Superior Orders, the Archangels, Angels and Rulers. Those of lower rank than oneself should be treated as equals, while those of the lowest ranks should be treated with the respect one would show to a servant, without allowing familiarity. Elementals such as fairies, gnomes, salamanders, etc., must be treated with caution as they are often prone to mischievous although are generally free from malice.]

Conclusion

Through the use of the Tattvas great insight can be gained into the structure of the astral, and the mechanics which remain concealed from physical reality. No opportunity should be overlooked to learn and explore the environments, and wise and knowledgeable entities should be sought who may be able to impart knowledge of and insights into magickal and alchemical processes and concepts.

References

- Frater A.M.B., et. al, Discipulus Inceptor (H.O.M.C., 1999) Privately published
- Regardie, Israel, et. al., eds., The Golden Dawn: A Complete Course in Practical Ceremonial Magic (Llewellyn, 1989) ISBN 0875426638
- Mumford, John , Magical Tattwa Cards (Llewellyn, 1997) ISBN 1567184723
- Prasad, Rama, Nature's Finer Forces: The Science of Breath and the Philosophy of the Tattvas (Kessinger, 1997) ISBN 1564598039
- Fletcher, Ella A., Law of the Rhythmic Breath: Teaching the Generation, Conservation, and Control of Vital Force (Kessinger, 1997) ISBN 156459839X
- Ramacharaka Yogi, Science of Breath (Kessinger, 1997) ISBN 156459744X

External links

- [http://www.magicalpath.net/articles/tattva.htm An Introduction to Tattvas] The basis for this entry
- [http://www.a-m-h-r.org/members/gcl/tattwas.html What Tattwas Are & Uses for the Aspirant in Developing Psychic Energy]
- [http://www.osogd.org/ Open Source Order of the Golden Dawn] Various Flying Rolls on Tattva usage Category:Samkhya

Element

The term, element, means "a constituent part", and may also mean: In chemistry or electronics:
- Chemical element, the class of atoms with the same number of protons in the nucleus
- Electrical element, any device (such as an inductor, resistor, capacitor, conductor, line, or cathode ray tube) with terminals at which it may be connected directly with other devices. It can also mean an antenna radiator (either parasitic or active). In circuitry, it can be used to specify a portion of an integrated circuit that contributes directly to the IC's operation In mathematics:
- Element (mathematics), a member of a set or class
- Euclid's Elements, a mathematical treatise on geometry In philosophy:
- Classical element, in ancient times believed to be the realm wherein all matter in the universe existed and whereof all matter consisted. Also used for ritual purposes by modern paganism, most prominently Wicca and ceremonial magic.
- Five elements (Chinese philosophy), the basis of the universe according to Chinese Taoism
- Five elements (Japanese philosophy), the basis of the universe according to Japanese philosophy
- Tattva, the basis of the universe according to Hindu Samkhya philosophy In music:
- Elements - The Best of Mike Oldfield, a compilation album by Mike Oldfield
- The Elements (song), by Tom Lehrer Element may also refer to:
- Element Skateboards, a skateboard manufacturer
- Honda Element, a sport utility vehicle The term is also used as terminology in:
- Morse code, where the dot and dash are elements
- XML, where an element is a particular kind of grammatical fragment of a document

The Laws (Fourth Way)

In the school of thought created by G.I. Gurdjieff The Laws are governing principles of the universe. They are mostly numerological and include:
- The Law of Two
- The Law of Three or Three in One
- The Law of Four
- The Law of Five
- The Law of Six
- The Law of Seven
- The Law of Octaves
- The Law of Nine
- The Law of Twelve
- The Law of Twenty-Four
- The Law of Forty-Eight
- The Law of Ninety-Six Gurdjieff and his followers have written that one of the major aims of the Fourth Way system is to escape from the influence of the Law of Accident.

External links

- [http://www.rahul.net/raithel/otfw/ On the Fourth Way]
- [http://www.rahul.net/raithel/otfw/number.html Qualitive nember theory]
- [http://www.kheper.net/topics/Gurdjieff/cosmology.htm Gurdjieff Cosmology] Category:Fourth Way Category:Cosmology

Saint-Aubin-Sauges (kommun, CH-NE)

Saint-Aubin-Sauges, kommun i distrikt Boudry, Neuchâtel, Schweiz.

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Bética

Ladinakeelne nimi	Pealinn (lad.)

Five elements

See also

Wood

Uses

Formation

Knots

Heartwood and sapwood

Different woods

Color

Structure

Water content

See also

References

External links

Water

Molecular properties

Forms of water

Water in biology

Astronomical position of Earth and impact on its water

Human uses of water

Water as a precious resource

Regulating water distribution

The impact of water on human culture

See also

External links

References

East Asian

Other subregions of Asia

See also

Five elements (Chinese philosophy)

Correlations between the five elements and other categories

See also

References

External links

Five elements (Japanese philosophy)

The Elements

Chi

Sui

Ka

Fū

Kū

Representations of the Godai

See also

Reference

Tattva

A Brief History of the Tattvas

The Tattvic Philosophy in Western Tradition

Symbols and Colours

Conclusion

See also

References

External links

Element

See also

The Laws (Fourth Way)

See Also:

External links

Saint-Aubin-Sauges (kommun, CH-NE)

Bética