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Heinrich Isaac

Heinrich Isaac

Heinrich Isaac (also Henricus, Arrigo d'Ugo, and Arrigo il Tedesco) (around 1450 – March 26, 1517) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He is regarded as one of the most significant contemporaries of Josquin Desprez, and had an especially large influence on the subsequent development of music in Germany. Little is known about Isaac's early life, but it is probable that he was born in Flanders. It is known that he was writing music by the mid 1470s, and the first documentary reference to him is from 1484, when he was court composer at Innsbruck. The following year, he entered the service of Lorenzo de' Medici at Florence, where he was organist, choir master, and teacher to Lorenzo's children; he assumed this post on the death of Antonio Squarcialupi. One of his students in Florence was the future Pope Leo X. In 1494, the Medici were banished from Florence; the era of Savonarola was beginning, and Isaac was left to find employment elsewhere. However, he had married a Florentine and so maintained a household there throughout the remainder of his life. By 1497, Isaac was in the employ of Emperor Maximilian I. He travelled widely in Germany, and is credited with having a big influence on German composers of the time. In 1502, he returned to Italy, going to Florence and then Ferrara, where he competed with Josquin for employment: a famous letter from the agent of the d'Este family compared the two composers, saying that "Isaac is of a better nature than Josquin, and while it is true that Josquin is a better composer, he only composes when he wants to, and not when asked; Isaac will compose when you want him to." Isaac returned to Florence in 1514, and died there in 1517. Isaac composed a wide variety of music, including masses, motets, German and Italian songs and instrumental music. He was one of the most prolific composers of his time, but his work has been largely neglected in favour of Josquin (although the composer Anton Webern wrote his thesis on Isaac). His best known work is probably the lied Innsbruck, ich muss dich lassen, of which he made at least two versions. It is possible, however, that the melody itself is not by Isaac, and only the setting is original. The same melody was later used as the theme for the Lutheran chorale O Welt, ich muss dich lassen, which was the basis of works by Johann Sebastian Bach and Johannes Brahms. Isaac is held in high regard for his Choralis Constantinus. It is a huge anthology of over 450 chant-based polyphonic motets for the Proper of the Mass. It had its origins in a commission that Isaac received from the Cathedral in Konstanz, Germany in 1507 to set many of the Propers unique to the local liturgy. Isaac was in Konstanz because Maximilian had called a meeting of the Reichstag (German Parliament of nobles) there and Isaac was on hand to provide music for the Imperial court chapel choir. After the deaths of both Maximilian and Isaac, Ludwig Senfl, who had been Isaac's pupil as a member of the Imperial court choir, gathered all the Isaac settings of the Proper and placed them into liturgical order for the church year. But the anthology was not published until 1555, after Senfl's death by which time the reforms of the Council of Trent had made many of the texts obsolete. The motets remain some of the finest examples of chant-based Renaissance polyphony in existence. The influence of Isaac was especially profound in Germany, since he was the first significant master of the Franco-Flemish polyphonic style who both lived there, and whose music was widely distributed there. It was through him that the polyphonic style of the Netherlanders became widely accepted in Germany, making possible the further development of contrapuntal music there.

References


- Martin Staehelin: "Heinrich Isaac," The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN 1561591742
- James D. Feiszli: "Performance Editions from Heinrich Isaac's 'Choralis Constantinus'." D.M.A. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1983. Isaac, Heinrich Isaac, Heinrich Isaac, Heinrich Isaac, Heinrich

1450

Events


- March - French troops under Guy de Richemont besiege the English commander in France, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, in Caen
- April 15 - Battle of Formigny. French troops under the Comte de Clermont defeat an English army under Sir Thomas Kyriel and Sir Matthew Gough which was attempting to relieve Caen
- May 8 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen revolt against King Henry VI.
- June 18 - Battle of Seven Oaks. Jack Cade's rebels are driven from London by loyal troops, bringing about the collapse of the rebellion
- July 6 - Surrender of Caen to the French
- August 12 - Surrender of Cherbourg, the last English territory in Normandy, to the French
- Universitat de Barcelona founded.
- Charles VIII of Sweden who was also serving as Carl I of Norway is declared deposed from the later throne in favor of Christian I of Denmark.

Births


- August 18 - Marko Marulic, Croatian poet (died 1524)
- William Catesby, English politician (died 1485)
- Gaspar Corte-Real, Portuguese explorer (died 1501)
- Heinrich Isaac, Franco-Flemish composer (died 1517)
- Bartolommeo Montagna, Italian painter (died 1523)
- Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter
- Pandolfo Petrucci, tyrant of Siena (died 1512)
- Arnolt Schlick, German composer and organist
- Piero Soderini, Florentine statesman (died 1513)
- Pietro Antonio Solari, Italian architect (died 1493)

Deaths


- February 9 - Agnès Sorel, mistress of Charles VII of France (b. 1421)
- May 2 - William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English military leader (born 1396)
- May 18 - Sejong the Great of Joseon, ruler of Korea (born 1397)
- June 10 - William Tresham, English politician
- August 27 - Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (b. 1395)
- Louis Aleman, French cardinal
- James Fiennes, 1st Baron Saye and Sele
- Francis I, Duke of Brittany (born 1414)
- Thomas Occleve, English poet (born 1368)
- 'Abd al-Latif, ruler of Transoxonia Category:1450 ko:1450년

March 26

March 26 is the 85th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (86th in leap years). There are 280 days remaining.

Events


- 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- 1552 - Guru Amar Das becomes the Third Sikh Guru
- 1636 - Utrecht University is founded in The Netherlands
- 1707 - The Act of Union becomes law, making England and Scotland one country.
- 1808 - Charles IV of Spain abdicates in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII.
- 1812 - An earthquake destroys Caracas, Venezuela.
- 1839 - The first Henley Royal Regatta is held.
- 1871 - The Paris Commune is formally established in Paris.
- 1881 - Domnitor Carol I of the Principality of Romania is proclaimed the first King of Romania.
- 1913 - Balkan War: Bulgarian forces take Adrianople.
- 1917 - World War I: First Battle of Gaza - British troops are halted after 17,000 Turks block their advance.
- 1937 - In Crystal City, Texas, spinach growers erect a statue of the cartoon character Popeye.
- 1942 - World War II: In Poland, Auschwitz receives its first female prisoners.
- 1943 - World War II: Battle of Komandorski Islands - In the Aleutian Islands the battle begins when United States Navy forces intercept Japanese attempting to reinforce a garrison at Kiska.
- 1953 - Jonas Salk announces his polio vaccine.
- 1958 - The United States Army launches Explorer III.
- 1958 - The African Regroupment Party (PRA) is launched at a meeting in Paris.
- 1971 - East Pakistan declares its independence from Pakistan to form People's Republic of Bangladesh and Bangladesh Liberation War begins.
- 1973 - The soap opera The Young and the Restless debuts on CBS television.
- 1975 - The Biological Weapons Convention enters into force.
- 1979 - Anwar al-Sadat, Menachem Begin and Jimmy Carter sign the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty in Washington, DC
- 1982 - A groundbreaking ceremony for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial is held in Washington, DC.
- 1995 - The Schengen Treaty goes into effect.
- 1996 - The International Monetary Fund approves a $10.2 billion loan for Russia.
- 1997 - Thirty-nine bodies found in the Heaven's Gate cult suicides.
- 1998 - Oued Bouaicha massacre in Algeria; 52 people killed with axes and knives, 32 of them babies under the age of 2.
- 1999 - The "Melissa worm" infects e-mail systems around the world.
- 1999 - A jury in Michigan finds Dr. Jack Kevorkian guilty of second-degree murder for administering a lethal injection to a terminally ill man.
- 2000 - The Seattle Kingdome is imploded to make room for a new stadium.
- 2000 - Presidential elections are held in Russia, and Vladimir Putin is elected President.
- 2001- The Final Edition of WCW Monday Nitro airs on TNT. Vince Mcmahon appeared on simulcast between WWE Raw and Nitro to give a speech about what he was going to do with WCW. This is the final show of WCW and the last night of wrestling on the turner networks to this date.
- 2003 - The Supreme Court of the United States hears oral arguments in Lawrence v. Texas.
- 2005 - The Revived Series of British Science Fiction Program Doctor Who begins Broadcasting on British Television

