Home About us Products Services Contact us Bookmark
:: wikimiki.org ::
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor

Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor

Henry IV (November 11, 1050 – August 7, 1106) was King of Germany from 1056 and Emperor from 1084, until his abdication in 1105. He was the third emperor of the Salian dynasty. Henry was the eldest son of the Emperor Henry III, by his second wife Agnes de Poitou, and was probably born at the royal palace at Goslar. His christening was delayed until the following Easter so that Abbot Hugh of Cluny could be one of his godparents. But even before that, at his Christmas court Henry III induced the attending nobles to promise to be faithful to his son. Three years later, still anxious to ensure the succession, Henry III had a larger assembly of nobles elect the young Henry as his successor, and then, on July 17, 1054, had him crowned as king by Archbishop Herman of Cologne. Thus when Henry III unexpectedly died in 1056, the accession of the 6-year-old Henry IV was not opposed. The dowager Empress Agnes acted as regent. Henry's reign was marked by efforts to consolidate Imperial power. In reality, however, it was a careful balancing act between maintaining the loyalty of the nobility and the support of the pope. Henry jeopardized both when, in 1075, his insistence on the right of a secular ruler to invest, i.e., to place in office, members of the clergy, especially bishops, began the conflict known as the Investiture Controversy. In the same year he defeated a rebellion of Saxons in the First Battle of Langensalza. Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Henry on February 22, 1076. Gregory, on his way to a diet at Augsburg, and hearing that Henry was approaching, took refuge in the castle of Canossa (near Reggio Emilia), belonging to Matilda, Countess of Tuscany. Henry's intent, however, was to perform the penance required to lift his excommunication, and ensure his continued rule. He stood for three days, January 25 to January 27, 1077, outside the gate at Canossa in the snow, begging the pope to rescind the sentence (popularly portrayed as without shoes, taking no food or shelter, and wearing a hairshirt). The Pope lifted the excommunication, imposing a vow to comply with certain conditions, which Henry soon violated. In his last years Henry faced rebellions from his eldest son and his wife. He died at Liège in 1106, "like one falling asleep", after nine days of illness. He was interred next to his father at Speyer.

Marriages

In 1055 Henry was betrothed to Bertha of Maurienne, daughter of Count Otto of Savoy. They were married in June 1066. In 1068 he attempted to divorce her, but was unable and Bertha was restored as Empress a year later. She died on December 27, 1086 and was buried at the cathedral of Speyer. Their children were: # Agnes of Germany (born 1072/1073), married Frederick I von Staufen, Duke of Swabia. # Conrad (February 12 1074-July 27 1101) # Adelaide, died in infancy # Henry, died in infancy # Henry (1086) In 1089 Henry married Eupraxia of Kiev, the only daughter of Vsevolod I, Prince of Kiev, and sister to his son Vladimir Monomakh (Russian: Владимир Мономах) (1053 -- May 19, 1125), prince of Kievan Rus. She assumed the name "Adelaide" upon her coronation. In 1094 she joined a rebellion against him, accusing Henry of holding her prisoner; of forcing her to participate in orgies; and attempting a black mass on her naked body.

Sources


- Robinson, I.S. Henry IV of Germany 1056-1106, 2000 Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Category:Holy Roman emperors Category:German Kings Category:Kings of Burgundy Category:Dukes of Bavaria Category:Salian Dynasty Category:Investiture Controversy ja:ハインリヒ4世

November 11

November 11 is the 315th day of the year (316th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 50 days remaining.

Events


- 1215 - The Fourth Lateran Council meets, adopting the doctrine of transubstantiation, meaning that bread and wine are transformed into the body and blood of Christ.
- 1620 - In what is now Provincetown Harbor near Cape Cod, the Mayflower Compact is signed on the Mayflower, establishing the basic laws for the Plymouth Colony.
- 1634 - Following pressure from Anglican bishop John Atherton, the Irish House of Commons passes "An Act for the Punishment for the Vice of Buggery" (anal sex).
- 1675 - Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the graph of y = f(x) function.
- 1675 -Guru Gobind Singh becomes the Tenth Guru of the Sikhs.
- 1831 - In Jerusalem, Virginia, Nat Turner is hanged after inciting a violent slave uprising.
- 1839 - The Virginia Military Institute is founded in Lexington, Virginia.
- 1834 - Hans Christian Andersen's The Ugly Duckling was first published.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea - Union General William Tecumseh Sherman begins burning Atlanta, Georgia to the ground in preparation for his march south.
- 1865 - Treaty of Sinchula is signed in which Bhutan ceded the areas east of the Teesta River to the British East India Company.
- 1874 - Gamma Phi Beta sorority is founded at Syracuse University.
- 1880 - Australian bushranger and bank robber Ned Kelly is hanged in Melbourne.
- 1887 - Anarchist Haymarket Martyrs August Spies, Albert Parsons, Adolph Fischer and George Engel are executed.
- 1887 - Construction of the Manchester Ship Canal starts at Eastham.
- 1889 - Washington is admitted as the 42nd U.S. state.
- 1911 - Many cities in the midwest broke their record highs and lows on the same day as a strong cold front rolls through. (see The 11/11/11 cold wave).
- 1918 - World War I ends: Germany signs an armistice agreement with the Allies in a railroad car outside of Compiègne in France. The war officially stops at 11:00.
- 1918 - Józef Piłsudski comes to Warsaw and assumes supreme military power in Poland. Poland regains its independence.
- 1918 - Emperor Charles I of Austria abdicates.
- 1919 - The Centralia Massacre in Centralia, Washington results the deaths of four members of the American Legion and the lynching of a local leader of the IWW.
- 1921 - The Tomb of the Unknowns is dedicated by US President Warren G. Harding at Arlington National Cemetery.
- 1923 - First try for a putsch by Hitler in Munich (Germany).
- 1930 - Patent number US1781541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for their invention, the Einstein refrigerator.
- 1933 - Dust Bowl: In South Dakota, a very strong dust storm strips topsoil from desiccated farmlands.
- 1940 - World War II: Battle of Taranto - The Royal Navy launches the first aircraft carrier strike in history, on the Italian fleet at Taranto.
- 1940 - The German cruiser Atlantis captures top secret British mail, and sends it to Japan.
- 1940 - Armistice Day Blizzard: An unexpected blizzard kills 144 in U.S. Midwest.
- 1942 - Road to Morocco, starring Bob Hope, Bing Crosby, and Dorothy Lamour, premieres.
- 1962 - Kuwait's National Assembly ratifies the Constitution of Kuwait.
- 1965 - Rhodesia (now called Zimbabwe) was declared independent by the white minority regime of Ian Smith.
- 1966 - NASA launches spaceship Gemini 12.
- 1967 - Vietnam War: In a propaganda ceremony in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, three American prisoners of war are released by the Viet Cong and turned over to "new left" antiwar activist Tom Hayden.
- 1968 - Vietnam War: Operation Commando Hunt initiated. The goal was to interdict men and supplies on the Ho Chi Minh Trail, through Laos into South Vietnam.
- 1968 - A second republic is declared in the Maldives.
- 1969 - Jim Morrison (The Doors) is arrested by the FBI after repeatedly prodding a stewardess.
- 1972 - Vietnam War: Vietnamization - The United States Army turns over the massive Long Binh military base to South Vietnam.
- 1975 - Angola becomes independent from Portugal.
- 1975 - Australian constitutional crisis of 1975: Australian Governor-General Sir John Kerr dismisses the government of Gough Whitlam and commissions Malcolm Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister, and announces a general election to be held in early December.
- 1978 - Maumoon Abdul Gayoom succeeded Ibrahim Nasir as the president of the Republic of Maldives. He has since been re-elected for six consecutive 5-year terms.
  - A renovated Hollywood Sign is unveiled, replacing the older version that was built in 1923.
- 1986 - Sperry Rand and Burroughs merge to form Unisys, becoming the second largest computer company.
- 1988 - In Sacramento, California, police find a body buried in the lawn of 60-year-old boardinghouse landlady Dorothea Puente .
- 1989 - Fall of the Berlin Wall.
- 1992 - The Church of England votes to allow women to become priests.
- 1993 - Australian Prime minister P. J. Keating makes a famous speech at the dedication of the tomb and the burial of the unknown Australian soldier
- 1997 - Mary McAleese inaugurated the eighth President of Ireland.
- 1997 - Marianne Biancuzzo is charged for drowning her newborn baby in a toilet and hiding the remains in a coffee can in Tucson, Arizona.
- 1999 - A six-storey apartment block collapses in Foggia, Italy, killing 62.
- 2000 - In Kaprun, Austria, 155 skiers and snowboarders die when a cable car catches fire in an alpine tunnel.
- 2004 - New Zealand Tomb of the Unknown Warrior dedicated at the National War Memorial, Wellington
  - Yasser Arafat is confirmed dead by the the Palestine Liberation Organization, of unidentified causes. Mahmoud Abbas is elected chairman of the PLO minutes later.
  - Official Guided by Voices Day in San Diego, California.
  - Mary McAleese inaugurated for a second term as President of Ireland.
- 2005 - David Irving, a British Nazi sympathizer and historian, is arrested in Austria on a 1989 warrant for offenses related to Holocaust denial.

