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Honduras

Honduras

The Republic of Honduras is a country in Central America, bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the south west by El Salvador, to the south east by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean, to the north by the Gulf of Honduras and the Caribbean Sea, with Belize (formerly British Honduras) situated 75 km away across the Gulf of Honduras.

History

Main articles: History of Honduras, Timeline of Honduran history The Pre-Columbian city of Copán is a locale in extreme western Honduras, in the Copán Department, near to the Guatemalan border. It is the site of a major Maya kingdom of the Classic era. The ancient kingdom, named Xukpi (Corner-Bundle), flourished from the 5th century AD to the early 9th century, with antecedents going back to at least the 2nd century AD. The Maya civilization decayed, and by the time the Spanish came to Honduras, the once great city-state of Copán was overrun by the jungle. After the Spanish discovery and subsequent conquest, Honduras became part of Spain's vast empire in the New World. The Spanish ruled Honduras for approximately 3 centuries. Honduras became a state in the United Provinces of Central America in 1821, and an independent republic with the demise of the union in 1840. The Football war of 1969 was fought with El Salvador. It lasted approximately 100 hours. During the 1980s, Honduras was used as a large military base of the United States to create, train and support the anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Nicaraguan government and to support the government of El Salvador forces fighting against the guerrillas trying to oust a long succession of violently repressive military dictatorships, and military backed governments. Hurricane Fifi which caused severe damage took place around on September 18 and 19, 1974. Later, Hurricane Mitch devastated the country and wrecked its economy in 1998.

Politics

Main article:Politics of Honduras See also: Elections in Honduras President of Honduras A Presidential and general election was held on November 27, 2005/ Manuel Zelaya of the Liberal Party of Honduras (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH) won with Porfirio Pepe Lobo of the National Party of Honduras (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH) coming in second. Zelaya is scheduled to become President on January 27, 2006 now that these results have been made official; the PHN had openly challenged them (the preliminary results were based on a small, but statistically significant sample) and was pushing for a complete recount. Honduras has five registered political parties: PNH, PLH, Social Democrats (Partido Innovación Nacional y Social Demócrata: PINU-SD), Social Christians (Partido Demócrata-Cristiano: DC), and Democrat Unification (Partido Unificación Democrática: UD). The PNH and PLH have ruled the country for decades. In the last 23 years, Honduras has had four Liberal presidents: Roberto Suazo Córdova, José Azcona del Hoyo, Carlos Roberto Reina, and Carlos Roberto Flores, and two Nationalists: Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero and Ricardo Maduro. The elections have been full of controversies including, questions about whether Azcona was born in Honduras or Spain, and whether Maduro should have been able to stand given he was born in Panama. Roberto Suazo Cordoba ruled the country during the so called "Lost Decade" when hundreds of human rights violations were committed, and alleged political crimes were common place. In 1986, Azcona del Hoyo was elected via the "Formula B," when Azcona did not obtain the majority of votes. However, 5 Liberal candidates and 4 Nationalist were running for president at that time, and the "Formula B" required all votes from all candidates from the same party to be added together. Azcona then became the president. In 1990, Callejas won the election under the slogan "Llegó el momento del Cambio," (The time for Change is here), which was heavily criticized for resembling El Salvador's "ARENAs" political campaign. Callejas Romero gained a reputation for illicit enrichment. Callejas has been the subject of several scandals and accusations in the last two decades. In 1998, during Flores Facusse's mandate, Hurricane Mitch hit the country and all indications of economic growth were washed out in a period of 5 days. In 2004 separate ballots were used for mayors, congress, and president. Many more candidates were registered for the 2005 election. The Nationalist and Liberal parties are distinct political parties with their own dedicated band of supporters, but some have pointed out that their interests and policy measures throughout the 23 years of uninterrupted democracy have been very similar. They are often seen as primarily serving the interests of their own members, who receive jobs when their party gains power and lose them again when the other party does so. Both are seen as suppoertive of the elite who owns most of the wealth in the country, with neither of them promoting socialist ideals, even though in many ways Honduras is run like a democratic version of an old socialist state, with price controls and nationalized electric and land-line telephone services. However, President Maduro's administration "de-nationalized" the telecommunications sector in a move to promote the rapid diffusion of telecom services to the Honduran population. As of November 2005, there were around 10 private-sector telecom companies in the Honduran market, including two mobile phone companies.

Subdivisions

Main articles: Departments of Honduras and Municipalities of Honduras Honduras is divided into 18 departments and 298 municipalities. The largest department by surface area is Olancho department and by population is Francisco Morazán department and the smallest by both surface area and population is the Islas de la Bahía department.

Geography

Islas de la Bahía department Islas de la Bahía department Main article: Geography of Honduras Honduras borders the Caribbean Sea on the north coast and the Pacific Ocean on the south through the Gulf of Fonseca. The climate varies from tropical in the lowlands to temperate in the mountains. The central and southern regions are relatively hotter and less humid than the northern coast. Honduran terrain consists mainly of mountains (~80%), but there are narrow plains along the coasts, a large undeveloped lowland jungle La Mosquitia region in the northeast and the heavily populated lowland San Pedro Sula valley in the northwest. In La Mosquitia lies the UNESCO-protected Biosphere of Río Plátano, with the Río Negro dividing the country from Nicaragua. See Rivers of Honduras. Natural resources include timber, gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron ore, antimony, coal, fish, and hydropower.

Economy

hydropower Main article: Economy of Honduras Honduras is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with GDP per capita at US$2050 per year (1999). Under the presidency of Ricardo Maduro the economy has continued to grow slowly but the distribution of wealth remains very polarized with average wages remaining very low. Economic growth is roughly 5% a year, but many people remain below the poverty line. It is estimated that there are more than 1.2 million people who are unemployed. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund classified Honduras as one of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries eligible for debt relief, and this debt relief was given in 2005. Both the electricity services (ENEE) and land line telephone services (Hondutel) are run by government monopolies, with the former receiving heavy subsidies from the government because of its chronic financial problems. There are price controls around the price of petrol, and other temporary price controls of basic commodities are often passed for short periods by the Congress. After years of declining against the US dollar the Lempira has stabilized at around 19 Lempiras per dollar.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Honduras Demographics of Honduras The population of Honduras is predominantly of Mestizo descent and Roman Catholic faith, but there are also several Evangelical denominations. Along the northern coast are communities of English speakers who have maintained their culture since Honduras was part of the British Empire. Groups of Garífuna live along the north coast, where there are also many Afro-Latin Americans. In the 20th century, Garífunas became part of Honduras' projected identity through theatrical presentations such as Louvavagu in order to help boost tourism. Asians in Honduras are mostly of Chinese and Japanese descent. Hundreds of families can find their roots in Lebanon or Palestine, in Middle Eastern families called "turcos". The so-called "Turcos" along with the Jewish minority population dominate the Honduran economy and politics by having the highest income. Many others have connections to Spain, the United States (especially New Orleans, Florida and California) and the Cayman Islands. Even with all the "new-comers" in the country, the indigenous peoples of Honduras are widely scattered throughout the country. Tribes like Chortís (Mayan descent), Payas or Pech, Tolupanes or Xicaques/Jicaques, Lencas, Sumos or Tawahkas, and Olmecas. For the most part, these tribes live in extreme poverty due to their remote locations and uninterested government.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Honduras The patron saint of Honduras is the Virgin of Suyapa. A Honduran can be called a Catracho or Catracha. The word is derived from the last name of Honduran General Florencio Xatruch, who led Honduran armed forces in defense of Honduran territories in 1857 against an attempted invasion led by North American filibuster William Walker. The nickname is considered complimentary, not derogatory. One of Honduras' best known writers is Ramón Amaya Amador. Other writers include Roberto Sosa, Eduardo Bähr, Amanda Castro, Javier Abril Espinoza, and Roberto Quesada. Oscar Andres Rodriguez is a Cardinal who was a potential candidate for Pope in the Papal conclave, 2005. Not as famous as the cardinal, but also noteworthy, is Salvador Moncada, a world-renowned scientist with authorship of more than 12 highly cited papers, including his work on nitric oxide. His research on heart-related drugs includes the development of Viagra. Moncada works at the University College of London and funds an NGO in Tegucigalpa. Honduras This Week is a weekly English language newspaper that has been published now for 17 years in Tegucigalpa. The Federación Nacional Autónoma de Fútbol de Honduras runs the popular Football league while the Honduras national football team represents the country internationally.