Births


- 1516 - Conrad Gessner, Swiss naturalist (d. 1565)
- 1554 - Charles of Lorraine, Duke of Mayenne, French military leader (d. 1611)
- 1753 - Benjamin Thompson, American physicist and inventor (d. 1814)
- 1859 - Alfred Edward Housman, English poet (d. 1936)
- 1874 - Robert Frost, American poet (d. 1963)
- 1875 - Max Abraham, German physicist (d. 1922)
- 1875 - Syngman Rhee, President of South Korea (d. 1965)
- 1879 - Othmar Ammann, Swiss-born bridge engineer (d. 1965)
- 1884 - Wilhelm Backhaus, German pianist (d. 1969)
- 1888 - Elsa Brändström, Swedish nurse (d. 1948)
- 1904 - Joseph Campbell, American author (d. 1987)
- 1904 - Xenophon Zolotas, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2004)
- 1905 - Viktor Frankl, Austrian neurologist and psychiatrist (d. 1997)
- 1911 - Bernard Katz, German-born biophysicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2003)
- 1911 - Tennessee Williams, American dramatist (d. 1983)
- 1913 - Paul Erdős, Hungarian mathematician (d. 1996)
- 1914 - Toru Kumon, Japanese educator (d 1995)
- 1914 - William Westmoreland, U.S. general (d. 2005)
- 1916 - Christian B. Anfinsen, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)
- 1916 - Sterling Hayden, American actor (d. 1986)
- 1917 - Rufus Thomas, American musician (d. 2001)
- 1919 - Strother Martin, American actor (d. 1980)
- 1923 - Bob Elliott, American comedian
- 1925 - Pierre Boulez, French composer and conductor
- 1930 - Gregory Corso, American poet (d. 2001)
- 1930 - Sandra Day O'Connor, U.S. Supreme Court Justice
- 1931 - Leonard Nimoy, American actor and director
- 1934 - Alan Arkin, American actor
- 1935 - Mahmoud Abbas, President of Palestine National Authority
- 1938 - Anthony James Leggett, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1940 - James Caan, American actor
- 1940 - Nancy Pelosi, American politician
- 1942 - Erica Jong, American author
- 1943 - Bob Woodward, American journalist
- 1944 - Diana Ross, American singer (Supremes)
- 1946 - Johnny Crawford, American actor
- 1947 - Dar Robinson, American stunt man (d. 1986)
- 1948 - Steven Tyler, American musician (Aerosmith)
- 1949 - Vicki Lawrence, American actress and singer
- 1949 - Patrick Süßkind, German writer
- 1950 - Teddy Pendergrass, American singer
- 1950 - Martin Short, Canadian comedian
- 1950 - Ernest Thomas, American actor
- 1951 - Carl Wieman, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1953 - Elaine Chao, U.S. Secretary of Labor
- 1954 - Curtis Sliwa, founder of the Guardian Angels
- 1956 - Charly McClain, American singer
- 1957 - Leeza Gibbons, American television host
- 1960 - Marcus Allen, American football player
- 1960 - Jennifer Grey, American actress
- 1961 - William Hague, British politician
- 1962 - John Stockton, American basketball player
- 1963 - Kyogoku Natsuhiko, Japanese writer
- 1968 - James Iha, American musician (Smashing Pumpkins)
- 1971 - Behzad Ghorbani, Iranian zoologist and sociobiologist
- 1976 - Amy Smart, American actress
- 1977 - Kevin Davies, English footballer
- 1982 - Mikel Arteta, Spanish footballer
- 1985 - Keira Knightley, English actress

Deaths


- 922 - Al-Hallaj, Persian Sufi teacher and writer
- 1212 - King Sancho I of Portugal (b. 1154)
- 1517 - Heinrich Isaac, Flemish composer
- 1546 - Thomas Elyot, English diplomat
- 1566 - Antonio de Cabezón, Spanish composer (b. 1510)
- 1679 - Johannes Schefferus, Alsatian-born humanist (b. 1621)
- 1697 - Godfrey McCulloch, Scottish politican and murderer (executed) (b. 1640)
- 1726 - Sir John Vanbrugh, English dramatist and architect (b. 1664)
- 1772 - Charles Pinot Duclos, French writer (b. 1704)
- 1776 - Samuel Ward, American politician (b. 1725)
- 1780 - Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (b. 1713)
- 1793 - John Mudge, English physician and inventor (b. 1721)
- 1814 - Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, French inventor of the guillotine (b. 1738)
- 1827 - Ludwig van Beethoven, German composer (b. 1770)
- 1892 - Walt Whitman, American poet (b. 1819)
- 1902 - Cecil Rhodes, English explorer and entrepreneur (b. 1853)
- 1910 - An Jung-geun, Japanese assassin of Ito Hirobumi (executed) (b. 1879)
- 1920 - William Chester Minor, American surgeon and contributor to the Oxford English Dictionary (b. 1834)
- 1923 - Sarah Bernhardt, French actress (b. 1844)
- 1929 - Katharine Lee Bates, American poet (b. 1859)
- 1933 - Eddie Lang, American musician (b. 1902)
- 1940 - Spiridon Louis, Greek runner (b. 1873)
- 1945 - David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1863)
- 1958 - Phil Mead, English cricketer (b. 1887)
- 1959 - Raymond Chandler, American novelist (b. 1888)
- 1969 - John Kennedy Toole, American author (b. 1937)
- 1973 - Noel Coward, English composer and playwright (b. 1899)
- 1976 - Josef Albers, German artist (b. 1888)
- 1976 - Lin Yutang, Chinese writer (b. 1895)
- 1983 - Anthony Blunt, British spy (b. 1907)
- 1984 - Ahmed Sékou Touré, President of Guinea (b. 1922)
- 1987 - Eugen Jochum, German conductor (b. 1902)
- 1990 - Halston, American fashion designer (b. 1932)
- 1995 - Eazy-E, American rapper (b. 1963)
- 1996 - Edmund Muskie, American politician (b. 1914)
- 1996 - David Packard, American engineer and businessman (b. 1912)
- 1997 - Marshall Applewhite, American cult leader (b. 1931)
- 2000 - Alex Comfort, American author (b. 1920
- 2002 - Randy Castillo, Drummer for Ozzy Osbourne and Motley Crue
- 2003 - Daniel Patrick Moynihan, U.S. Senator (b. 1927)
- 2004 - Jan Berry, American musician (Jan and Dean) (b. 1941)
- 2004 - Jan Sterling, American actress (b. 1921)
- 2005 - James Callaghan, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1912)
- 2005 - Paul Hester, Australian drummer (Split Enz and Crowded House) (b. 1959)
- 2005 - Marius Russo, baseball player (b. 1914)