Births


- 1050 - Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1106)
- 1154 - King Sancho I of Portugal (d. 1212)
- 1155 - King Alfonso VIII of Castile (d. 1214)
- 1220 - Alphonse of Toulouse, son of Louis VIII of France (d. 1271)
- 1493 - Paracelsus, doctor († 1541)
- 1493 - Bernardo Tasso, Italian poet (d. 1569)
- 1599 - Prince Octavio Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi, Austrian field marshal (d. 1656)
- 1633 - George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax, British statesman (d. 1695)
- 1668 - Johann Albert Fabricius, German classical scholar and bibliographer (d. 1736)
- 1743 - Carl Peter Thunberg, Swedish naturalist (d. 1828)
- 1744 - Abigail Adams, First Lady of the United States (d. 1818)
- 1748 - King Charles IV of Spain (d. 1819)
- 1764 - Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krüdener, Russian writer (d. 1824)
- 1791 - Josef Munzinger, Swiss Federal Councillor (d. 1855)
- 1792 - Mary Anne Evans, English wife of Benjamin Disraeli (d. 1872)
- 1821 - Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Russian novelist (d. 1881)
- 1828 - Sri Deep Narayan Mahaprabhuji, Hindu saint (d. 1963)
- 1852 - Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, Austro-Hungarian field marshal (d. 1925)
- 1863 - Paul Signac, French painter (d. 1935)
- 1864 - Alfred Hermann Fried, Austrian pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1921)
- 1869 - King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (d. 1947)
- 1882 - King Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden (d. 1973)
- 1885 - George Patton, American general (d. 1945)
- 1887 - Roland Young, American actor (d. 1953)
- 1889 - Clifton Webb, American actor (d. 1966)
- 1891 - Rabbit Maranville, baseball player (d. 1954)
- 1897 - Lucky Luciano, American gangster (d. 1962)
- 1898 - Rene Clair, French film dirctor (d.
- 1899 - Pat O'Brien, American film actor (d. 1983)
- 1900 - Halina Konopacka, Polish athlete (d. 1989)
- 1901 - F. Van Wyck Mason, American author (d. 1978)
- 1903 - Sam Spiegel, Austrian-born film producer (d. 1985)
- 1904 - Alger Hiss, American government official and spy (d. 1994)
- 1904 - J. H. C. Whitehead, British mathematician (d. 1960)
- 1909 - Robert Ryan, American actor (d. 1973)
- 1912 - Thomas C. Mann, American diplomat
- 1914 - Howard Fast, American author (d. 2003)
- 1914 - Henry Wade, American lawyer (d. 2001)
- 1915 - William Proxmire, U.S. Senator
- 1918 - Stubby Kaye, American comic actor (d. 1997)
- 1919 - Martin Balsam, American actor (d. 1996)
- 1919 - Kalle Päätalo, Finnish novelist (d. 2000)
- 1920 - Roy Jenkins, British politician (d. 2003)
- 1922 - Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., American novelist
- 1925 - June Whitfield, British comedienne
- 1925 - Jonathan Winters, American comedian and actor
- 1927 - Mose Allison, American musician
- 1928 - LaVern Baker, American singer (d. 1997)
- 1928 - Carlos Fuentes, Mexican writer
- 1928 - Mircea Mureşan, Romanian film director
- 1929 - Hans Magnus Enzensberger, German writer
- 1938 - Ants Antson, Estonian speed skater
- 1939 - Denise Alexander, American actress
- 1940 - Barbara Boxer, U.S. Senator
- 1943 - Doug Frost, Australian swimming coach
- 1944 - Jesse Colin Young, American musician (The Youngbloods)
- 1945 - Daniel Ortega, President of Nicaragua
- 1950 - Mircea Dinescu, Romanian poet
- 1953 - Marshall Crenshaw, American musician
- 1954 - Meindert Zwaagstra, American patriot
- 1959 - Lee Haney, American bodybuilder
- 1960 - Peter Parros, American actor
- 1960 - Stanley Tucci, American actor and film director
- 1961 - Corinne Hermès, French singer
- 1962 - Demi Moore, American actress
- 1962 - James Morrison, Australian musician
- 1964 - Judith Edelman, American musician
- 1964 - Calista Flockhart, American actress
- 1966 - Alison Doody, Irish actress
- 1967 - Gil de Ferran, Brazilian race car driver
- 1969 - Carson Kressley, American fashion expert
- 1973 - Jason White, American musician (Green Day)
- 1974 - Leonardo DiCaprio, American actor
- 1977 - Ben Hollioake, English cricketer (d. 2002)
- 1979 - Alexandra Noemi Oana Iftode, Romanian "Steaua Bucuresti" Team Manager
- 1981 - Natalie Glebova, Russian-Canadian beauty queen
- 1985 - Kalan Porter, Canadian singer
- 1988 - Daniel Wood, English cricketer

