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Houston Independent School District
The Houston Independent School District (HISD) is the largest public school system in Texas and the seventh largest in the United States. In the 2004-2005 school year, HISD had 302 campuses, approximately 209,000 students and over 12,000 teachers. With over 30,000 employees, HISD is one of the largest employers in the city of Houston.
HISD is highly regarded for the bilingual education of its predominantly Hispanic student body (including recruiting teachers from Mexico, Spain, and Central and South America) and its magnet (Performing Arts, Science, Health Professions, Law Enforcement, etc) High Schools are considered a model for other urban school districts as a way to provide a high quality education and keep top performing students in the inner city from fleeing to private schools or exurban school districts.
Current events
Hurricane Katrina
In 2005, HISD enrolled evacuees from the areas affected by Hurricane Katrina who were residing in Houston. The Houston Astrodome, a shelter for the refugees, is located within the HISD boundaries.
New administration building
Houston ISD's current administration building since 1970, the Hattie Mae White Administration Building (located at 3830 Richmond Avenue), was labelled the "Taj Mahal" due to the confusing layout of the complex. The administration will move into a new complex in northwest Houston (located at 4400 West 18th Street) in spring 2006. The old complex was sold and will be demolished.
Superintendents
Former HISD superintendent Rod Paige pushed the district into new heights with the PEER Program. Improving scores from its schools have caused a lot of praise from others nationwide. Kaye Stripling took over when Rod Paige headed to Washington, DC as part of United States President George W. Bush's Bush Administration cabinet. After Stripling stepped down as the interim Superintendent, Abelardo Saavedra became the superintendent of the district.
Controversies
Reporting of school violence
A 2003 New York Times report that alleges that HISD is not reporting school violence to the police created controversy in the community as teachers, students, and parents expressed concern about the district's downplaying of campus violence.
School performance
A 2003 state audit of HISD's performance caused more controversy. One of the district's most publicized accomplishments during the Paige era was a dramatic reduction in dropout rates. When 16 secondary schools, including Sharpstown High School, were audited, it was found that most of the students who left school from those schools in 2000-2001 should have been counted as dropouts, but were not. It was found that the administrators at Sharpstown deliberately changed the dropout rate at the school. The Sharpstown controversy resulted in a recommendation to label the entire HISD as "unacceptable." Former Sharpstown assistant principal Robert Kimball asserts that HISD coerced administrators at many schools to lie on dropout rates. HISD asserts that the fraud is only contained to Sharpstown, and that the false statistics at other schools were caused by confusion related to the state's system of tracking students who leave school.
HISD coverage area
Sharpstown High School]
The district covers most of the greater-Houston area, including all of the cities of Bellaire, West University Place, Southside Place, and most of the area within the Houston city limits. HISD also takes in students from the Harris County portion of Missouri City, a portion of Jacinto City, a small portion of Hunters Creek Village, a small portion of Piney Point Village, and a small portion of Pearland. HISD also takes students from unincorporated areas of Harris County. The district covers 300.2 square miles of land.
HISD once served the Harris County portion of Stafford, until the Stafford Municipal School District was established in 1982 to serve the entire city of Stafford.
All of the HISD area lies within the taxation area for the Houston Community College System.
Cities
- Bellaire
- Houston (the majority of Houston, including much of the inside Loop area falls under HISD)
- Hunters Creek Village (small portion; areas south of Buffalo Bayou are HISD)
- Jacinto City (areas north of Market street are in Houston ISD)
- Missouri City (Harris County portion only)
- Pearland (A small portion)
- Piney Point Village (small portion; areas south of Buffalo Bayou are HISD)
- Southside Place
- West University Place
List of schools
In HISD grades kindergarten through 5 are considered to be elementary school, grades 6 through 8 are considered to be middle school, and grades 9 through 12 are considered to be high school. However some elementary schools go up to the sixth grade.