Holidays and observances


- Zoroastrianism - Prophet Zarthushtra's (Zoroaster's) Birthday
- Holi in Hinduism (2005)
- International Railway Workers Day [http://www.asu.asn.au/media/transport_travel/20020325_rail.html]
- Megan Day (Lithuania)

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/26 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/3/26 Today in History: March 26] ---- March 25 - March 27 - February 26 - April 26 -- listing of all days ko:3월 26일 ms:26 Mac ja:3月26日 simple:March 26 th:26 มีนาคม

1517

Events


- January 22 - Battle of Ridanieh. The Turkish forces of Selim I defeat the main Mamluk army in Egypt under Touman Bey.
- February 3 - Capture of Cairo by the Turks.
- First contact of organized western merchants with China.
- August 15 - Portuguese merchant Fernao Pires de Andrade met Chinese officials through an interpreter at Pearl River estuary and landed at Hong Kong.
- October 31 - Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther posts his 95 Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Castle Church.
- Conquest of Riazan by Grand Prince Vasili III of Muscovy.
- Selim I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire conquers Palestine and Egypt, and declares himself Caliph.
- Third outbreak of the sweating sickness in England, especially bad in Oxford and Cambridge

Births


- January 31 - Gioseffo Zarlino, Italian music theorist and composer (died 1590)
- June 18 - Emperor Ogimachi of Japan (died 1593)
- June 29 - Rembert Dodoens, Flemish physician and botanist (died 1585)
- July 16 - Lady Frances Brandon, English noblewoman (died 1559)
- August 20 - Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle, French church leader (died 1586)
- October 18 - Manoel da Nóbrega, Portuguese Jesuit in Brazil (d. 1570)
- Pierre Belon, French naturalist (died 1564)
- Henry Sutton Dudley, English soldier and sailor (died 1568)
- Francis I, Duke of Lorraine (died 1545)
- Jacques Pelletier du Mans, French mathematician (died 1582)
- Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, English aristocrat (died 1547)

Deaths


- March 26 - Heinrich Isaac, Flemish composer
- October 31 - Fra Bartolommeo, Italian artist (born 1472)
- November 8 - Francisco Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros, Spanish Cardinal and statesman (born 1436)
- Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, Spanish conquistador
- Luca Pacioli, Italian mathematician (born 1445)
- Francesco Raibolini, Italian painter
- Dyveke Sigbritsdatter, mistress of Christian II of Denmark
- Gaspar van Weerbeke, Dutch composer (born 1445)
- Badi' al-Zaman, Timurid ruler of Herat Category:1517 als:1517 ko:1517년

Dutch School (music)

In music, the Dutch School refers, somewhat imprecisely, to the style of polyphonic vocal music composition in Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. The composers of this time and place, and the music they produced, are also known as the Netherlands School. Other frequently used terms for the composers are Franco-Flemish or Netherlandish. See Renaissance music for a more detailed description of the musical style, and links to individual composers from this time. The composers of this period, however, were by no means all Dutch in the modern geographical sense: Many of them originated in (modern) northern France, Belgium and western parts of Germany. This part of Europe was collectively known as the Netherlands, Low Countries, the Burgundian Netherlands or Seventeen Provinces. During periods of political stability, it was a center of cultural activity for more than two hundred years, although the exact centers shifted location during this time, and by the end of the sixteenth century the focal point of the musical world shifted from this region to Italy. While many of the composers were born in the region loosely known as the Netherlands, they were famous for working elsewhere. Netherlanders moved to Italy, to Spain, to towns in Germany and France and other parts of Europe, carrying their styles with them. The diffusion of their technique, especially after the revolutionary development of printing, produced the first true international style since the unification of Gregorian chant in the 9th century. Following are five groups, or generations, that are sometimes distinguished in the Netherlands school. It should be noted that development of the musical style was continuous, and these generations only provide useful reference points.
- The First generation (1420-1450), dominated by Dufay and Binchois; this group of composers is most often known as the Burgundian School
- The Second generation (1450-1485), with Ockeghem as its main exponent
- The Third generation (1480-1520): Obrecht, Isaac and Josquin
- The Fourth generation (1520-1560): Willaert and Clemens non Papa
- The Fifth generation (1560-1600): Lassus. By this time, many of the composers of polyphonic music were native to Italy and other countries: the Netherlandish style had naturalized on foreign soil, and become a true European style. Category:Music history Category:Renaissance music

Composer

A composer is a person who writes music. The term refers particularly to someone who writes music in some type of musical notation, thus allowing others to perform the music. This distinguishes the composer from a musician who improvises. However, a person may be called a composer without creating music in documentary form, since not all musical genres rely on written notation. In this context, the composer is the originator of the music, and usually its first performer. Later performers then repeat the musical composition they have heard. The level of distinction between composers and other musicians also varies, which affects issues such as copyright and the deference given to individual interpretations of a particular piece of music. For example, in the development of classical music in Europe, the function of composing music initially had no greater importance than the function of performing music. The preservation of individual compositions received little attention, and musicians generally had no qualms about modifying compositions for performance. Over time, however, the written notation of the composer has come to be treated as strict instructions, from which performers should not deviate without good reason. This notion is often seen as a purist one. The term "composer" is often used specifically to mean a composer in the Western tradition of classical music. In popular and folk music, the composer is typically called a songwriter (since the music generally takes the form of a song.)

Lists of composers


- List of composers
- List of opera composers
- List of uncategorized composers
- List of soundtrack composers

By style, time period, or technique


- List of classical music composers
- List of 20th century classical composers
- List of 21st century classical composers
- List of modernist composers

By nationality, culture, or identity


- List of French composers
- List of Dutch and Flemish composers
- List of Indonesian composers
- List of Italian composers
- List of Russian composers
- List of Polish composers
- List of Indian composers
- List of female composers
- List of gay, lesbian or bisexual composers
- List of composers of African descent

By chronology


- [http://members.chello.nl/epzachte/Wikipedia/EasyTimeline/Introduction.htm Timeline of classical composers] Category:Classical music Composers Category:Occupations in music ko:작곡가 ja:作曲家 th:คีตกวี

Josquin Desprez

Josquin Des Prez
Josquin Des Prez
Josquin Des Prez (diminutive of "Joseph"; latinized Josquinus Pratensis) (c. 1450 to 1455 – August 27, 1521) was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He was the most famous European composer between Guillaume Dufay and Palestrina, and is usually considered to be the central figure of the Netherlands style.