Deaths


- 397 - Martin of Tours, French saint
- 537 - Pope Silverius, saint
- 1028 - Constantine VIII of the Byzantine Empire (b. 960)
- 1285 - King Peter III of Aragon (b. 1239)
- 1623 - Philippe de Mornay, French writer (b. 1549)
- 1686 - Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé, French general (b. 1621)
- 1986 - Otto von Guericke, German scientist, inventor, and politician (b. 1602)
- 1831 - Nat Turner, American slave rebel (b. 1800)
- 1855 - Søren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher (b. 1813)
- 1880 - Ned Kelly, Australian bushranger (hanged)
- 1880 - Lucretia Mott, American feminist and abolitionist (b. 1793)
- 1884 - Alfred Brehm German zoologist (b. 1827)
- 1887 - Haymarket martyrs:
- 1887 - George Engel (b. 1836)
- 1887 - Adolph Fischer (b. 1858)
- 1887 - Albert Parsons (b. 1848)
- 1887 - August Spies (b. 1855)
- 1917 - Liliuokalani of Hawaii, Queen of Hawaii (b. 1838)
- 1931 - Shibusawa Eiichi, Japanese industrialist (b. 1840)
- 1939 - Jan Opletal, czech student, victim of nazi violence in Prague
- 1945 - Jerome David Kern, American composer (b. 1885)
- 1969 - Ernest Ansermet, Swiss conductor (b. 1883)
- 1973 - David "Stringbean" Akeman, American banjo player (b. 1915)
- 1973 - Artturi Ilmari Virtanen, Finnish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1895)
- 1974 - Alfonso Leng, Chilean composer (b. 1894)
- 1975 - Theodosius Dobzhansky, Ukrainian geneticist (b. 1900)
- 1976 - Alexander Calder, American artist (b. 1898)
- 1977 - Greta Keller, Vienna-born cabaret singer and actress (b. 1903)
- 1979 - Dimitri Tiomkin, Ukrainian-born composer (b. 1894)
- 1997 - Rodney Milburn, American athlete (b. 1950)
- 1999 - Mary Kay Bergman, American voice actress (b. 1961)
- 1999 - Jacobo Timmerman, Argentine writer and journalist (b. 1923)
- 2004 - Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1929)
- 2005- Lord Lichfield, British photographer
- 2005 - Peter Drucker, American management theorist (b. 1909)

Holidays and observances


- R.C. Saints - Martin of Tours
- Opening of carnival season in Germany ("Karneval"/"Fasching" on 11-11, at 11:11), the Netherlands, and other countries
- Also see November 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Angola - Independence Day (1975)
- Colombia - Independence of Cartagena, from the Spanish Army in (1918)
- Poland - Independence Day (1918)
- South Korea - Pepero Day
- United States - Veterans Day (Formerly "Armistice Day")
- Armistice Day in France and Belgium: end of World War I (1918)
- Lacplesis' Day (1919) in Latvia: the official date for commemoration of Latvian soldiers, who had died for the country's freedom.
- Remembrance Day in the Commonwealth of Nations, including United Kingdom and Canada

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/11 BBC: On This Day] ---- November 10 - November 12 - October 11 - December 11 -- listing of all days ko:11월 11일 ms:11 November ja:11月11日 simple:November 11 th:11 พฤศจิกายน

1050

Events


- Leofric becomes Bishop of Exeter

Births


- November 11 - Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1106)
- Margrave Leopold II of Austria (d. 1095)

Deaths


- Zoe of Byzantium, Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire
- Anund Jacob of Sweden, King of Sweden Category:1050 ko:1050년

1106

Events


- September 28 - Henry I of England defeats his older brother Robert Curthose, duke of Normandy, at the Battle of Tinchebrai, and imprisons him in Cardiff Castle; Edgar Atheling and William Clito are also taken prisoner.
- Balaguer, Spain, is captured from the Moors by the count of Urgell.
- Boleslaus III of Poland begins a war against his brother Zbigniew for control of Poland.

Births


- Pope Celestine III (approximate date; died 1198)
- Minamoto no Yorimasa, Japanese leader of the Minamoto armies in the Genpei War (died 1180)

Deaths


- August 7 - Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (born 1050)
- August 23 - Magnus, Duke of Saxony.
- Robert Malet, English baron
- Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami, Syrian jurist and philologist
- Yusuf ibn Tashfin, ruler of Spain and North Africa Category:1106 ko:1106년

1056

Events


- Anselm of Canterbury leaves Italy.
- Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, becomes King of Germany.
- Ottokar, Count of Steyr, becomes Margrave of the Karantanian March, later known as Styria

Births

Deaths


- August 31 - Theodora, Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire (b. 981)
- October 5 - Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1017) Category:1056 ko:1056년

1105

Events


- Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor deposed by his son, Henry V
- Tamna kingdom annexed by Korean Goryeo Dynasty.

Births


- March 1 - Alfonso VII of Castile (died 1157)
- Matilda of Boulogne, wife of Stephen of England (died 1152)
- Ingold II, king of Sweden (died 1125)
- Melisende of Jerusalem (died 1161)
- Ibn Tufail, Andalusian philosopher, physician and official (approximate date; died 1185)

Deaths


- July 17 - Rashi, Jewish commentator on the Tanakh and Talmud (born 1040)
- Raymond IV of Toulouse (born c. 1052)
- Inge I, king of Sweden 1080-1105 Category:1105 ko:1105년

Salian

The Salian Dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire was founded by Conrad II (c. 990 - 1039). The dynasty reigned from 1024-1125. Their regnal dates as emperor are confused by the issue of election and subsequent coronation. Salian Emperors
- Conrad II, emperor 1027-1039
- Henry III emperor 1046-1056
- Henry IV, emperor 1084-1106
- Henry V, emperor 1111-1125 Category:Royal families Category:German nobility Category:Salian Dynasty Category:History of Germany

Agnes de Poitou

Agnes of Poitou or Empress Agnes (c.1025-1077) was regent of the Holy Roman Empire from 1056 to 1068. She was born to William V, Duke of Aquitaine and Count of Poitou and his wife Agnes of Burgundy. She was the sister of Duke William VI, Duke Eudes, Duke William VII, and Duke William VIII. Agnes married Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor, on November 21, 1043, at Besançon. Their children were: # Matilda of Germany, born 1045, married Rudolf von Rheinfeld. # Judith of Swabia, born 1047, married first King Solomon of Hungary, secondly to King Wladislaus I Herman of Poland. # Adelaide of Germany, born 1048, later Abbess of Quedlinburg. # Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, born November 11, 1050. # Conrad, born 1052, died young. After her husband's death, Agnes served as regent during the minority of their young son, Henry IV. Her chief counselor was Henry, Bishop of Augsburg, who was widely hated for his arrogance and his suspected relationship with the empress. Although Agnes pursued a policy of reconciliation with her late husband's enemies, a conspiracy was formed against her by a cadre of power-hungry princes. Shortly after Easter 1062, her son Henry was abducted by some of these conspirators, who included the bishop of Cologne and the duke of Bavaria. Without her son, Agnes lost her political power and was forced into a temporary retirement. In 1065 she went to Rome, where she lived under the guidance of the theologian Peter Damian. In her later years Agnes acted as a peacemaker between her son Henry IV and his enemies.