Environment

The Mesoamerican region, the landmass that extends from Southern Mexico to Panama, known for its diversity of species, is often called a "biodiversity hotspot". Similar to other countries in the region, Honduras contains diverse biological resources as well as indigenous cultures. For instance, it is believed that approximately 6,000-8,000 species of vascular plants are distributed across the country. The number of reptiles and amphibians species recorded so far is around 245; birds can be between 650-700 species, and mammal species are close to 110. In the northeastern region of La Mosquitia lies the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, a lowland rainforest which provides home to a great diversity of life. Sometimes called "The Last Lungs of Central America", this Reserve was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites List in 1982.

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Honduras
- Elections in Honduras
- Foreign relations of Honduras
- Flag of Honduras
- Garífunas
- Garifuna music
- Honduran lempira
- Liberalism in Honduras
- List of Honduras-related topics
- List of political parties in Honduras
- Mara Salvatrucha
- Military of Honduras
- Music of Honduras
- Project Honduras
- Transportation in Honduras Note: Some of these articles are based on text from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the U.S. Department of State website.

Central America

Commonly, Central America is the region of North America located between the southern border of Mexico and the northwest border of Colombia, in South America. Some geographers classify Central America as a large isthmus, and in this geographic sense it sometimes includes the portion of Mexico east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, namely the Mexican states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán and Quintana Roo. However, Central America is much more commonly understood to correspond with the nations between Mexico and Colombia. The UN subregion of Central America includes all mainland states of North America south of the US, including Mexico. US

Countries

In one common definition, Central America consists of the following countries (located between the the northwest border of Colombia and the southern border of Mexico—roughly east to west):
- Panama
- Costa Rica
- Nicaragua
- Honduras
- El Salvador
- Guatemala
- Belize

Geography

Central America thus has an area of about 540,000 km² (208,500 mi²), and a width between the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea ranging from about 560 km to about 50 km (350 to 30 mi). Caribbean Sea.]] The geology of Central America is active, with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring from time to time. In 1931 and 1972 earthquakes devastated Managua, the capital of Nicaragua. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas. The Caribbean Plate is a tectonic plate upon which Central America rests. The narrowest part of The Americas, Central America is the site of the Panama Canal as well as the proposed, but never-completed Nicaragua Canal.

History

There was a nation of Central America in the early 19th century, consisting of the present day nations of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (and a portion of the modern Mexican state of Chiapas). This was sometimes known as the United Provinces of Central America or the United States of Central America.

External links

- [http://www.fssca.net/ Foundation for Self-Sufficiency in Central America] Category:Americas Category:North America zh-min-nan:Tiong Bí-chiu ko:중앙아메리카 ja:中央アメリカ simple:Central America

El Salvador

The Republic of El Salvador (Spanish for "The Savior"), which was known prehispanically as Cuscatlán, is a country in Central America with a population of approximately 6.7 million people. It is the most densely populated nation on the American mainland (especially in its capital, San Salvador). It is also the most industrialized country in the region.