Life

Little is known for certain of his early life. Much is inferential and speculative, though numerous clues have emerged from his works and the writings of contemporary composers, theorists, and writers of the next several generations. Josquin was born in the area controlled by the Dukes of Burgundy, and was possibly born either in Hainaut (modern-day Belgium), or immediately across the border in modern-day France, since several times in his life he was classified legally as a Frenchman (for instance, when he made his will). Josquin was long mistaken for a man with a similar name, Josquin de Kessalia, born around the year1440, who sang in Milan from 1459 to 1474, dying in 1498. More recent scholarship has shown that Josquin des Prez was born around 1450 or a few years later, and did not go to Italy until the early 1480s. According to the article "Josquin des Prez", by Lora Matthews and Paul Merkley, in The Journal Of Musicology, Summer 1998, "des Prez" was a nickname, and Josquin’s family name was "Lebloitte". According to 17th century records, he became a choir boy in the collegiate church of Saint-Quentin at an early age, probably around 1460, and may have studied counterpoint under Ockeghem, whom he greatly admired throughout his life (on Ockeghem's death in 1497 he wrote the impressive motet La Déploration sur la mort Ockeghem, based on the poem by Guillaume Crétin). All records from Saint-Quentin were destroyed in 1669; however the cathedral there was a center of music-making for the entire area, and in addition was an important center of royal patronage. Both Jean Mouton and Loyset Compère were buried there, and it is certainly possible that Josquin acquired his later connections with the French royal chapel through early experiences at Saint-Quentin. In 1477, the first definite record of his employment shows that he was a singer at the chapel of René, Duke of Anjou, in Aix-en-Provence; he may have transferred to Paris in 1481 along with the rest of the chapel, though there is no specific evidence of this. From 1486 to 1494 (except the year 1487-1488, which he may have spent in Florence), Josquin was a member of the papal choir under Pope Innocent VIII. In the later 1490s he was in France, probably in the service of Louis XII for most of the time, and he likely stayed there until 1503, when Duke Ercole I of Ferrara hired him for the chapel there; so Josquin returned to Italy. In Ferrara Josquin wrote the exquisite Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae, which is written on a cantus firmus derived from the musical letters in the Duke's name. While there he also wrote a setting of the Miserere, Psalm 50, for five voices, widely acknowledged to be one of his masterpieces. Josquin only stayed in Ferrara for a year, departing in 1504, possibly fleeing an outbreak of the plague (the Duke, his family, and two thirds of the citizens fled as well). His position at Ferrara was filled by Jacob Obrecht in 1505, who died of the plague that year, and by Antoine Brumel in 1506, who stayed until the disbanding of the chapel in 1510. Josquin went directly from Ferrara to his home region of Condé, southeast of Lille on the present-day border between Belgium and France, becoming provost of the cathedral there. During this time he had immense fame, and although he was well known to the Netherlands court and his works were often performed there, no direct connection to them has been discovered by researchers. He remained at Condé until his death in 1521.

Works and influence

Josquin dominated the musical world of his time, not only on account of his learning, skill, and originality, but because of his singular ability to bring together the many streams of contemporary musical practice. He possessed a vivid conception of the meaning and dramatic possibilities of the sacred texts, as well as polyphonic dexterity and supreme melodic skill. During his lifetime he acquired immense popularity and fame, and was much in demand. Duke Ercole I sent an (undated) letter to his secretary with the interesting comment "It may be true that Josquin is a better composer, ...but Isaac is better able to get along with his colleagues." His fame lasted long after his death; Zarlino, writing in the 1580s, was still using examples from Josquin in his treatises on composition; and his fame was only eclipsed after the beginning of the Baroque era, with the decline of the polyphonic style. Josquin's fame was overshadowed by Palestrina and his school until the 20th century, but his reputation has grown steadily for the last hundred years, and Josquin's music is often sung and recorded today. A possible reason for his current popularity is that his music contains, to many listeners, a direct emotional appeal often seen to be lacking in the austere, impersonal, but technically perfect music of Palestrina. The 19th-century trend in musicology was to consider early music as moving from primitive forms to ever increasing perfection, and thus venerated Palestrina as the peak of development of polyphony; contemporary musicology tends to consider changes in style not as changes towards or away from perfection but as trends of adaptation and influence; as such Josquin is seen as someone who simultaneously brought together most of the contemporary trends, innovated significantly, and was also able to express intense emotion with economy of means. Thirty-two masses are attributed to Josquin, seventeen of which were printed by Petrucci (1466-1539) in Fossombrone and Venice in 1505. The masses printed by Petrucci are deemed genuine, but at least some of the others, some preserved in manuscript in the archives of the papal choir in Rome and in the libraries of Munich, Vienna, Basle, Berlin, the Ratisbon cathedral, and Cambrai, are probably spurious. Among the finest of Josquin's masses are the Missa Ave Maris Stella and the Missa Pange Lingua. Motets by Josquin were published by Petrucci, Pierre Attaignant (1533), Tylman Susato (1544), and by Le Roy and Ballard (1555). Numerous fragments and shorter works are reproduced in the historical works of Forkel, Burney, Hawkins, Busby, and in Choron's collection. In addition to the sacred works, Josquin wrote numerous chansons, some of which became very popular, and were circulated throughout Europe; many of them are sung regularly by a cappella vocal groups today.

Audio

Works list

Masses

# Missa ad fugam; # Missa Ave maris stella (Rome, 1486-1495); # Missa de beata virgine; # Missa N'auray je jamais (= Missa di dadi); # Missa D'ung aultre amer (Mailand, 1483/85); # Missa Faisant regretz; # Missa Fortuna desperata; # Missa Gaudeamus; # Missa Hercules Dux Ferrariae (Ferrara, 1503/04); # Missa La sol fa re mi; # Missa L'ami baudichon; # Missa L'homme armé sexti toni; # Missa L'homme armé super voces musicales; # Missa Malheur me bat; # Missa Mater patris; # Missa Pange lingua (Condé, around 1514); # Missa sine nomine; # Missa Une Mousse de biscaya; # Missa da pacem (uncertain attribution)

Mass fragments

# Credo ciascun me crie (= De rouges nez); # Credo de tous biens playne; # Credo vilayge (I); # Credo vilayge (II); # Gloria de beata virgine; # Sanctus de passione; # Sanctus D'ung aultre amer.

Motets

# Absolon, fili mi (4vv); # Absolve, quaesumus, Domine/Requiem aeternam (6vv) (attribution has been challenged); # Alma redemptoris mater; # Alma redemptoris mater / Ave Regina; # Ave Maria, gratia plena ... benedicta tu (4vv); # Ave Maria, gratia plena ... Virgo serena (Mailand 1484/85); # Ave munda spes, Maria (not in first complete works edition); # Ave nobilissima creatura; # Ave verum corpus natum; # Benedicta es, caelorum regina; # De profundis clamavi (4vv) (probably middle-period composition); # De profundis clamavi (5vv) (late composition); # Domine exaudi orationem meam; # Domine, ne in fuore tuo (4vv); # Domine, non secundum peccata nostra (2-4vv; for Rome); # Ecce, tu pulchra es, amica mea; # Factum est autem; # Gaude virgo, mater Christi; # Homo quidam fecit cenam magnam; # Honor, decus, imperium; # Huc me sydereo descendere jussit Olympo (5vv); # Illibata Dei virgo nutrix; # In exitu Israel de Aegypto; # In illo tempore assumpsit Jesus doudecim disciplus; # Iniquos odio habui (4vv, only tenor part survives); # In principio erat Verbum; # Inviolata, integra et casta es, Maria; # Jubilate Deo omnis terra; # Liber generationis Jesu Christi; # Magnificat quarti toni (attributed to Josquin on stylistic grounds); # Magnificat terii toni (attributed to Josquin on stylistic grounds); # Memor esto verbi tui; # Miserere mei Deus (Ferrara, 1504/05); # Misericordias Domini in aeternum cantabo (Frankreich, 1480/83); # Missus est Gabriel angelus ad Mariam Virginem; # Mittit ad virginem; # Monstra te esse matrem; # O admirabile commercium (part of a 5-motet cycle); # O bone et dulcissime Jesu; # O Domine Jesu Christe (part of a Passion setting in 5 sections); # O virgo prudentissima; # O virgo virginum; # Pater noster, qui es in caelis (Condé, 1505-1521); # Planxit autem David; # Praeter rerum seriem; # Qui edunt me adhuc; # Qui habitat in adiutorio altissimi; # Qui velatus facie fuisti (part of a Passion setting in 6 sections); # Salve regina (4vv); # Salve regina (5vv, 1502); # Stabat Mater; # Tu lumen, tu splendor; # Tu solus qui facus mirabilia; # Usquequo Domine oblivisceris me (attrib on stylistic grounds; only part survives); # Ut Phoebi radiis; # Veni, sancte spiritus (also attrib to Forestier); # Victimae paschali laudes; # Virgo prudentissima; # Virgo salutiferi (Ferrara, 1504/05); # Vultum tuum deprecabuntur (7-part Passion cycle).