Sources


- Robinson, I.S. Henry IV of Germany 1056-1106, 2000 Category:Salian Dynasty Category:Holy Roman Empire Poitou, Agnes Poitou, Agnes

Goslar

Goslar_in_Germany.png
Map of Germany showing Goslar
Goslar is a town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is the capital of the district of Goslar and located on the northwestern slopes of the Harz mountains. Population: 45,700 (1999). Goslar is a very popular tourist resort of Lower Saxony, being a gateway to the western part of the Harz mountains. The town was founded in the 10th century after the discovery of silver deposits in the close Rammelsberg mountain. It became a particularly rich town, which attracted the interest of the Holy Roman Emperor. The Kaiserpfalz (emperor's palace) of Goslar was built in the 11th century and became a summer residence for the emperors, especially Henry III of Germany who visited his favourite palace about twenty times. Henry is buried in Goslar. The cathedral of Goslar is as old as the palace, but only the porch survived; the church itself was torn down in 1820. Goslar is still intact and was not bombed during World War II because it housed a P.O.W. camp. Other sights are the town hall (16th century) and the ancient mines of the Rammelsberg mountain, which are now a mining museum. Goslar and the mines are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Category:Towns in Lower Saxony

Hugh of Cluny

:For other people named Hugh the Great, see Hugh the Great (disambiguation). Hugh of Cluny (1024 - 1109) was an Abbot of Cluny. He is sometimes referred to as "Hugh the Great" and was canonized by the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Hugh (the Great) . He was one of the most influential leaders of one of the most influential monastic orders of the Middle Ages. Funded by Ferdinand I of Leon, Abbot Hugh built the third abbey church at Cluny, the largest structure in Europe for many centuries. Hugh was the driving force behing the Cluniac monastic movement during the last quarter of the 11th century, which had priories throughout Southern France and northern Spain. Hugh's relationship to Ferdinand I and Alphonso VI of Leon and Castile, as well as his influence upon Pope Urban II, who had been prior at Cluny under Hugh, made Hugh one of the most powerful and influential figures of the late 11th century. Also, as the godfather of Henry IV, he also had a role in the conflict between Gregory VII and Henry IV. His feast day in the Roman Catholic Church is April 29.

External link


- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07524a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia:] St. Hugh the Great Category:1024 births Category:1109 deaths Category:Saints

1054

Events


- Battle of Mortemer, February: Normans defeated a French army as it was caught pillaging and plundering. King Henry I of France withdrew his main army from Normandy as a result.
- Cardinal Humbertus, a representative of Pope Leo IX, and Michael Cerularius, Patriarch of Constantinople, decree each other's excommunication. Some historians look to this act as initiating the Great Schism between the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christian Churches. To this day each claims to be the One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church and each denies the other's right to that name. However, at the time of the excommunication, the Pope was dead; therefore, Cardinal Humbertus' act had no legal force. Moreover, individuals were excommunicated, not entire Churches.
- Malcolm Canmore begins his campaign for the throne of Scotland.
- July 4 - The SN 1054 supernova is recorded by the Chinese and possibly Native Americans near the star ζ Tauri. For several months it remains bright enough to be seen during the day. Its remnants form the Crab Nebula (NGC 1952). -- Reference, Journal of Astronomy, part 9, chapter 56 of Sung History (Sung Shih) first printing, 1340. facsimile on the frontispiece of Misner, Thorne, Wheeler Gravitation, 1973.
- July 27 - King Macbeth of Scotland's troops defeated in Dunsinane Hill. Macbeth himself escapes.

Deaths


- April 19 - Pope Leo IX (b. 1002)
- September 24 - Hermannus Contractus
- The death of Yaroslav the Wise, prince of Kievan Rus.

See also


- List of state leaders in 1054 Category:1054 ko:1054년

1056

Events


- Anselm of Canterbury leaves Italy.
- Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, becomes King of Germany.
- Ottokar, Count of Steyr, becomes Margrave of the Karantanian March, later known as Styria

Births

Deaths


- August 31 - Theodora, Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire (b. 981)
- October 5 - Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1017) Category:1056 ko:1056년

Investiture Controversy

The Investiture Controversy was the most significant conflict between secular and religious powers in medieval Europe. It began as a dispute in the 11th century between the Holy Roman Emperor and the Gregorian Papacy concerning who would control appointments of church officials (investiture). The controversy, undercutting the Imperial power established by the Salian Emperors would eventually lead to nearly fifty years of civil war in Germany, the triumph of the great dukes and abbots, and the disintegration of the German empire, a condition from which it would not recover until the reunification of Germany in the 19th century.

Origins

Prior to the Investiture Controversy, the appointment of church officials, while theoretically a task of the Church, was in practice performed by secular authorities. Since a substantial amount of wealth and land was usually associated with the office of bishop or abbot, the sale of Church offices (a practice known as simony and considered a sin by the Church) was an important source of income for secular leaders; and since bishops and abbots were themselves usually part of the secular governments, due to their literate administrative resources, it was beneficial for a secular ruler to appoint (or sell the office to) someone who would be loyal. In addition, the Holy Roman Emperor had the special ability to appoint the Pope, and the Pope in turn would appoint and crown the next Holy Roman Emperor; thus the cycle of secular investiture of Church offices was ensured to perpetuate from the top down indefinitely. The crisis began when a group within the church, members of the Gregorian Reform, decided to address the sin of simony by restoring the power of investiture to the Church. The Gregorian reformers knew this would not be possible so long as the Emperor maintained the ability to appoint the Pope, so the first step was to liberate the papacy from control by the Emperor. An opportunity came in the 1050s when Henry IV became Emperor at a young age. The reformers seized the opportunity to free the Papacy while he was still a child and could not react. In 1059 a church council in Rome declared secular leaders would play no part in the election of popes, and created the College of Cardinals, made up entirely of church officials. The College of Cardinals remains to this day the method used to elect popes. Once the papacy gained control of the election of the Pope, it was now ready to attack the practice of investiture on a broad front.