History

Main article: History of El Salvador The civilization of El Salvador dates from the pre-Columbian time, around 1500 years B.C.E, according to evidence provided by the ancient ruins of Tazumal and Chalchuapa. The Spanish Admiral Andrés Niño lead an expedition to Central America and disembarked on the Island Meanguera, located in the Gulf of Fonseca, on May 31st, 1522. This was the first Salvadoran territory visited by the Spaniards. In June, 1524, Spanish Captain Pedro de Alvarado began a predatory war against Cuzcatlán (land of precious things) that was populated by the native tribes of the country. After 17 days of bloody battles many natives and Spaniards died, including the legendary indigenous leader Atlacatl. Pedro de Alvarado defeated, and hurt in his left hip, abandoned the fight and ran to Guatemala, telling his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue with the conquest of Cuzcatlán. Later, his cousin Diego de Alvarado established the villa of San Salvador on April, 1525. King Carlos I of Spain granted San Salvador the title of city in the year 1546. During the following years, El Salvador developed under Spanish dominion. Towards the end of 1810, a feeling of a need for feedom arose between the people of Central America and the moment to break the chains of slavery arrived at dawn on November 5th, 1811, when the Salvadoran priest, Jose Matías Delgado, sounded the bells of the Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, making a call for the insurrection. After many internal fights, the Acta de Independencia (Act of Independence) of Central America was signed in Guatemala on September 15th, 1821. On September 15, 1821, El Salvador and the other Central American provinces declared their independence from Spain. In 1823, the United Provinces of Central America was formed by the five Central American states under General Manuel José Arce. When this federation was dissolved in 1838, El Salvador became an independent republic. El Salvador's early history as an independent state was marked by frequent revolutions. From 1872 to 1898 El Salvador was a prime mover in attempts to reestablish an isthmian federation. The governments of El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua formed the Greater Republic of Central America via the Pact of Amapala in 1895. Although Guatemala and Costa Rica considered joining the Greater Republic (which was rechristened the United States of Central America when its constitution went into effect in 1898), neither country joined. This union, which had planned to establish its capital city at Amapala on the Golfo de Fonseca, did not survive a seizure of power in El Salvador in 1898. The enormous profits that coffee yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the process whereby land became concentrated in the hands of an oligarchy of several hundred families. A succession of presidents from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both conservative and liberal, throughout the last half of the 19th century generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant cash crop, on the development of infrastructure (railroads and port facilities) primarily in support of the coffee trade, on the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, on the passage of anti-vagrancy laws to ensure that displaced campesinos and other rural residents provided sufficient labor for the coffee fincas (plantations), and on the suppression of rural discontent. The coffee industry grew inexorably in El Salvador. As a result the elite provided the bulk of the government's financial support through import duties on goods imported with the foreign currencies that coffee sales earned. This support, coupled with the humbler and more mundane mechanisms of corruption, ensured the coffee growers of overwhelming influence within the government and the military which they used to create the Guardia Nacional (GN) in 1912. The duties of the GN differed from those of the Policia Nacional (PN), mainly in that GN personnel were specifically responsible for providing security on the coffee fincas and effectively suppressing rural dissent. A bloodless coup led by General Tomás Regalado took El Salvador into the 20th century. Regalado's peaceful transfer of power in 1903 to his handpicked successor, Pedro José Escalón, ushered in a period of comparative stability that extended until the Depression-provoked upheaval of 1931–32. In 1930, General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez, the country's Minister of Defense, took power in a coup d'état. Soon after, Martínez, now President, suppressed a 1932 revolt consisting of farmers and Indians in the western part of the country. The revolt was conducted by the newly formed Communist Party and its leader Agustín Farabundo Martí. The military conflict left more than 20,000 people dead in retaliatory massacres, which came to be known as "La Matanza;" this marked the beginning of a series of de facto military dictatorships that would rule El Salvador until 1979, when General Humberto Romero of the Party of National Conciliation (PCN) would be overthrown in a reformist coup. Under the authoritarian rule of Maj. Óscar Osorio (1950–56) and Lt. Col. José María Lemus (1956–60) considerable economic progress was made. Lemus was overthrown by a coup, and after a confused period, a junta composed of leaders of the National Conciliation party came to power in June 1961. The junta's candidate, Lt. Col. Julio Adalberto Rivera, was elected president in 1962. He was succeeded in 1967 by Col. Fidel Sánchez Hernández. Relations with Honduras deteriorated in the late 1960s. There was a border clash in 1967, and a four-day so-called Football war broke out in July 1969. The Salvadoran forces that had invaded Honduras were withdrawn, but not until 1992 was an agreement settling the border controversy with Honduras signed. Following increasing clashes between the FMLN, El Salvadoran Armed Forces (ESAF) and rightist vigilantes known as death squads, a civil war broke out that would last twelve years (1980–1992) and claim the lives of approximately 75,000 people. A ceasefire was established in 1992 when the rebels of the FMLN and the government of President Alfredo Cristiani of the Nationalist Republican Alliance (ARENA), signed "Peace accords" on January 16, 1992 that assured political and military reforms and punishment for all human rights abuses during the civil war; death squad activity was virtually eliminated. However, the accords did not expound on social reforms. El Salvador is known for the many earthquakes that occur within its borders. It has been known popularly as the “Valley of the Hammocks” since colonial times. On January 13, 2001 an earthquake that measured 7.6 on the Richter scale caused a landslide that killed more than 800 people. On February 13, 2001, a second earthquake killed 255 people.

Geography

Main article: Geography of El Salvador See also List of cities in El Salvador

Politics

Main article: Politics of El Salvador, Legislative Assembly of El Salvador, List of political parties in El Salvador El Salvador is a democratic republic governed by a president and an 84-member unicameral Legislative Assembly. The president is elected by universal suffrage and serves for a five year term by absolute majority vote. A second round runoff is required in the event that no candidate receives more than 50% of the first round vote. Members of the assembly (called deputies, diputados), also elected by universal suffrage, serve for three-year terms. The country has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court. The current President of El Salvador is Elías Antonio Saca González, elected on 21 March 2004. He took office on 1 June 2004, and his presidential term ends on 1 June 2009. The current legal system of El Salvador, based on civil and Roman law with traces of common law, came into force with the passage of the constitution on 23 December, 1983.
- La Union
- Zacatecoluca

Political divisions

Many early post-colonial rulers, such as Francisco Morazán and Gerardo Barrios, were of French descent and were hence sympathetic to the Napoleonic code, which was successfully adapted to El Salvador. For this reason, the country has French-style territorial divisions. El Salvador is divided into fourteen departments:

Image:El Salvador departments numbered.png
#Ahuachapán #Cabañas #Chalatenango #Cuscatlán #La Libertad #La Paz #La Unión	Morazán San Miguel San Salvador San Vicente Santa Ana Sonsonate Usulután

Economy

Main article: Economy of El Salvador By 2005, El Salvador became the strongest economy in Central America and the Caribbean. The Salvadoran economy has experienced mixed results from the ARENA government's commitment to free market initiatives and conservative fiscal management that include the privatization of the banking system, telecommunications, public pensions, electrical distribution, and some electrical generation, reduction of import duties, elimination of price controls, and an improved enforcement of intellectual property rights. The GDP variable has been growing at a steady and moderate pace since the signing of peace accords in 1992, in an environment of macroeconomic stability. A problem that the Salvadoran economy faces is the inequality in the distribution of income. In 1999, the richest fifth of the population received 45% of the country's income, while the poorest fifth received only 5.6%. As of December 1999, net international reserves equaled US$1.8 billion or roughly five months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran Government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning January 1, 2001, by which the U.S. dollar became legal tender alongside the colón, and all formal accounting was undertaken in U.S. dollars. This way, the government has formally limited its possibility of implementing open market monetary policies to influence short term variables in the economy. Since 2004, the colón stopped circulating and is now never used in the country for any type of transaction; however some stores still have prices in both colones and U.S. dollars. In general, people were unhappy with the shift from the colón to the U.S. dollar, because wages are still the same but the price of everything increased. Things that once cost 5 colones now cost $1, which would be 8.75 colones. Some economists claim this rise in prices would have been caused by inflation regardless even had the shift not been made. Some economists also contend that now, according to Gresham's Law, a reversion to the colón would be disastrous to the economy. Some banks however claim that they still do some transactions en colones, keeping this change from being unconstitutional. The change to the dollar also precipitated a trend toward lower interest rates in El Salvador, helping many to secure credit in order to buy a house or a car; over time, the sense of displeasure with the change has largely disappeared, though the issue resurfaces as a political tool when elections are on the horizon. Among the biggest challenges in El Salvador have been to manage the decline in the coffee sector, which only accounted for 7.0% of exports in 2004, and to develop new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. Currently there are fifteen free trade zones in El Salvador. The largest beneficiary has been the maquila industry, which provides 88,700 jobs directly, and consists primarily of cutting and assembling clothes for export to the United States. El Salvador signed the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), negotiated by the five countries of Central America and the Dominican Republic, with the United States in 2004. In order to take advantage of CAFTA, the Salvadoran government is challenged to conduct policies that guarantee better conditions for entrepreneurs and workers to transfer from declining to growing sectors in the economy. El Salvador has already signed free trade agreements with Mexico, Chile, the Dominican Republic, and Panama, and increased its exports to those countries. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with Canada. Fiscal policy has been the biggest challenge for the Salvadoran government. The 1992 peace accords committed the government to heavy expenditures for transition programs and social services. Although international aid was generous, the government has focused on improving the collection of its current revenues. A 10% value-added tax (VAT), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995. The VAT is the biggest source of revenue, accounting for about 52.3% of total tax revenues in 2004. Remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States sent to family members are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial trade deficit of around $2.9 billion. Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade and reached an all-time high of $12.5 billion in 2004—approximately 17.1% of gross domestic product (GDP). This figure is hurting the U.S. economy because that is $12.5 billion dollars not being spent in the U.S., and if one day the U.S. would forbid sending remittances to El Salvador, the entire economy of El Salvador would collapse, and as much as 90% of the population would be homeless. As of April 2004, net international reserves stood at $1.9 billion. In recent years inflation has fallen to single digit levels, and total exports have grown substantially.