Chansons

# A la mort / Monstra te esse matrem; # A l'heure que je vous; # A l'ombre d'ung buissonet, au matinet (3vv); # Adieu mes amours; # Adieu mes amours (6vv or 7vv); # Baisé moy, ma doulce amye (4vv); # Belle, pour l'amour de vous; # Bergerette savoyenne; # Ce povre mendiant / Pauper sum ego; # Cela sans plus; # Comment peult haver joye; # Cueur langoreulx; # De tous biens plaine (3vv); # De tous biens plaine (4vv); # Douleur me bat; # Du mien amant; # Dulces exuviae; # En l'ombre d'ung buissonet tout, au long (3vv); # En l'ombre d'ung buissonet tout, au long (4vv); # Entré je suis en grant pensée (3vv); # Entré je suis en grant pensée (4vv); # Fama malum; # Faulte d'argent; # Fors seulement (only one of six voice parts survives); # Fortuna d'un gran tempo; # Helas madame; # Ile fantazies de Joskin; # In te Domine speravi per trovar pietà; # Incessament livré suis à martire; # Je me complains; # Je n'ose plus; # Je ris et si ay larme; # Je sey bien dire; # La belle se siet; # La Bernardina; # La plus de plus; # Le villain [jaloux]; # Ma bouche rit et mon cueur pleure; # Mon mary m'a diffamée; # N'esse pas ung grant desplaisir; # Nymphes des bois (written for the death of Johannes Ockeghem); # Nymphes, nappés / Circumdederunt me; # Parfons regretz; # Petite camusette; # Plaine de dueil; # Plus n'estes ma maistresse; # Plus nulz regretz; # Plusieurs regretz; # Pour souhaitter; # Quant je vous voye; # Que vous madame / In pace in idipsum; # Qui belles amours a # Recordans de my signora; # Regretz sans fin; # Scaramella va alla guerra; # Se congié prens; # Si j'ay perdu mon amy (3vv); # Si j'ay perdu mon amy (4vv); # Tant vous aimme Bergeronette; # Tenz moy en voz bras; # Una mousse de Biscaye; # Vive le roy (written for Louis XII); # Vous l'arez, s'il vous plaist; # Vous ne l'arez pas; # textless (4vv).

References and further reading


- Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1954. ISBN 0393095304
- Article "Josquin Desprez," in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. ISBN 1561591742
- Harold Gleason and Warren Becker, Music in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Music Literature Outlines Series I). Bloomington, Indiana. Frangipani Press, 1986. ISBN 089917034X
- Ross W. Duffin (editor), A Josquin Anthology. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0193532182

External Links


- [http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/composers/josquin.html Josquin biography and discography] Des Prez, Josquin Des Prez, Josquin Des Prez, Josquin Des Prez, Josquin ja:ジョスカン・デ・プレ

1470s

---- Events and Trends
- battle of Avenches 1476 Prominent Persons
- Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer astronomer Category:1470s ko:1470년대

Innsbruck

Geography

Innsbruck is a city in western Austria, and the capital of the Tyrol province. It is located in the Inn valley at the junction with the Wipptal (Sill River) which provides access to the Brennerpass, just about 30 km south of Innsbruck. Located in the broad valley between tall mountains, the Nordkette (Hafelekar, 2334m) in the north, Patscherkofel (2246m) and Saile (2403m) in the south it is an internationally renowned winter sports centre.

Sports

Due to its location in between high mountains, Innsbruck serves as an ideal place for skiing in winter, and mountaineering in summer. There are several ski resorts around Innsbruck with the Nordkette served by a cable car and additional chair lifts higher on being the closest to the city itself. Other ski resorts nearby include Axamer Lizum, Igls, Seefeld, Tulfes and Stubai Valley. The latter makes skiing possible even in the summer due to the glaciated terrain there. The Olympic Winter Games were held in Innsbruck twice, first in 1964, then in 1976 when the city replaced Denver, Colorado as the venue after Colorado voters rejected a bond to finance the games. Together with the city of Seefeld, Innsbruck organized the Winter Universiade in 2005.

History

The first documented quotation of Innsbruck dates back to 1187 ("Insprucke").It served as an important crossing point over the river Inn. Then, the route over the Brennerpass was a major transport and communications link between the north and the south and the easiest path to cross the Alps. The revenues generated by serving as a transit station led to a flourishing development of the city. A large and famous district in Innsbruck - 'Wilten' - got its name from an old Roman settlement 'Veldidena'

Miscellaneous

The international headquarters of SOS Children's Villages, one of the world's largest charities, is located in Innsbruck. Innsbruck has two universities, the Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck and the Innsbruck Medical University. The Innsbruck Medical University has one of Europe's premier ski injury clinics.

External links


- [http://www.innsbruck.at/ Official homepage]
- [http://www.innsbruck-tourism.at/ Tourist information]
- [http://www2.innsbruck.at/stadtplan/viewer.htm Map of Innsbruck]
- [http://www.uibk.ac.at/ University of Innsbruck]
- [http://www.i-med.ac.at/ Medical University of Innsbruck]
- [http://www.europe-hotel-in.com/weinhaushapp.htm Hotel Innsbruck]
- [http://www.flughafen-innsbruck.at/ Innsbruck Airport]
- [http://www.congress-innsbruck.at/ Congress (convention centre)]
- [http://www.live.at/ Live camera Maria-Theresien-Strasse]
- [http://www.panoramatour.at/ Virtual tour Tirol/Innsbruck]
- [http://www.universiade-innsbruck.org/en/ Winter Universiade Innsbruck/Seefeld 2005]
- [http://www.nordkette-austria.net/ Nordkette - gallery]
- [http://www.erasmus-innsbruck.com/?lang=en Pictures of Innsbruck] Category:Host cities of the Winter Olympic Games Category:Cities and towns in Austria ja:インスブルック

Lorenzo de' Medici

: The exact same full name was also carried by his grandson Lorenzo (1492 - 1519), Duke of Urbino, with whom he is sometimes confused. Lorenzo Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici (January 1, 1449, Florence – 8 April, 1492, Carregio) was an Italian statesman and ruler of the Florentine Republic during the Italian Renaissance. Known as Lorenzo the Magnificent (il Magnifico) by his contemporary Florentines, he was a glittery individual who loved to enter tournaments, compose poetry and songs, play games, hunt, and indulge the Florentine love of practical jokes. Lorenzo had a very active life and was an avid patron of the arts; he was also fascinated by technology. He was also a very religious man, and one who deeply loved his country of Florence which prospered under his rule.