Investiture Controversy

In 1075 Pope Gregory VII declared in the Dictatus Papae that as the Roman church was founded by God alone, only the papal power (the auctoritas of Pope Gelasius) was the sole universal power, and that the pope alone could appoint or depose churchmen or move them from see to see. This radical departure from the Early Medieval balance of power, among its other reforms (see Gregorian Reform), eliminated the practice of investiture, the divinely-appointed monarch's right to invest a prelate with the symbols of power, both secular and spiritual. By this time, Henry IV of Germany was no longer a child, and he reacted to this declaration by sending Gregory VII a letter in which he, in effect, removed Gregory as pope and called for the election of a new pope. His letter ends: : I, Henry, king by the grace of God, with all of my Bishops, say to you, come down, come down, and be damned throughout the ages. In 1076 Gregory responded to the letter by excommunicating the king, removing him from the Church and deposing him. Henry IV was no longer king of Germany nor Holy Roman Emperor. This was the first time a king of his stature had been deposed since the 4th century. In effect, the pope and the emperor each claimed to have removed the other from office. Enforcing these declarations was a different matter, but fate was on the side of Gregory VII. The German aristocracy was happy to hear of their king's deposition. They would use the cover of religion as an excuse for a continuation of the rebellion started at the First Battle of Langensalza in 1075 and the seizure of royal powers. The aristocracy would claim local lordships over peasants and property, build castles which had previously been outlawed, and build localized fiefdoms to break away from the empire. Henry IV had no choice but to back down, needing time to marshall his forces to fight the rebellion in his kingdom. In 1077 he traveled to Canossa in northern Italy to meet the Pope and apologize in person. As penance for his sins, he dramatically wore a hairshirt and stood in the snow barefoot in the middle of winter in what has become known as the Walk to Canossa. Gregory lifted the excommunication, but the German aristocrats, whose rebellion became known as the Great Saxon Revolt, were not so willing to give up their opportunity. They elected a rival king named Rudolf. In 1081 Henry IV was able to capture and kill Rudolf, and in the same year he invaded Rome with the intent of forcibly removing Gregory VII and installing a more friendly pope. Gregory VII called on his allies the Normans, who were in southern Italy, and they rescued him from the Germans in 1085. The Normans managed to sack Rome in the process, and when the citizens of Rome rose up against Gregory he was forced to flee south with the Normans and died there soon after. The Investiture Controversy would continue on for several decades as each succeeding Pope tried to fight the investiture by stirring up revolt in Germany. Henry IV was succeeded upon death in 1106 by his son Henry V, who was also unwilling to give up investiture.

The English investiture controversy of 1103 – 1107

At the time of Henry IV's death, Henry I of England and the Gregorian Papacy were also imbroiled in a controversy over investiture, and its solution provided a model for the eventual solution of the issue in the Empire. William the Conqueror had accepted a papal banner and the distant blessing of Gregory VII upon his invasion, but had successfully rebuffed Gregory's assertion after the successful outcome, that he should come to Rome and pay homage for his fief, under the general provisions of the "Donation of Constantine". The ban on lay investiture in Dictatus Papae did not shake the loyalty of William's bishops and abbots. In the reign of Henry I the heat of exchanges between Westminster and Rome induced Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, to give up mediating and retire to an abbey. A Norman count who was Henry's chief advisor was excommunicated, but the threat of excommunicating the king remained unplayed. The Papacy needed the support of English Henry while German Henry was still unbroken. A projected crusade also required English support. Henry commisioned the archbishop of York to collect and present all the relevant traditions of anointed kingship. "The resulting Anonymous of York treatises are a delight to students of early-medieval political theory, but they in no way typify the outlook of the Anglo-Norman monarchy, which had substituted the secure foundation of administrative and legal bureaucracy for outmoded religious ideology" (Cantor 1993 p 286). The Concordat of London (1107) suggested a compromise that was taken up in the Concordat of Worms. In England, as in Germany, a distinction was being made in the king's chancery between the secular and ecclesiastical powers of the prelates. Employing the distinction, Henry gave up his right to invest his bishops and abbots and reserved the custom of requiring them to come and do homage. The system of vassalage was not divided among great local lords in England, for the king was in control. Henry recognized the dangers of depending on monastic scholars to staff his chancery and turned increasingly to secular scholars (who naturally held minor orders) and rewarded these men of his own making with bishoprics and abbeys. Henry expanded the system of scutage to reduce the monarchy's dependence on knights supplied from church lands. The conclusion of the brief English investuture controversy was to strengthen the secular power of the king.

The Concordat of Worms

:Main article Concordat of Worms. On the Continent, after fifty years of fighting, a similar compromise (but with quite different long-term results) was reached in 1122, signed on September 23 and known as the Concordat of Worms. It was agreed that investiture would be eliminated, while room would be provided for secular leaders to have unofficial but significant input in the appointment process.

Significance

Before the Investiture Controversy, Germany was one of the most powerful and united kingdoms in Europe. During the 50 years that Germany was embroiled in the dispute with the Church, it declined in power and broke apart. Localized rights of lordship over peasants grew, increasing serfdom and resulting in fewer rights for the population. Local taxes and levies increased while royal coffers declined. Rights of justice became localized and courts did not have to answer to royal authority. In the long term the decline of imperial power would divide Germany until the 19th century. As for the Papacy it gained strength. The controversy had resulted in both sides trying to marshall public opinion, lay people became engaged in religious affairs, and lay piety had increased as a result, setting the stage for the Crusades and the great religious vitality of the 12th century. The dispute did not end with the Concordat of Worms. There would be future disputes between popes and Holy Roman Emperors, until northern Italy was lost to the Empire entirely. The Church would turn the weapon of Crusade against the Holy Roman Empire under Frederick II.

References


- Blumenthal, Uta-Renate (1988). The Investiture Constroversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century. University of Philadelphia Press.
- Cantor, Norman F. (1993). The Civilization of the Middle Ages. HarperCollins
- Cowdrey, H.E.J. (1998). Pope Gregory VII, 1073–1085. Oxford University Press.
- Tellenbach, Gerd (1993). The Western Church from the Tenth to the Early Twelfth Century. Cambridge University Press.

External links


- "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08084c.htm Conflict of Investitures]", from the Catholic Encyclopedia.
- "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08084b.htm Canonical Investiture]", from the Catholic Encyclopedia.
- "[http://www.bartleby.com/65/in/investit.html Investiture]", from the Columbia Encyclopedia.
- "[http://the-orb.net/textbooks/nelson/investiture.html The Owl, The Cat, And The Investiture Controversy]", from the Online Reference Book for Medieval Studies (ORB).
- "[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1l.html Empire and Papacy]", from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook.