Demographics

inflation Main article: Demographics of El Salvador El Salvador's population numbers about 6.7 million people. Around 90% is mestizo (mixed Amerindian and Spanish), some 9% white, and only 1% indigenous. Very few Amerindians have retained their native customs, traditions, or languages. Spanish is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. The country's people are largely Roman Catholic (83% of the population), though Protestant groups are growing (15%). The capital city of San Salvador has about 2.1 million people; an estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas. According to the most recent United Nations survey, life expectancy for men was 68 years and 74 years for women. Education in El Salvador is free through high school. The national literacy rate is 84.1%. At the beginning of 2004, there were approximately 3.1 million Salvadorans living outside El Salvador, many of whom are immigrants (though not always legally) in the United States. The USA has traditionally been the destination of choice for El Salvadorans looking for greater economic opportunity than their current position can provide. Other countries with notable Salvadoran communities include Canada, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize and Australia. The situation worsened later during the civil war of the decade of the 1980s and from adverse economic and social conditions. Pursuant to peace accords signed in January of 1992 between the FMLN and the ARENA-party-dominated government, the government made a series of economic reforms in the mold of the neoliberal model supported by the USA. This model has given good results on the macroeconomic level but that nevertheless are not reflected in an improvement of the standard of living for the majority of Salvadorans. In 2001 El Salvador adopted, by legislative decree, the U.S. dollar as its official currency, replacing the previous currency called the Colon (Spanish for 'Columbus', as in Christopher Columbus).

Culture

A small part of the population speaks Nahua, the native language. The Roman Catholic religion played an important role in the Salvadoran culture. Painting, ceramics and textile articles are the main manual artistic expressions. Writers Francisco Gavidia (1863–1955) and Manlio Argueta, and poet Roque Dalton are among the most important artists to stem from El Salvador. Notable 20th century personages include the late filmmaker Baltasar Polio and artist Fernando Llort.

Holidays
Date	English Name	Local Name	Remarks
March/April	Holy Week	Semana Santa	Celebrated with carnival-like events in different cities by the large Catholic population
May 1	Labor Day	Día de los trabajadores	International Labour Day
May 10	Mother's Day	Día de la Madre
August 1–7	August Festivals	Fiestas de Agosto	Week long festival in Celebration for the El Salvador del Mundo, patron saint of El Salvador.
September 15	Independence Day	Día de la Independencia	Celebrates independence from Spain, achieved in 1821
October 12	Columbus Day	Día de la Raza	This day commemorates the discovery of the Americas
November 2	Day of the Dead	Día de los Difuntos
December 25	Christmas Day	Navidad

Miscellaneous topics

- List of Salvadorans
- Carlos Hernandez
- Communications in El Salvador
- Football War
- Foreign relations of El Salvador
- Military of El Salvador
- Óscar Romero
- Transportation in El Salvador
- Central American Spanish

External links

- [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=4116 Worldwide press freedom index] Rank 33 out of 139 countries (2 way tie)
- [http://www.tipcom.net/listasal/ Directorio de Sitios Web Salvadoreños] - Salvadoran Website Directory
- [http://www.nuestroblog.com Blogs El Salvador]
- [http://www.digestyc.gob.sv Economic and demographic data]
- [http://www.elsalvadorclasificados.com/ Clasificados Salvadoreños]
- [http://luterano.blogspot.com Tim's El Salvador Blog] - Current Events
- [http://www.brevespacio.com Poetry El Salvador]
- [http://www.ayvevos.com/ Forums & Salvadorian Community ]
- [http://www.unionchurchofsansalvador.org/living.htm Living in San Salvador]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4513593.stm El Salvador wildlife]
Government sites
- [http://www.casapres.gob.sv/ Casa Presidencial] (Website of the President)
- [http://www.asamblea.gob.sv/ Asamblea Legislativa] (Website of the Legislative Assembly)
- [http://www.fuerzaarmada.gob.sv/portadafa2.html Ministerio de Defensa Nacional] (Ministry of Defense)
- [http://www.fas.gob.sv Fuerza Aerea Salvadoreña] (Air Force of El Salvador)
- [http://www.marn.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales] (Ministry of the Environment and Natural resources)
- [http://www.rree.gob.sv/website/index.html Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores] (Ministry of Foreign Affairs)
- [http://www.minec.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Economía] (Ministry of the Economy)
- [http://www.elsalvadorturismo.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Turismo] (Ministry of Tourism)
- [http://www.csj.gob.sv/idioma.htm Corte Suprema de Justicia] (Supreme Court of Justice)
- [http://www.pddh.gob.sv/ Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos] (Office of the judge advocate general for the Defense of Human rights) Salvadoran media
- News sites
- [http://www.diariocolatino.com/ Diario Colatino]
- [http://www.apes.org.sv/index.php Asociación de Periodistas de El Salvador]
- [http://www.laprensagrafica.com/portada/default.asp La Prensa Grafica]
- [http://www.elmundo.com.sv/ El Mundo]
- [http://www.elsalvador.com/ El Diario de Hoy]
- [http://www.elfaro.net/ El Faro]
- [http://www.flacso.org.sv/ El Flasco]
- Television sites
- [http://www.tcs246.com/ TCS]
- [http://www.canal12.com.sv/ Canal 12]
- [http://www.canal21tv.com.sv/ Canal 21] Charities and Volunteer Organisations
- [http://www.asaprosar.com/ ASAPROSAR - Salvadoran Association for Rural Health]
- [http://www.angelfire.com/pro/r-to-b/index.html Lifeline El Salvador - Volunteer, Work and Teach English Abroad]
- [http://www.fssca.net/ Foundation for Self-Sufficiency in Central America] Category:Central American countries
- Famous Salvadoran Graphics Designers Include: -Josué Figueroa, an expert at "tag art" zh-min-nan:El Salvador ko:엘살바도르 ms:El Salvador ja:エルサルバドル th:ประเทศเอลซัลวาดอร์

Nicaragua

Nicaragua is the largest country in Central America. However, although it is indeed the largest Central American nation, it is also the least densely populated one. It is bordered on the north by Honduras and on south by Costa Rica. Its western coastline is on the Pacific Ocean, while the east side of the country is on the Caribbean Sea. The country's name is a portmanteau of Nicarao, employed by the Spanish colonialists for the Nahuatl-speaking indigenous tribe, and the Spanish word Agua, meaning water, named after the two large lakes in the west of the country, Lago Managua and Lago Nicaragua.