Lorenzo and politics

He assumed a leading role in the state upon the death of his father Piero 'the Gouty' de' Medici in 1469, when Lorenzo was just twenty. On April 26, 1478, in an incident called the Pazzi Conspiracy, a group including members of Pazzi family, backed by the Archbishop of Pisa and his patron Pope Sixtus IV, attacked Lorenzo and his brother and co-ruler Giuliano in the cathedral of Florence,Lorennzo was stabbed but escaped however the attackers managed to kill Giuliano. The conspiracy was brutally put down (against the express request of Lorenzo), including the lynching of the Archbishop. In the aftermath of the Pazzi Conspiracy and the punishment of the Pope's supporters, the Medici and Florence suffered from the wrath of the Pope. He seized all the Medici assets he could find, excommunicated Lorenzo and the entire government of Florence, and finally put the city under interdict. When that had little effect, the Pope formed a military alliance with King Ferrante of Naples to attack Florence. The King's son, Alfonso, Duke of Calabria, promptly invaded. The Florentines promptly excommunicated the Pope, and Lorenzo rallied the citizens. However, with little help being provided by traditional Medici allies in Bologna and Milan (the latter being convulsed by power struggles among the Sforza), the war dragged on, and only deft diplomacy by Lorenzo, who personally travelled to Naples, saved the day. This further increased his popularity with the Florentines, and enabled him to secure constitutional changes that enhanced his power. Thereafter, Lorenzo, like his grandfather Cosimo de' Medici, pursued a policy of maintaining both peace and a balance of power between the Northern Italian states, and keeping other states out of Italy. He also tried to create a more unified Italy but with little success. Cosimo de' Medici

Lorenzo and the Renaissance

Another of Lorenzo's successes was in the fields of art and learning; he gathered at his court the leading artists and intellectuals of his day. His support for artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Donatello, Sandro Botticelli, Domenico Ghirlandaio, Andrea del Verrocchio and Michelangelo Buonarroti was instrumental in the development of Florence as the epicenter of 15th century Renaissance Europe. Although his financial straits made it impossible for him to commission many works himself, he saw to it that they received commissions from other patrons. He was an artist of some note himself, writing poetry in his native Tuscan. He also started the collection of books which became the Medici Library, and his agents retrieved from the East large numbers of previously unknown classical works, and he employed a large workshop to copy his books and diffuse their content across Europe. He supported the development of humanism through his circle of scholarly friends who studied Greek philosophers, and attempted to merge the ideas of Plato with Christianity; among this group were the philosophers Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, and the humanist poet Angelo Poliziano. He was also a patron of the famous Niccolo Machiavelli, and The Prince, Machiavelli's most famous and controversial work, was dedicated to Lorenzo and indeed even written specifically for him; in its most basic sense, it was an instruction manual that explained how Lorenzo de Medici could expand his rule and conquer the rest of Italy, though it is general rather than specific and as such has been used by many other rulers since Lorenzo's time.

Later years

One area in which he was not successful was business; during his tenure several branches of the family bank collapsed because of bad loans, and in later years he got into financial difficulties himself, and resorted to mis-appropriating trust and state funds for his own needs. Toward the end of Lorenzo's life, Florence came under the spell of Savonarola, who believed that Christians had strayed too far into Greco-Roman culture. Oddly enough, Lorenzo played a role in bringing Savonarola to Florence, even though Savonarola disliked popular art and music - two things that Lorenzo admired. Two of his sons later became powerful popes. His second son, Giovanni, became Pope Leo X, and his adopted son Giulio (who was the illegitimate son of his slain brother Giuliano) became Pope Clement VII. Unfortunately, his first son and his political heir, Piero 'the Unfortunate' squandered his father's patrimony and brought down his father's dynasty in Florence. Another Medici, his brother Giovanni, restored it, but it was only made wholly secure again on the accession of a distant relative from a branch line of the family, Cosimo I de' Medici. Lorenzo de' Medici died peacefully during the night of April 8th/9th, 1492, at the long-time family villa of Careggi (Florentine reckoning considers days to begin at sunset, so his death date is the 9th in that reckoning). Lorenzo summoned Savonarola to his death bed seeking absolution, but Savonarola damned Lorenzo, commanding him to confess his sins, indecencies and pride, and to give the Florentines back their liberty. Lorenzo turned his face to the wall to avoid the verbal abuse. As Lorenzo died, the tower of the church of Santa Reparata was allegedly struck by lightning. He and his brother Giuliano are buried together in a tomb in the Medici chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo; it is ornamented with the Madonna and Child of Michelangelo. He died at the dawn of "the age of exploration"; Christopher Columbus would reach the "New World" only six months later. There is a Lorenzo memorial in Florence, Italy.

See also


- Medici family
- Renaissance

Further reading


- Christopher Hibbert, The House of Medici: Its Rise and Fall (Morrow-Quill, 1980) is an excellent and highly readable overall history of the family, and covers Lorenzo's life in some detail
- Niccolo Machiavelli, [http://www.online-literature.com/machiavelli/florence_italy/ History of Florence and of the Affairs of Italy: From the Earliest Times to the Death of Lorenzo the Magnificent] (Niccolo Machiavelli, 1521-25) is one of Machiavelli's most important works. Category:Humanists Category:Medici Lorenzo de' Medici Lorenzo de' Medici Lorenzo de' Medici ja:ロレンツォ・デ・メディチ

Organ (music)

at Notre-Dame de Montréal Basilica, Montreal]] The organ is one of the oldest musical instruments in the western musical tradition, with a rich history connected with the Christian religion and civic ceremony. Its sound output is continuous rather than decaying, i.e., the sound continues for as long as a key is depressed and does not depend on how hard the key is struck—as is the case with a (velocity sensitive) piano—nor decay quickly, as with the harpsichord and clavichord. Some modern electronic organs, however, have the capacity for velocity sensitivity and for aftertouch (pressure sensitivity) responding to how hard a key is held down. Organs range in size from a single, short keyboard to large instruments intended to play a full range of repertoire, which typically have three or four manuals, sometimes as many as seven, plus a two-and-a-half octave pedalboard. Most classical music for the organ is written on three staves; the upper two for the manuals and the lower one for the pedals. The bar lines are broken between the lowest two staves.

Pipe organs

See the main article at pipe organ for more details and the history of the pipe organ. The original organ was the pipe organ, and many organ enthusiasts still regard all other forms as imitations. Pipe organs may be broadly divided into three categories:
- The church organ was developed originally for congregational singing, and is still found in many houses of worship. Accompaniment of human voices, whether a congregation, a choir or a cantor or soloist is the primary purpose of the church organ, and it is highly developed to be suitable for this task. Often just called a pipe organ (whether it actually has pipes or not), it may be called a church organ or classical organ to differentiate it from the theatre organ, which is a distinctly different instrument. However, as classical organ repertoire was developed for the church organ and in turn influenced its development, the line between a church and a concert organ is hard to draw. Instruments of any size may include some stops designed for independent performance of this music rather than for accompaniment.
- The theatre organ (see that article) or cinema organ was designed to replace orchestras or instrumental ensembles that accompanied silent movies with a single performer. These instruments differ from church organs in three main ways:
  - Their pipes are designed and voiced for this role, rather than as accompaniment to voices.
  - They may include a far greater variety of non-organ sounds, notably drums and other percussion and sometimes a piano in larger instruments.
  - Even the largest instruments tend to rely unashamedly on extension to produce the maximum variety of sound from the minimum number of pipes.
- The concert organ or symphonic organ which flourished during the first third of the twentieth century in town halls and other secular public venues, particularly in the United States and the UK. As these were developed primarily to perform repertoire originally written for the church organ, the line between the two types can be hard to draw, to the point that two identical instruments, one in a church and the other in a concert hall, might be termed one a church organ, the other a concert organ.