Sources


- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/henry4-to-g7a.html Henry IV: Letter to Gregory VII, Jan 24 1076].
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g7-ban1.html Gregory VII: First Deposition and Banning of Henry IV (Feb 22, 1076)]
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g7-ban2.html Gregory VII: Second Banning and Dethronement of Henry IV (March 7, 1080)]
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g7-dictpap.html Gregory VII: Dictatus Papae 1090]
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g7-reform2.html Ban on Lay Investitures, 1078]
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/worms1.html The Concordat of Worms 1122]
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran1.html The Canons of the First Lateran Council, 1123]
- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/investm.htm Avalon Project, Yale University: Documents relating to the War of the Investitures] Category:Investiture Controversy

First Battle of Langensalza

The First Battle of Langensalza was fought on June 9, 1075 between forces of German King Henry IV and several rebellious Saxon noblemen on the River Unstrut near Langensalza. The battle was a complete success for Henry, resulting in the subjugation of Saxony shortly before the Investiture Controversy commenced.

Background

From the start of his reign, Henry had suffered numerous setbacks in Saxony. Attempts to restore royal rights over the forests were not received well by the Saxon freedmen, and efforts to extend the crownlands in general as well as the increased demands laid upon the fisc were opposed. A policy of building castles, continued from the time of his father, implemented by the King fostered resentment among multiple groups. In particular, the Harzburg became a symbol of Imperial tyranny and impeding on traditional Saxon rights. Like his father, Henry desired to set Goslar as the fixed capital of the German Kingdom. Henry had already had to put down a rebellion led by Otto of Nordheim and Magnus Billung (1070–1071). The King kept Magnus prisoner at the Harzburg, even after the latter succeeded his father to the Duchy of Saxony in 1072. This heightened tensions between the royal court and the Saxons; Magnus' subsequent release in exchange for seventy Swabians captured in Lüneburg did little to provide a thaw in relations. In anger, the King rejected several Saxon petitions for redress. In 1073 several bishops and nobles organized a resistance. Several castles were besieged, and the King was forced to escape from the Harzburg to Hessewech. In February 1074 he proceeded to Gerstungen, where the insurrection, numbering twice the size of his forces, met him; he agreed to several concessions, reasoning that the Saxons would break their end of the deal eventually. The freedmen, who felt betrayed by the nobles due to the peace, sacked the Harzburg in a frenzy, destroyed the castle, and committed such acts of sacrilege (tossing the bones of members of the royal family, along with those of an abbot and St. Anastasius) that they shocked the local population and the religious authorities. Henry used the destruction as a pretext for renewed hostilities. He gained the support of several bishops, the lower feudality and city burghers. While Henry was conducting a campaign against the Magyars to the side, papal legates were attempting to create support for the Saxon rebels. In 1075 Otto of Nordheim, together with the count palatine in Saxony and Bishop Burckhardt of Halberstadt openly declared their hostility, using Henry's violations of the Gerstungen treaty as an excuse. They gained many Saxon and Thuringian freedmen, but many nobles and peasants did not join. The King made camp in Bredingen, and managed to gain the defections of some lower Saxon nobles with promises to listen to their grievances. In June, he moved to Langensalza.

The Battle

Henry's move to Langensalza put him closer to the Saxon encampment. The two sides met for battle at Homburg on June 9. The Saxon army contained several thousand men, but in typical Saxon tradition, most of them were on foot. Their ranks consisted of nobles and their vassals, along with freedmen and some serfs. Many of them were poorly trained. On the other hand, Henry's army was well-organized in typical feudal fashion, with a large amount of mounted warriors. The engagement that followed was less of a battle than a rout. A charge by the Swabians under Duke Rudolf almost instantly destroyed the Saxon center. The leaders took to their horses and fled, but the foot soldiers were slaughtered. It was reported that several thousand died when they drowned in the Unstrut. Many spoils were gained by Henry's army.

The Aftermath

The defeat was stunning. It shocked the Saxons, and the supporters of the rebellion became frantic. The Archbishop of Mainz threatened excommunication against the Thuringians in order to gain funds to finance the insurrection. Unfortunately, Henry and his army ravaged the Saxon and Thuringian countryside, bringing starvation. The Archbishop of Magdeburg eventually conceded and requested the terms the King would hold the rebels to. Henry demanded a short imprisonment for all the leaders, as well as confiscation of their fiefs and their redistrubution among loyal Imperial partisans. As harsh as the terms were, the complete victory Henry gained at Langensalza convinced them to accept. In a humiliating gesture, the rebel bishops, nobles and peasants walked barefoot between the ranks of the King's army and submitted to him. The King then convened a meeting of princes at Goslar on Christmas to determine the future of Saxony; he ended up freeing Otto of Nordheim and making him his viceroy to Saxony. Henry considered the Saxon question settled, but the Investiture conflict would quickly undo the peace.

Sources


- James Thompson (1928). Feudal Germany. ISBN 0404186017 Category:Battles of the Holy Roman Empire

Excommunication

Excommunication is a religious censure which is used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community. The word literally means "out of communion," or, "once was in communion, but now is not". (Sections in alphabetical order.) ( Excommunications(List) )

Christianity

Anathema

The biblical form of excommunication is to declare one anathema. The difference between an anathema and excommunication is that generally excommunications are pronounced by the Catholic Church, which has created a ceremony that corresponds to them. This ceremony is proper only to Bishops and other prelates, and is contained in the Pontificale Romanum, a liturgical book of the Roman Rite which contains all of the sacraments and other ceremonies a Bishop might perform. Anathemas were employed in the New Testament. Galatians 1:8 “But even if we, or an angel from Heaven, should preach to you a gospel contrary to what we have preached to you, he is to be accursed"! Then also, 1 Corinthians 16:22 "If anyone does not love the Lord, he is to be accursed". Furthermore, anathemas were used as late as 553 A.D. at the Second Council of Constantinople. They would take the name of excommunication by the Roman Catholic Church. Following the Protestant Reformation many reformed churches would return to using anathema.

Calvin's view on excommunication

In John Calvin's Institutes of The Christian Religion, he said (4.12.10): :For when our Saviour promises that what his servants bound on earth should be bound in heaven, (Matthew 18: 18,) he confines the power of binding to the censure of the Church, which does not consign those who are excommunicated to perpetual ruin and damnation, but assures them, when they hear their life and manners condemned, that perpetual damnation will follow if they do not repent. [Excommunication] rebukes and animadverts upon his manners; and although it ... punishes, it is to bring him to salvation, by forewarning him of his future doom. If it succeeds, reconciliation and restoration to communion are ready to be given. ... Hence, though ecclesiastical discipline does not allow us to be on familiar and intimate terms with excommunicated persons, still we ought to strive by all possible means to bring them to a better mind, and recover them to the fellowship and unity of the Church: as the apostle also says, "Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother" (2 Thessalonians 3: 15). If this humanity be not observed in private as well as public, the danger is, that our discipline shall degenerate into destruction. Some Reformed churches today do not make use of excommunication (or church discipline in its lesser forms), though it is often still required by their constitutions.