History

Colonized by Spain in 1524, Nicaragua achieved independence in 1821 when it was a province of the Audience of Guatemala and became part of the United Provinces of Central America. It separated from the federation in 1838, becoming a completely sovereign republic. The nation's early history was marked by the desire of U.S. commercial interests to make use of Nicaraguan territory. When gold was discovered in California, Cornelius Vanderbilt's Accessory Transit Company undertook a steamship and carriage business to link Greytown (present-day San Juan del Norte), at the mouth of the San Juan River (linking the Lago Nicaragua with the Gulf of Mexico), to the Pacific. Nicaragua's strategic position has ever since been of interest to the United States. Nicaragua offered token assistance during World War 2, and was the first country in the world to ratify the UN Charter.

Sandinista revolution

Nicaragua has seen U.S. military interventions and lengthy periods of military dictatorship, the most infamous being the rule of the Somoza family (supported by successive U.S. governments) for much of the early 20th century. In 1979 the Somoza family was deposed, and a multi-factional coalition took control of the government. Conflicts within the coalition eventually resulted in power being consolidated by Daniel Ortega, who was elected President in 1984 elections in which some opposition parties refused to participate, complaining of government restrictions, but which were claimed to be free and fair by Western NGOs allowed into Nicaragua. Ortega and the FSLN leadership implemented a series of ambitious communist reforms to the country, but the new president's rule was undermined by increasing civil war in which the United States, under President Ronald Reagan, secretly funded anti-Communist rebel forces called Contras despite a 1982 Congressional amendment prohibiting aid. Interesting in this respect is the 2005 Nobel Lecture given by Harold Pinter: http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/2005/

The 1990 elections and U.S. involvement

Multi-party elections held in 1990 saw the defeat of the Sandinistas by a coalition of right-wing parties led by Violeta Chamorro. The defeat shocked the Sandinistas as numerous pre-election polls had indicated a sure Sandinista victory and their pre-election rallies had attracted crowds of several hundred thousand people. The unexpected result was subject to a great deal of analysis and comment, and was attributed by commentators such as Noam Chomsky and S. Brian Wilson to the Contra threats to continue the war if the Sandinistas retained power, the general war-weariness of the Nicaraguan population, and extensive U.S. funding of the opposition. On the other hand, P. J. O'Rourke wrote in "Return of the Death of Communism" about "the unfair advantages of using state resources for party ends, about how Sandinista control of the transit system prevented UNO supporters from attending rallies, how Sandinista domination of the army forced soldiers to vote for Ortega and how Sandinista bureaucracy kept $3.3 million of U.S. campaign aid from getting to UNO while Daniel [Ortega] spent millions donated by overseas people and millions and millions more from the Nicaraguan treasury . . ."

Politics

Nicaragua is a constitutional republic with an elected president holding executive power. The unicameral legislative body is the National Assembly, which has 92 members elected for 5-year terms. The President, and the runner-up are both members of the National Assembly, as well, and the government operates according to pseudo-parliamentary rules.
- List of Presidents of Nicaragua

Departments

For administrative purposes, Nicaragua is divided into 15 departments and two autonomous regions. The departments are Boaco, Carazo, Chinandega, Chontales, Estelí, Granada, Jinotega, León, Madriz, Managua, Masaya, Matagalpa, Nueva Segovia, Rivas, Río San Juan. The two autonomous regions are Región Autónoma del Atlántico Norte and Región Autónoma del Atlántico Sur, often referred to as RAAN and RAAS respectively. Until they were granted autonomy in 1985 they formed the single department of Zelaya.

Geography

Zelaya Nicaragua has three distinct geographical regions: the Pacific Lowlands, the North-Central Mountains and the Mosquito Coast. The Pacific Lowlands are in the west of the country, and consist of a broad, hot, fertile plain which supports most of Nicaragua's population. The capital, Managua, and the two main provincial cities, León and Granada all lie in this region. Punctuating this plain are several large volcanoes, many of which are active. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are common in this part of the country: much of central Managua was destroyed by an earthquake on December 23 1972. There are upwards of 40 volcanoes in the country, including Mombacho and Momotombo. The North-Central mountains is an upland region away from the Pacific coast, with a cooler climate than the Pacific Lowlands. About a quarter of the country's agriculture takes place in this region, with coffee grown on the higher slopes. The Mosquito Coast is a large rainforest region, with several large rivers running through it. It has a hot and humid climate, and is very sparsely populated. The Río Negro borders the country with Honduras. The Caribbean coastline is much more sinuous than its generally straight Pacific counterpart: lagoons and deltas make it very irregular. See also:
- Lake Nicaragua
- Volcanoes of Nicaragua
- List of cities in Nicaragua

Economy

List of cities in Nicaragua Nicaragua's economy has historically been based on the export of cash crops such as bananas, coffee and tobacco. It is said that they produce the best rum in Latin America and have the third ranking in beef quality only behind Argentina and Brazil. During the Contra War, much of the country's infrastructure was damaged or destroyed, and an economic blockade by the U.S. combined with the economic stagnation of the aligned Soviet bloc led to the virtual collapse of the economy. Inflation ran for a time at several thousand per cent. Since the end of the war, many state-owned industries have been privatized. Inflation has been brought to manageable levels, and the economy has grown quite rapidly in recent years. The country is still a recovering economy and it continues to implement further reforms, on which aid from the International Monetary Fund is conditional. A new state agency ([http://www.pronicaragua.org Pro Nicaragua]) established in 2002 and the recent ratification of CAFTA have been instrumental for the democratic government of Nicaragua to launch an ambitious promotional campaign employing US-educated nationals with high-level executive expertise, to attract foreign investment and diversify the economy in such areas as BPO (Business Process Outsourcing) and Garment Sourcing. As in so many other developing countries, most of the poor people in Nicaragua are women. In addition, a relatively high percentage of the Nicaraguan homes have a woman as head of household: 39% of urban homes and 28% of the rural ones. (From [http://www.ocotal.org/role_of_women.html The Role of Woman in the Economy] - used by permission of the site author.) In 2005, finance ministers of the leading eight industrialized nations (G-8) agreed to forgive Nicaragua's foreign debt, as it is one of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries.