Reed organs

Prior to the development of electric and electronic organs, the only alternative to the pipe organ was the reed organ, which generated its sounds using reeds similar to those of a piano accordion. Smaller, cheaper and more portable than the corresponding pipe instrument, these were widely used in smaller churches and in private homes, but their volume and tonal range was extremely limited, and they were generally limited to one or two manuals, pedalboards being extremely rare. piano accordion A development of the reed organ was the chord organ, which provided chord buttons for the left hand, again similar to a piano accordion in concept. A few chord organs were later built using frequency divider technology.

Electric and electronic organs

See the main article electronic organ for more details and history. Since the 1930s, pipeless electric instruments have been available to produce similar sounds and perform similar roles to pipe organs. Many of these have been bought both by houses of worship and other potential pipe organ customers, and also by many musicians both professional and amateur for whom a pipe organ would not be a possibility. Far smaller and cheaper to buy than a corresponding pipe instrument, and in many cases portable, they have taken organ music into private homes and into dance bands and other new environments, and have almost completely replaced the reed organ.

Electric organs

The Hammond organ (see that article) was the first successful electric organ, and was sold beginning in the 1930s. It utilized mechanical, rotating tonewheels to produce the sound waveforms. The Hammond controlled registration by a system of drawbars that took advantage of the possibility of setting the volume of each set of tonewheels individually, rather than merely imitating the on/off function of a pipe organ stop. It also provided new vibrato-like sounds, both by devices that acted on the drive belts and later by revolving loudspeakers. These features gave it new sounds that organists eagerly explored. The Hammond organ became popular in jazz, particularly soul jazz, and in gospel music. Since these were the roots of rock and roll, the Hammond organ became a part of the rock and roll sound. It was widely used in rock and popular music during the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s the polyphonic synthesizer became popular, replacing the organ in most pop acts. The Hammond enjoyed something of a resurgence in popularity in pop music around 2000, in part due to the availability of clonewheel organs that were light enough for one person to carry.

Frequency divider organs

With the development of the transistor, electronic organs that used no mechanical parts to generate the waveforms became practical. The first of these was the frequency divider organ, the first of which which used twelve oscillators to produce one octave of chromatic scale, and frequency dividers to produce other notes. These were even cheaper and more portable than the Hammond. Later developments made it possible to run an organ from a single radio frequency oscillator. Frequency divider organs were built by many companies, and also offered in kit form to be built by hobbyists. A few of these have seen notable use, such as the Lowrey played by Garth Hudson. Its electronic design made the Lowrey easily equipped with a pitch bend feature that is unavailable for the Hammond, and Hudson built a style around its use. During the period from the 1940s through approximately the 1970s, a variety of more modest self-contained electronic home organs from a variety of manufacturers were popular forms of home entertainment. These instruments often simplified the traditional organ stops into imitative voicings such as "trumpet" and "marimba" and as technology progressed they increasingly included automated features such as one-touch chords, electronic rhythm and accompaniment devices, and even built-in tape players. These were intended to make playing complete, layered "one-man band" arrangements extremely easy, especially for those not necessarily trained as organists. While a few such instruments are still sold today, their popularity has waned greatly, and many of their functions have been incorporated into more modern and inexpensive portable keyboards. The Lowrey line of home organs is the epitome of this type of instrument. In the '60s and '70s, a type of simple, portable electronic organ called the combo organ was popular, especially with pop and rock bands, and was a signature sound in the pop music of the period (e.g. The Doors, Iron Butterfly). The most popular combo organs were manufactured by Farfisa and Vox.

Digital organs

The development of the integrated circuit enabled another revolution in electronic keyboard instruments. Electronic organs sold since the 1980s utilize digital sampling to produce the sound. Also available are hybrids, incorporating a few ranks of pipes to produce some sounds, and using digital samples for other sounds and to resolve borrowing collisions. Major manufacturers include Allen Organ and Rodgers. There are also custom digital organ builders like Phoenix Organs[http://www.phoenixorgans.com]with several representatives throughout the US[http://www.qualityorgans.com].

Similar instruments

Other instruments which are played from a reservoir of gas and have separate tone-producing mechanisms for each pitch include:
- the accordion and concertina, in which the bellows is operated by the squeezing action of the instrumentalist;
- the melodeon, a reed instrument with an air reservior and a foot operated bellows, popular in the USA in the mid-19th century;
- the Harmonium or parlor organ, a reed instrument usually with many stops and two foot-operated bellows which the instrumentalist operates alternately;
- the steam calliope, being essentially a pipe organ operated on steam rather than air;
- the band organ, essentially a pipe organ, but instead of a keyboard, mechanical means are used to play a prepared song.
- the barrel organ made famous by the organ grinder in its portable form, and relatively invisible in its larger form because it was then often fitted out with keyboards to give the option for totally a human performance
- the portative organ, a small portable medieval instrument
- the positive organ, a somewhat larger though still portable medieval instrument
- various sorts of novelty instruments operating on the same principles. Other wind instruments that have no reservoir of gas but use a separate tone-producing mechanism for each pitch
- the harmonica, where the musician effectively blows directly onto the reeds is also known as a mouth organ;
- the pan-pipes Other wind instruments that are played from a reservoir of gas but do not use a separate tone-producing mechanism for each pitch
- bagpipes

See also


- Organ repertoire
- American Guild of Organists
- Pipe organ

External links


- [http://www.lawrencephelps.com/Documents/Articles/Beginner/pipeorgans101.html Pipe Organs 101]
- [http://www.die-orgelseite.de/index_e.html The World's Largest Organs]
- [http://www.organfocus.com/links/index.php?CID=17 OrganFocus.com Link Directory]
- [http://qualityorgans.com D.L. Simmons & Company Church Organs] Category:Electronic music instruments Category:Keyboard instruments Category:Pipe organ ja:オルガン

Pope Leo X

Leo X, born Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici (11 December 1475, Florence – 1 December 1521, Rome), pope between 1513 and his death, is known primarily for his failure to stem the Protestant Reformation, which began during his reign when Martin Luther first attacked the Roman Catholic Church. Leo is considered the only pope who has bestowed his own name upon his age, and one of the few whose original extraction has corresponded in some measure with the splendour of the pontifical dignity. He was the second son of Lorenzo de' Medici. His cousin Giulio di Giuliano de' Medici, would become Pope Clement VII from 1523 to 1534.