Roman Catholic Church

Excommunication is the most serious ecclesiastical penalty for Roman Catholics. While a person excommunicated is not damned by the Church, the person is barred from participating in its communal life. The outward sign of this loss of community involves barring the person from participating in liturgy, i.e., receiving the Eucharist or the other Sacraments. Certain other rights and privileges normally resulting from membership in the church are revoked, such as holding ecclesiastical office. Excommunication is intended to be only temporary, a "medicinal" procedure intended to guide the offender toward repentance. In the Roman Catholic Church excommunication is usually terminated by repentance, confession, and absolution. Excommunications offences must be absolved by a more senior official or a priest that has the faculty to absolve the excommunication.

Automatic excommunication

There are a few offenses for which Latin Rite Roman Catholics are automatically excommunicated (the Latin term is Latæ Sententiæ): # Apostasy, # Heresy, # Schism, # Desecration of the Eucharist, # Physical force against the Pope, # Attempted sacramental absolution of a partner in adultery, # Ordination of a bishop without a Papal mandate (e.g. all bishops in the government-run Chinese Patriotic Church), # For those present in the conclave, revelation of the details of the conclave, # Simoniacal provision of the Papal office, # Violation of the sacramental seal of confession by a priest or bishop, and # Procurement of a completed abortion. Unless an ecclesiastical court finds that the offense in question occurred, the obligation to observe an automatic excommunication is on the excommunicated and not the rest of the clergy (Can. 1331 §1). Thus, even though an automatic excommunicant is forbidden to exercise any ecclesiastical offices, the excommunicant still retains the offices and all such acts are still valid acts under the law unless there has been a trial and finding of fact. Once this occurs, all subsequent acts become void and all offices lost (Can. 1331 §2). The removal of the excommunication incurred by offenses 4 through 8 is reserved to the Holy See, either personally by the Pope or through the Apostolic Penitentiary. Some ecclesiastical offenses incur an automatic interdict, which for a lay person is virtually equivalent to excommunication.

Amish and Mennonite

In conservative Amish and Mennonite congregrations, the ban is a form of excommunication used to punish church members. The member in question is put under the ban or shunned and other members of the congregation are prohibited almost all contact with him or her. The ban severs social, sexual, and business ties between the excommunicant and the congregation. Once the church member is banned, they are only allowed contact with non-church members. This is especially devastating in close-knit communities where the primary relationships of most members are inside the church. The excommunicant must depend on relationships with outsiders who they have previously been taught to see as 'worldly'. Thus, the effectiveness of the ban depends to a large extent on the power of group shaming. The ban is usually applied for life unless the banned person decides to 'repent', become 'agreeable' again, and is accepted back into the congregration. Church members are required to shun sons, daughters and other close relatives who become excommunicants without regard to blood ties. This can cause much malice in families and extended families even where ties were close. The ban forbids sexual and almost all social contact between such excommunicants and spouses who are still members of the church, even inside the home. Innocent non-member dependents can be caught in a situation where one parent is a member and the other is shunned and prohibited from communication with their spouse. The resulting destruction of marriage and family bonds can cause immense psychological damage to children of shunned parents and spouses.

Eastern Orthodox Communion

In the Orthodox Church, excommunication is the exclusion of a member from the Eucharist. It is not expulsion from the Church. This can happen due to minor reasons like not having confessed within that year or be imposed as part of a penitential period. It is generally done with the goal of eventually restoring the member to full communion. The Orthodox Church does have a means of expulsion, by pronouncing anathema, but this is reserved only for acts of serious and unrepentant heresy. Even in that case, the individual is not "damned" by the Church but is instead left to his own devices.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ("LDS Church"; see also Mormon) practices excommunication (as well as the lesser sanctions of disfellowshipping and probation) as penalties for those who commit serious sins. The decision to excommunicate a Melchizedek Priesthood holder is generally the province of the leadership of a Stake, which consists of several local wards. Excommunications occur only after a formal "church court" in which twelve members of the Stake High Council listen to evidence and then vote. Those who are excommunicated lose the right to take the sacrament and lose their church membership. In many cases notices of excommunications are made public, but the specific reasons for individual excommunications are typically kept confidential. Persons who have been excommunicated are welcome and encouraged to attend church meetings, but cannot participate in the meetings, cannot enter LDS temples, or wear temple garments. Excommunicated members may be re-baptized after a waiting period and sincere repentance, as judged by a series of interviews with church leaders. Excommunication is generally reserved for what are seen as the most serious sins, including committing serious crimes; committing adultery, polygamy, or homosexual conduct; apostasy, teaching false doctrines, or openly criticizing LDS leaders. In the case of apostasy, false teachings, and being openly critical of LDS leadership, excommunication is often a last resort after repeated warnings. As a lesser penalty, Latter-day Saints may be disfellowshipped, which does not include a loss of church membership. Once disfellowshipped, persons may not take the sacrament or enter LDS temples, nor may they participate in other church meetings, though disfellowshipped persons may attend most LDS functions and are permitted to wear temple garments. For lesser sins, or in cases where the sinner appears truly repentant, individuals may be put on probation for a time, which means that further sin will result in disfellowshipment or excommunication. Some critics have charged that LDS leaders have used the threat of excommunication to silence or punish LDS researchers who disagree with established policy and doctrine, or who study or discuss controversial subjects. A notable case is the so-called September Six. However, LDS policy dictates that local leaders are responsible for excommunication, without influence from General Church leadership, arguing this policy is evidence against systematic persecution of scholars. In contrast, some claim that LDS leadership keeps watch on certain apostate groups such as Sunstone and the message boards at exmormon.org and report on speakers (and topics) to their local leaders. Apologists further suggest that some alleged excommunications never take place, or are used as a publicity stunt. They cite the case of Thomas Murphy, who they say only claimed he was threatened with excommunication or other disciplinary action because of his research of how DNA research challenges LDS teachings. (see Archaeology and the Book of Mormon). Recent evidence, such as witnesses at the meeting with the stake president and the letter requesting Murphy's attendance at the court, refute this claim that the disciplinary action was simply a publicity stunt.

Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses practice something similar to excommunication—using the term disfellowshipping—in cases where a member violates Bible requirements as understood by Jehovah's Witnesses. When a member confesses or is accused of a serious sin, the elders of the congregation form a judicial committee of three to five local elders. This committee will investigate the case and determine guilt, and if the person is deemed guilty, the committee will determine if the person is repentant. Repentance is completely based upon evidence of repentance, which includes the attitude of being sorry and ‘works befitting repentance,’ as referred to in Acts 26:20 and 2 Corinthians 7:11, such as trying to correct the wrong or making apologies to any offended individuals. A person may even be “brought” to repentance right within the judicial meeting itself, expressing acknowledgement of the wrong with a contrite heart and a resolve not to repeat the offense. These are all just manifestations of true sorrow for the sin committed. If the person is found guilty and is unrepentant, he will be disfellowshipped. This is made formal by an announcement at the next congregation meeting that the person is no longer one of Jehovah's Witnesses. If the person believes that an error in judgment has been made by the committee, he has the right to appeal. The traveling overseer responsible for the area will appoint three additional elders comprising an appeal committee to review the proceedings together with the original committee. This enlarged committee may uphold or reverse the original decision. After a period of time, a disfellowshipped person may apply to be reinstated into the congregation. The original judicial committee will meet with him to determine repentance, and if this is established, the person will be reinstated into the congregation, but is prohibited from commenting at meetings or holding any privileges for a period set by the judicial committee. (Or, if the applicant is in a different area, the person will meet with a local judicial committee that will communicate with either the original judicial committee if available or a new one in the original congregation.)

Controversy

Also recently in the Jehovah's Witness organization, there has been some controversy with their disfellowshipping practices as regard to the recent sex abuse scandals. Claims of disfellowshipping being used as a punishment to silence outspoken members of the religious group have become numerous. Although there may have been cases where the directives from the organization were not followed properly, the official position of Jehovah's Witnesses is not to try to silence anyone who has been a recipient or knows of child abuse. They are informed that they have every right, without congregational ramifications, to inform authorities of the child abuse. In many cases, the law itself requires the elders who are aware of the incident to report the case to the local authorities. In states where this is not required, it is left to the offended parties to do so without any congregational sanctions of any kind against them. Those who are found guilty of child/sexual abuse are not allowed to teach in or ever again hold a position of authority in the congregation.

Apostasy

Those who have become disfellowshipped or have disassociated themselves for whatever reason and then actively work against what Jehovah's Witnesses believe to be the Christian organization and teachings, are viewed as apostates.

Islam

In Islam, takfir is a declaration deeming an individual or group kafir, meaning non-believers.

Judaism

Cherem is the highest ecclesiastical censure in Judaism. It is the total exclusion of a person from the Jewish community. Except in rare cases in the Ultra-Orthodox community, cherem stopped existing after The Enlightenment, when local Jewish communities lost their political autonomy, and Jews were integrated into the greater gentile nations which they lived in. A fuller discussion of this subject is available in the cherem article.

External links


- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05678a.htm Catholic Encycopedia on excommunication]
- [http://www.spirithome.com/excommunication.html The two sides of excommunication] Category:Eastern Orthodoxy Category:Jehovah's Witnesses Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices Category:Religious law Category:Canon law ja:破門

February 22

February 22 is the 53rd day of every year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 312 days remaining, 313 in leap years.

Events


- 1290s BC - The coronation of Ramses II, on whose face the sun's rays fall each year in Abu Simbel temple.
- AD 1281 - Martin IV becomes Pope.
- 1288 - Nicholas IV becomes Pope.
- 1495 - King Charles VIII of France enters Naples to claim the city's throne.
- 1632 - Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published.
- 1744 - The Battle of Toulon begins.
- 1819 - By the Adams-Onís Treaty, Spain sells Florida to the United States for five million U.S. dollars.
- 1847 - Mexican-American War: The Battle of Buena Vista - 5,000 American troops drive off 15,000 Mexican.
- 1855 - The Pennsylvania State University is founded.
- 1856 - The Republican Party opens its first national meeting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
- 1865 - Tennessee adopts a new constitution that abolishes slavery.
- 1876 - Johns Hopkins University is founded in Baltimore, Maryland.
- 1879 - In Utica, New York, Frank Woolworth opens the first of many of 5 and 10-cent Woolworth stores.
- 1889 - President Grover Cleveland signs a bill admitting North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Washington as U.S. states.
- 1904 - UK recognises the South Orkney Islands as part of Argentina, in 1908 claims them again.
- 1915 - Germany institutes unrestricted submarine warfare.
- 1920 - In Emeryville, California, the first dog race track to employ an imitation rabbit opens.
- 1923 - The United States begins the first transcontinental air mail route.
- 1923 - Barcelona (Catalonia): Albert Einstein visits the city, invited by the scientist Esteban Terradas i Illa, as part of the monografics course of High Studies and Exchange organized by the Mancomunitat de Catalunya and conducted by Rafael de Campalans.
- 1924 - Calvin Coolidge becomes the first President of the United States to deliver a radio broadcast from the White House.
- 1942 - World War II: President Franklin D. Roosevelt orders General Douglas MacArthur out of the Philippines as American defense collapses.
- 1943 - Members of White Rose are executed in Nazi Germany.
- 1948 - Start of the Czechoslovak Revolution.
- 1949 - Grady the Cow, a 1,200-pound cow gets stuck inside a silo on a farm in Yukon, Oklahoma and garners national media attention.
- 1956 - Elvis Presley enters the music charts for the first time, with "Heartbreak Hotel".
- 1958 - Egypt and Syria join to form the United Arab Republic.
- 1959 - Lee Petty wins the first Daytona 500.
- 1969 - Barbara Jo Rubin wins a United States thoroughbred horse race making history as the first woman to do so.
- 1973 - Cold War: Following President Richard Nixon's visit to China, the United States and the People's Republic of China agree to establish liaison offices.
- 1979 - Independence of Saint Lucia from the United Kingdom.
- 1980 - The United States ice hockey team defeats the Soviet Union team at the 1980 Winter Olympic Games in an upset dubbed the "Miracle on Ice".
- 1994 - Aldrich Ames and his wife are charged by the United States Department of Justice with spying for the Soviet Union.
- 1997 - In Roslin, Scotland, scientists announce that an adult sheep named Dolly had been successfully cloned.
- 2002 - A MH-47E Chinook helicopter crashes into the ocean near the Philippines, killing all 10 aboard.

Births


- 1040 - Rashi, French rabbi and commentator (d. 1105)
- 1403 - King Charles VII of France (d. 1461)
- 1440 - King Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary (d. 1457)
- 1500 - Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Italian humanist (d. 1564)
- 1612 - George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol, English statesman (d. 1677)
- 1705 - Peter Artedi, Swedish naturalist (d. 1735)
- 1714 - Louis-Georges de Bréquigny, French historian (d. 1795)
- 1732 (N.S.) - George Washington, first President of the United States (d. 1799)
- 1778 - Rembrandt Peale, American artist (d. 1860)
- 1788 -