Demographics

About 69 percent of Nicaraguans are Mestizo (mixed European and Amerindian to varying degrees). People of unmixed European descent constitute about 17 percent of the population, and are the largest minority. They are mostly of Spanish descent, but the 19th century saw several small waves of immigration from other European-Mediterranean countries. In particular the northern cities of Esteli and Matagalpa have significant 4th generation German communities. Most of the Mestizo and European population live in the western regions of the country and especially in the cities of Managua, Leon and Granada. About 9 percent of Nicaragua's population is considered black or afronicaragüense, with the black population concentrated on the country's sparesely populated eastern coast. The black population is mostly of West Indian (Antillean) origin, the descendents of indentured labourers brought mostly from Jamaica and Haiti when the region was a British protectorate. Nicaragua has the second largest black population in Central America after Panama. There is also a smaller number of Garifuna, a people of mixed Carib, Angolan, Congolese and Arawak descent. Arawak The remaining 5 percent is comprised of the unmixed descendants of the country's indigenous inhabitants. Nicaragua's pre-Colombian population consisted of the Nahuatl-speaking Nicarao people of the west after whom the country is named, and six other ethnic groups including the Miskitos, Ramas and Sumos along the Caribbean coast. While very few pure-blooded Nicarao people still exist, the Caribbean peoples have remained distinct. In the mid-1980s, the government divided the department of Zelaya - consisting of the eastern half of the country - into two autonomous regions and thus granted the African and indigenous people of this region limited self-rule within the Republic. There is also a small Middle Eastern-nicaraguan community of Syrian, Armenian, Palestinian and Lebanese people in Nicaragua with a total population of about 30,000, and an East Asian community of Japanese, Taiwanese and Chinese people of almost 8,000. These minorities speak Spanish and maintain their ancestral languages as well. Spanish is spoken by about 90% of the country; Nicaraguans speak standard Iberoamerican Spanish with some similarities to Galician Spanish, and thus structurally similar to Argentinian Spanish which uses "vos" instead of "tu" along with the "vos" conjugation, but with a different entonation. The black population of the east coast region has English as its first language. Several indigenous peoples of the east still use their original languages. Roman Catholicism is the major religion, but evangelical Protestant groups have grown recently, and there are strong Anglican and Moravian communities on the Caribbean coast. Ninety per cent of Nicaraguans live in the Pacific lowlands and the adjacent interior highlands. The population is 54% urban. An estimated 2 million Nicaraguans live outside of Nicaragua, popular destinations are Costa Rica, the United States, Mexico, Germany, and Spain.

Culture

Nicaraguan culture has several distinct strands. The west of the country was colonized by Spain and has a similar culture to neighbouring Spanish-speaking Latin American countries, like El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala. The people of western Nicaragua are mostly Mestizos and just under one quarter of European stock; Spanish is invariably their first language. The eastern half of the country, on the other hand, was once a British protectorate. English is still predominant in this region and its culture is somehow similar to Caribbean nations, but recent migration of Mestizos have largely influenced younger generations and an increasing number of people are either bilingual or speak Spanish only. There is a large population of people with mixed African stock, as well as a smaller Garifuna population. Of the cultures that were present before European colonization, the Nahuatl-speaking peoples who populated the west of the country have essentially been assimilated into the latino culture. In the east, however, several indigenous groups have maintained a distinct identity. The Sumos and Ramas people still use their original languages.

Arts

- Atelier Yoyita [http://www.yoyita.com www.yoyita.com ](English, Spanish, French, Chinese, German, Italian)
- Arte Nicaraguense [http://www.artenicaraguense.com www.artenicaraguense.com] Contemporary art by Nicaraguan masters.
- Images of Nicaragua [http://www.yoyita.com/pinturas_de_nicarrragua1.htm Paintings of Nicaragua]

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Nicaragua
- Foreign relations of Nicaragua
- Military of Nicaragua
- Nicaraguan Cuisine
- Nicaraguan Diaspora
- Transportation in Nicaragua

External links

- Experience Nicaragua [http://www.experiencenicaragua.com Sustainable tourism guide to Nicaragua.
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1225218.stm Country profile: Nicaragua] (BBC)
- [http://www.pangeapartnership.org The Pangea Partnership - Eco-building workshops in Nicaragua]
- http://www.brianwillson.com/awolnicelection.html - Documentation of Covert US Aid to Anti-Sandinista Groups at the time of the 1990 Elections
- [http://www.elobservadoreconomico.com/ El Observador Económico] Takes the economic pulse, investigates business issues
- [http://www.marcaacme.com/ Marcaacme]Web site and radio program about national or international art and literature (span)
- [http://www.atraco.org/ Atraco.org]Experimento digital cotidiando (span)
- [http://www.gatorpedia.com/index.php/Nicaraguan_Student_Association Nicaraguan Student Association at Gatorpedia] Category:Central American countries Category:Portmanteaus zh-min-nan:Nicaragua ko:니카라과 ms:Nicaragua ja:ニカラグア simple:Nicaragua th:สาธารณรัฐนิการากัว

Gulf of Honduras

The Gulf or Bay of Honduras is a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea, indenting the coasts of Belize, Honduras and Guatemala. From north to south, it runs for approximately 200km from Dangriga, Belize, to La Ceiba, Honduras. Many rivers flow into the gulf from mainland Central America, including the Motagua and the Ulúa, and Lago de Izabal in Guatemala is also connected to the gulf by a narrow channel. A large number of reefs and cays exist in the Gulf of Honduras, collectively known as the Pelican Cays. Many American anglers visit the Gulf of Honduras to catch the marlin that abound there. Tourists are often taken on boat trips to the Pelican Cays, notably Caye Caulker and Ambergris Caye. In 1961 Hurricane Hattie swept across the Gulf of Honduras, destroying buildings in Belize. Honduras Category:Caribbean Category:Geography of Belize Category:Geography of Honduras Category:Geography of Guatemala ja:ホンジュラス湾

Belize

Belize is a small nation on the eastern coast of Central America, on the Caribbean Sea bordered by Mexico to the northwest and Guatemala to the west and south. The country is a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy which recognizes Queen Elizabeth II as Sovereign. The nation of Honduras is a near neighbour, 75 km away (47 miles) across the Gulf of Honduras to the east. The name is derived from the Belize River which Belize City, the former capital and largest city, is also named after. In Spanish it is usually called Belice. Belize was a British colony for more than a century, known as British Honduras, until 1973. It became an independent nation in 1981. Belize is a member of Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Sistema de Integracion Centro Americana (SICA) and considers itself to be both Caribbean, and Central American.