Early Career

Giovanni received the tonsure at six, held benefices at eight, and before he was thirteen negotiations were in active progress for his elevation to the cardinalate. Innocent VIII, the reigning pope, was bound to Lorenzo by domestic ties and a common policy and interest; in October 1488 Giovanni was created a cardinal ( one of the youngest in history, at fourteen--but there have been younger Cardinals: the youngest was Luis Antonio Jaime de Borbon y Farnesio, who was 8 when he was created a Cardinal in 1735) under the condition that he should not be publicly recognised as such for three years. The interval was devoted to the study of theology and canon law, pursuits that proved less congenial to the young prince than the elegant literature for which he had inherited his father's taste, and in which he had already made great progress under the tuition of Politian and Bibbiena. On March 26 1492, the 16-year-old Giovanni became a cardinal and moved to Rome, receiving a letter of advice[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/lorenzomed1.html] from his parent which ranks among the wisest and weightiest compositions of its class. Within a few months his prospects were clouded by the nearly simultaneous deaths of his father and the pope, a double bereavement closing the era of peace which Lorenzo's prudent policy had given to Italy, and inaugurating a period of foreign invasion and domestic strife. One of the first consequences of the French eruption into Italy which shortly ensued was the expulsion of the Medici family from Florence (November 1494). Having resisted to the best of his ability, the Cardinal de' Medici found a refuge at Bologna and, being obnoxious to Innocent's successor, Alexander VI as well as seeing himself deprived of political importance for the time being, he journeyed to several foreign countries with a party of friends. Upon his return he settled in Rome, withdrawing himself from public life as much as possible, and disarming the jealousy of Alexander by displaying an unaffected devotion to literary pursuits.

Election to Papacy

When he became pope on March 9, 1513, Leo rejoiced; he is reported to have said to his brother Giuliano, "Since God has given us the papacy, let us enjoy it." The Venetian ambassador who related this of him was not unbiased, nor was he in Rome at the time, nevertheless the phrase illustrates fairly the pope's pleasure-loving nature and the lack of seriousness that characterized him. And enjoy he did, traveling around Rome at the head of a lavish parade featuring panthers, jesters, and Hanno, a white elephant. He was also lavish in works of charity: hospitals, convents, discharged soldiers, pilgrims, poor students, exiles, cripples, the sick, the unfortunate of every description were generously remembered, and more than 6,000 ducats were annually distributed in alms. His extravagance offended even some cardinals, who, led by Alfonso Petrucci of Siena, allegedly plotted an assassination attempt (which was foiled); the plan was to inject poison into his formidable hemorrhoids. Some people argue that the pope and his followers simply concocted the assassination charges in a moneymaking scheme to collect fines from the various wealthy cardinals Leo detested.

The Reformation

Leo was denounced by Martin Luther for the renewed sale of indulgences required to refill the coffers of Rome due to his many building projects (including St. Peter's Basilica) and personal extravagances. On June 15, 1520 Pope Leo X issued the papal bull Exsurge Domine and on January 3, 1521 excommunicated Luther. This bull was widely ignored (and was publicly burned by Luther). The pope died the following year, and was buried in Santa Maria sopra Minerva. Leo X Leo X Leo 10 Leo 10 Giovanni di Lorenzo ko:교황 레오 10세 ja:レオ10世 (ローマ教皇)

Savonarola

Girolamo Savonarola (Ferrara, then Duchy of Ferrara, September 21, 1452 – Florence, May 23, 1498), also translated as Jerome Savonarola or Hieronymous Savonarola, was a Italian Dominican priest and, briefly, ruler of Florence, who was known for religious reformation and anti-Renaissance preaching and his book burning and destruction of art. Oddly, Lorenzo de Medici, the previous ruler of Florence and patron of many Renaissance artists, was both a former patron of Savonarola and eventually, the target of Savonarola's preaching. After the overthrow of the Medici in 1494, Savonarola was the sole leader of Florence, setting up a democratic republic. Characterizing it as a "Christian and religious Republic", one of its first acts was to make sodomy, previously punishable by fine, into a capital offence. His chief enemies were the Duke of Milan and Pope Julius II, who issued numerous restraints against him, all of which were ignored. In 1497 he and his followers carried out the famous Bonfire of the Vanities. They sent boys from door to door collecting items associated with moral laxity: mirrors, cosmetics, lewd pictures, pagan books, gaming tables, fine dresses, and the works of immoral poets, and burnt them all in a large pile in the Piazza della Signoria of Florence. Fine Florentine Renaissance artwork was lost in Savonarola's notorious bonfires, including paintings by Sandro Botticelli thrown on the pyres by the artist himself. Florence soon tired of Savonarola's hectoring. During his Ascension Day sermon on May 4, 1497, bands of youths rioted, and the riot became a revolt: taverns reopened, and men gambled publicly. On May 13, 1497 he was excommunicated by Pope Alexander VI, and in 1498, he was simultaneously hanged and burned, in the same place and manner that he had condemned others. He was charged with uttering prophecies, sedition, and religious error. Jacopo Nardi, who recorded the incident in his Istorie della città di Firenze, said that his executioner lit the flame crying, "The one who wanted to burn me is now himself put to the flames." Niccolò Machiavelli, author of The Prince, also witnessed and wrote about the execution. The Medici regained control over Florence. The Prince In the twentieth century, a movement for the canonization of Savonarola began to develop within the Catholic Church, with many judging his excommunication and execution to have been unjust... See also: Masaniello

Further reading


- Life and Times of Girolamo Savonarola by Pasquale Villari
- The novel Romola by George Eliot features Savonarola as a central character.
- The Meddlesome Friar by Michael de la Bedoyere. 1957.
- Savonarola by Piero Misciattelli (trans. by M. Peters-Roberts). 1930.
- Savonarola: A Biography in Dramatic Episodes by William Van Wyck. 1927. (A play.)
- The novel The Rule of Four makes extensive references to Savonarola.
- The novel The Birth of Venus by Sarah Dunant makes extensive references to Savonarola. Savonarola, Girolamo Savonarola, Girolamo Savonarola, Girolamo Savonarola, Girolamo ja:ジロラモ・サヴォナローラ

Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor

). Maximilian holds his personal emblem, the pomegranate.]] Maximilian I of Habsburg (March 22, 1459 – January 12, 1519) was Holy Roman Emperor.

Life and reign in the Habsburg hereditary lands

Maximilian was born in Vienna as the son of the Emperor Frederick III and Eleanore of Portugal. He married (1477) the heiress of Burgundy, Mary, the only daughter of Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Through this marriage, Maximilian obtained the Burgundian Netherlands and the Free County of Burgundy, though France took Burgundy proper. In 1490, he bought Tyrol and Further Austria from his cousin Sigismund, the last member of the Elder Tyrolean Line of the House of Habsburg. Upon the death of his father in 1493, he inherited the remaining Habsburg possesions and thus reunified all Habsburg territories. That same year Maximilian married Bianca Maria Sforza (d. 1510), the daughter of the Duke Galeazzo Maria Sforza of Milan as he had been a widower since the death of his first wife in 1482. Maximilian was a keen supporter of the arts and sciences, and he surrounded himself with scholars such as Joachim Vadian and Andreas Stoberl (Stiborius), promoting them to important court posts.

Reign in the Holy Roman Empire

Elected King of the Romans in 1486 at the initiative of his father, he also stood at the head of the Holy Roman Empire upon his father's death in 1493. The following year brought French intervention in Italy, inaugurating the prolonged Italian Wars. He joined the Holy League to counter the French. The war only ended with a success of the Empire after his death. Holy League Maximilian is possibly best known for leading the 1495 Reichstag at Worms which concluded on the Reichsreform (Imperial Reform), reshaping much of the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire. In the 1499 Treaty of Basel, Maximilian was forced to acknowledge the de-facto independence of the Swiss confereracy from the Empire as a result of the Battle of Dornach. In 1508, Maximilian, with the assent of Pope, took the title of Elected Roman Emperor (Erwählter Römischer Kaiser), and thus ended the century-old custom that the Holy Roman Emperor had to be crowned by the pope.

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