History

Main article: History of Belize History of Belize The Maya civilization spread over Belize between 1500 BC and AD 300 and flourished until about AD 900. The first Europeans arrived in the area in the early 16th century and settlement began with British privateers and shipwrecked English seamen as early as 1638. The origin of the name Belize is unclear but one explanation is that it derives from the Spanish pronunciation of Wallace, the name of the pirate who created the first settlement in Belize in 1638. Another possibility is that the name is from the Maya word belix, meaning "muddy water", applied to the Belize River. The early "settlement of Belize in the Bay of Honduras" grew from a few habitations located at Belize Town and St George's Caye, into a de-facto colony of the United Kingdom during the late 18th century. In the early 19th century, the settlement was called the British Honduras, and in 1862 it became a Crown Colony. Hurricane Hattie inflicted significant damage upon Belize in 1961. The government decided that having a coastal capital city that is below sea level was too risky. Over several years, the British colonial government designed a new capital Belmopan at the exact geographic centre of the country, and in 1970 began slowly moving the governing offices there. British Honduras became a self-governing colony in January 1964 and was renamed Belize in June 1973; it was Britain's last colony on the American mainland. George Price led the country to full independence in September 1981 after delays caused by territorial disputes with neighbouring Guatemala, which did not formally recognise the country until 1992. Throughout Belize's history, Guatemala has claimed ownership of all or part of the territory. This claim is occasionally reflected in maps showing Belize as Guatemala's most eastern province. As of 2005, the border dispute with Guatemala remains unresolved and quite contentious, at various times the issue has involved mediation assistance from the United Kingdom and the CARICOM heads of Government. Belize was recently the site of unrest directed at the country's ruling party concerning tax increases in the national budget.

Politics

unrest Main article: Politics of Belize Belize is a parliamentary democracy and a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The head of state is currently Queen Elizabeth II, represented in the country by a governor-general, who must be a Belizean. The primary executive organ of government is the cabinet, led by a prime minister who is head of government. Cabinet ministers are members of the majority political party in parliament and usually hold elected seats within it concurrently with their cabinet positions. The bicameral Belizean parliament is the National Assembly, which consists of a House of Representatives and a Senate. The 29 members of the House are popularly elected to a maximum 5-year term. Of the Senate's eight members, five are chosen by the prime minister, two by the leader of the opposition, and one by the governor general on the advice of the Belize Advisory Council. The Senate is headed by a president, who is a nonvoting member appointed by the governing party. Belize is a full participating member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).

Districts

Caribbean Community (CARICOM) :Main article: Districts of Belize Belize consists of six districts: # Belize District # Cayo District # Corozal District # Orange Walk District # Stann Creek District # Toledo District

Geography

Toledo District Main article: Geography of Belize Belize is located between the Hondo and Sarstoon Rivers, with the Belize River flowing down in the centre of the country. The north of Belize consists mostly of flat, swampy coastal plains, in places heavily forested. The south contains the low mountain range of the Maya Mountains, whose Victoria Peak is the highest point in Belize at 1,160 m. All along the Caribbean coast are found coral reefs or cays. Belize is home to the longest barrier reef in the western hemisphere and the second longest in the world after the Great Barrier Reef. The climate is tropical and generally very hot and humid. The rainy season lasts from May to November and hurricanes and floods are frequent natural hazards.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Belize Economy of BelizeThe small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism (especially scuba diving) and construction assuming greater importance. Sugar, the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the banana industry is the country's largest employer. Citrus production has become a major industry along the Hummingbird Highway. The government's expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, initiated in September 1998, led to GDP growth of 6.4% in 1999 and 10.5% in 2000. Growth decelerated in 2001 to 3% due to the global slowdown and severe hurricane damage to agriculture, fishing and tourism. Major concerns continue to be the rapidly expanding trade deficit and foreign debt. A key short-term objective remains the reduction of poverty with the help of international donors.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Belize Though Belize's population is 279,457 (July 2005 est.), emigration is relatively high. Approximately 105,000 Belizeans currently live abroad (mostly in the United States). Most Belizeans are of multiracial and multiethnic descent. However, for census purposes as well as Belizean custom, people are usually recognized by their father's ethnicity. About 49% are of mixed Maya and European descent (Mestizo). The first mestizos to settle in Belize were Mexicans fleeing from the Caste War of the Yucatan Peninsula in 1847-48. They founded the town of Corozal (1849) and their descendants can be found living today. A second and larger mestizo migration took place during the 1980’s with the arrival of thousands of refugees from Guatemala, and El Salvador. Until the early 1980’s, Belizean Creole constituted 70% of the population, but today they are about 25% of the population. This was due to refugees coming in from neighboring countries as well as emigration of thousands of Creoles. Creoles are descendants of African slaves brought primarily from Jamaica and Nicaragua’s Miskito Coast to cut down mahogany trees. Because of a lack of European women, their Irish and Scottish slave owners would take female slaves as child bearers and this union created The Creole people and culture. Though no longer the majority, Creole culture is still dominant in Belize (especially Belize City). The indigenous Mayas make up about 10% of the population. The Garifuna or (Garinagu) are descendants of Africans as well as Carib and Arawakan Amerindians and make up 6%. In the early 1600’s at least two thousand escaped their Spanish captives on the Island of San Vicente, what is now (Saint Vincent) . They are said to have never been slaves and they have retained many of their cultures and customs that would support this. When the English took control of the island, the “Red” Caribs were mostly killed off, and the “Black” Caribs were deported to Roatan Bay in Honduras . Many would settle in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Belize. The rest of the population are Chinese, East Indian, and North American peoples. The official language of Belize is English and sole language of instruction in its school systems. Around 80% of the population is literate in English and as much as 90% of the population is able to speak some English.The most common language however is Belizean Creole or Kriol. Kriol is the lingua franca in much of the country and is spoken by nearly everyone in Belize as either a first- or second-language (95% of all people in Belize City speak Belizean Creole and English soley) To speak it is to be Belizean. Overall Kriol is spoken by 70% of the entire population as a first language (with around 20% speaking Creole solely and no Standard English). The next most widely spoken language is Spanish, which is spoken by approximately 35% of the population as a first, but mostly second-language according to the 2000 census, although in Orange Walk and Corozal Districts, Spanish is the majority language (60%). Some communities in southern Belize mostly speak Garifuna and the Kekchi, Mopan, and Yucatan Maya languages. Despite the many languages (around 8 different languages in all) the 2000 census also estimated that around 70% of all Belizeans were bilingual or even "trilingual". About 50% of the population is Roman Catholic; the Anglican Church and other Protestant Christian groups account for most of the remainder. About 5% belong to the German-/Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonite community. There are also some Jews and Muslims.

Culture

Muslim Muslim Main article: Culture of Belize National Holidays include Baron Bliss Day on 9 March; Commonwealth Day on the second Monday in March; Labour Day on 1 May; The Battle of St. George's Caye on 10 September; Independence Day on 21 September, Pan American Day on 13 October; Garifuna Settlement Day on 19 November; And Christmas on 25 December.
- List of Belizeans
- Music of Belize

Miscellaneous topics

Music of Belize Music of Belize
- Communications in Belize
- Foreign relations of Belize
- Languages of Belize
- Maya ruins of Belize
- Military of Belize
- Plants and animals of Belize
- Ports of Belize
- Transport in Belize Material in some of these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.

External links

- [http://www.belize.gov.bz Government of Belize] - Official governmental site
- [http://www.travelbelize.org Belize Tourism Board] - Official Tourism site
- [http://www.belizenet.com Belize by Naturalight] - Belize Portal
- [http://www.belizeanjourneys.com Belizean Journeys] - Belize Online Magazine
- [http://www.belizeforum.com Belize Forums] - Community Forums on Belize
- [http://www.belize.net/ Belize.Net] - Belize Specific Search Engine
- [http://nature.org/wherewework/centralamerica/belize/ Conservation in Belize] - Nature Conservacy on Belize coral reef
- [http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=1106472001&men=gmap&lng=en&gln=xx&dat=32&geo=-44&srt=npan&col=aohdq Map]
- [http://belize-guide.info/ Belize Travel Guide] - Extensive articles on Belize See also the following districts of Belize:
- Belize District
- Cayo District
- Corozal District
- Orange Walk District
- Stann Creek District
- Toledo District Category:CARICOM_member_states Category:Central American countries Category:Monarchies Category:Former British colonies Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations zh-min-nan:Belize ko:벨리즈 ms:Belize ja:ベリーズ simple:Belize th:ประเทศเบลีซ

History of Honduras

Pre-Colombian times

In Pre-Columbian times, what is now Honduras was part of the Mesoamerican cultural area. The west contained the famous Maya civilization which are now the pre-Columbian city state ruins of Copán, that flourished for hundreds of years until the early 9th century. Remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country, notably at sites like La Travesía and the Ulua valley. A collection of the nation's pre-Hispanic artifacts can be found at the National Museum in Tegucigalpa.

Spanish period

Christopher Columbus landed on mainland Honduras near modern Trujillo in 1502, giving the country its name (which means depths) in reference to the deep water off the coast. Spaniard Hernán Cortés arrived in 1524. Some local tribes and nations continued to fight the Spanish invaders through the late 1530s; one native defender, Lempira, was leader of the Lenca people, and is now considered a national hero whom the currency is named after. As the Spanish began founding settlements along the coast Honduras came under the control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The cities of Comayagua and Tegucigalpa developed as early mining centers.

Independence

Honduras, along with the other Central American provinces, gained independence from Spain in 1821; it then briefly was annexed to the Mexican Empire. In 1823, Honduras joined the newly formed United Provinces of Central America. Before long social and economic differences between Honduras and its regional neighbors exacerbated harsh partisan strife among its leaders, bringing about the federation's collapse in 1838-39. General Francisco Morazán, a Honduran national hero, led unsuccessful efforts to maintain the federation. Restoring Central American unity remained the officially stated chief aim of Honduran foreign policy until after World War I. In 1888 a projected railroad line from the Caribbean coast to the capital, Tegucigalpa, ran out of money when it reached San Pedro Sula, resulting in its growth into the nation's main industrial center and second largest city. Since independence, Honduras has had 300 internal rebellions, civil wars, and changes of government -- more than half occurring during the 20th century. Traditionally lacking both an economic infrastructure and social and political integration, Honduras's agriculturally based economy came to be dominated by United States companies, notably United Fruit Company and Standard Fruit Company, which established vast banana plantations along the north coast. The economic dominance and political influence of these companies was so great from the late 19th until the mid 20th century that it coined the term banana republic. During the relatively stable years of the Great Depression, authoritarian General Tiburcio Carías Andino controlled Honduras. His ties to dictators in neighboring countries and to U.S. banana companies helped him maintain power until 1948. By then, provincial military leaders had begun to gain control of the two major parties, the National Party of Honduras (PNH) and the Liberal Party of Honduras (PLH).

From Military to Civilian Rule

In October 1955, after a general strike by banana workers on the north coast in 1954, young military reformists staged a coup that installed a provisional junta. The death penalty was abolished in 1956, though the last person to be executed was in 1940 (The current PNH presidential candidate Porfirio "Pepe" Lobo wants to bring it back). There were constituent assembly elections in 1957 which appointed Ramon Villeda Morales as President, and itself becoming a national Congress with a 6-year term. The PLH ruled during 1957-63. The military began to become a professional institution independent of politics, with the newly created military academy graduating its first class in 1960. In October 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Villeda in a bloody coup. These officers exiled PLH members and governed under General Oswaldo López Arellano until 1970. In July 1969 Honduras was invaded by El Salvador in the short Football war. Tensions in the aftermath of the conflict remain. A civilian president for the PNH, Ramón Ernesto Cruz Uclés, took power briefly in 1970 until in December 1972 López staged another coup. This time round he adopted more progressive policies, including land reform. López's successors continued armed forces modernization programs, building army and security forces, and concentrating on Honduran air force superiority over its neighbors. During the governments of General Juan Alberto Melgar Castro (1975-78) and General Policarpo Paz García (1978-83) that Honduras built most of its physical infrastructure and electricity and terrestrial telecommunications systems, both of which are state monopolies. The country experienced its economic growth during this period, with greater international demand for its products and the increased availability of foreign commercial capital.

The 1980s

In 1979 the country return to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of Roberto Suazo Córdova assumed power. Between 1979 and 1985, under John Negroponte's appointment as U.S. diplomat from 1981 to 1985, U.S. military and economic aid to Honduras jumped from $31 million to $282 million. Honduras agreed in exchange to become a base for an estimated 15,000 Nicaraguan Contras, providing logistical and intelligence support, and joining the U.S. military in joint maneuvers. Negroponte himself supervised the construction of the El Aguacate air base where Contras were trained (they also used Lepaterique, where Argentinian Batallón de Inteligencia 601 was training Contras). Battalion 3-16, a special intelligence unit involved in the assassination of hundreds of people, including U.S. missionaries, was trained by the CIA and the Argentine military.John Negroponte, currentlyDirector of National Intelligence, was later accused by the Honduras Commission on Human Rights of human rights violations. In August 2001, 185 corpses, including two Americans, were discovered at the Aguacate base. Between 1979 and 1985, U.S. development aid fell from 80% of the total to 6%. In May 1982, a nun, Sister Laetitia Bordes, who had worked for ten years in El Salvador, went on a fact-finding delegation to Honduras to investigate the whereabouts of thirty Salvadoran nuns and women of faith who fled to Honduras in 1981 after Archbishop Óscar Romero's assassination. Negroponte claimed the embassy knew nothing about the nuns. However, in a 1996 interview with The Baltimore Sun, Negroponte's predecessor, Jack Binns, said that a group of Salvadorans, among whom were the women Bordes had been looking for, were captured on April 22, 1981, and savagely tortured by the DNI, the Honduran Secret Police, and then later thrown out of helicopters alive. In

Honduras

History

Politics

Subdivisions

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

Environment

Miscellaneous topics

Further Reading

Central America

Countries

Geography

History

See also

External links

El Salvador

History

Geography

Politics

Political divisions

Economy

Demographics

Culture

Miscellaneous topics

External links

Nicaragua

History

Sandinista revolution

The 1990 elections and U.S. involvement

Politics

Departments

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

Arts

Miscellaneous topics

Further reading

External links

Gulf of Honduras

Belize

History

Politics

Districts

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

Miscellaneous topics

Further reading

External links

History of Honduras

Pre-Colombian times

Spanish period

Independence

From Military to Civilian Rule

The 1980s