Every house in HISD is assigned to an elementary school, a middle school, and a high school. HISD has many alternative programs and transfer options available to students who want a specialized education and/or dislike their home schools.
K-12 schools
The school in this list is not a traditional school.
- T.H. Rogers School, in Houston, is unique in that it is part Vanguard school (K-8), part school for the deaf (K-8), and part school for multiply impaired children (K-12). The Vanguard program at this school is known as an academically rigorous program in Texas.
K-8 schools
4 in the city of Houston
Traditional schools
3 in the city of Houston
- Gregory Lincoln Education Center (Houston)
- E.O. Smith Education Center (Houston)
- Carter G. Woodson K-8 Center (Houston)
Other
1 in the city of Houston
- The Rice School (La Escuela Rice, Houston)
Secondary schools
High schools
45 in Houston, 1 in Bellaire
Traditional schools
23 in Houston, 1 in Bellaire
AAAAA
8 in Houston, 1 in Bellaire
- Stephen F. Austin High School, in the Second Ward neighborhood of Houston, is characterized by its Art Deco architecture.
- Bellaire High School, in the city of Bellaire, has neighborhood, AP and IB Diploma programs. It has been ranked according to the Challenge Index by Jay Mathews as one of the top high schools in the United States.
- César E. Chávez High School (Houston)
- Sam Houston High School, in Houston, is one of the oldest high schools in Texas. It has undergone five name changes and a location change since its founding in 1878 as "Houston Academy"
- Mirabeau B. Lamar High School, in Houston, is a high school in HISD that has both neighborhood and IB programs.
- Lee High School (Houston)
- James Madison High School (Houston)
- Charles H. Milby High School (Houston)
- Westside High School, in Houston's Briar Forest neighborhood, is known for its AP and Inertia Dance Company, the latter of which has been featured in People, and on Good Morning America. A reality show was once in the works for the thriving dance company.
AAAA
15 in Houston
- Jefferson Davis High School (Houston)
- Ebbert L. Furr High School (Houston)
- Jesse H. Jones High School (Houston)
- Kashmere High School (Houston)
- John H. Reagan High School, in the Houston Heights, is a high school that has HISD's computer magnet program
- Scarborough High School is in northwest Houston
- Sharpstown High School (Houston)
- Ross Shaw Sterling High School (Houston)
- Stephen Pool Waltrip High School (Houston)
- Booker T. Washington High School in Houston is known for its engineering program, which is called the High School for the Engineering Professions.
- Westbury High School is in the neighborhood of Westbury in Houston
- Phillis Wheatley High School (Houston)
- Evan E. Worthing High School (Houston)
- Jack Yates High School is a tradition in Houston's Third Ward.
Other
22 in Houston
- Accelerated Learning And Transition Academy (Alta) (Houston)
- Barbara Jordan High School (Houston)
- Carnegie Vanguard High School (Houston)
- Challenge Early College High School is a high school that focuses on college curriculum located at the West Loop Houston Community College campus (Houston)
- Community Services-Secondary (Houston)
- Contemporary Learning Center High School (Houston)
- Michael E. DeBakey High School for Health Professions (Houston)
- Eastwood Academy (Houston)
- Empowerment College Preparatory High School (Houston)
- Energized For Excellence Alternative School (Houston)
- H. P. Carter Career Center (Houston)
- Harper Alternative School (Houston)
- HCC Life Skills Program (Houston)
- Houston Drop Back In Academy (Houston)
- Houston Night High School (Houston)
- International High School (Houston, opening fall 2006)
- Kay On-Going Education Center High School (Houston)
- High School for Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (Houston)
- Newcomer Charter High School (Houston, located in the Lee High School campus)
- Middle College For Technology Careers (Houston)
- High School for the Performing and Visual Arts (HSPVA) is a performing arts high school located in the Montrose district of Houston.
- Soar Center (Houston)
Middle Schools
Montrose]
30 in the city of Houston, 1 in the city of Bellaire
Traditional schools
14 in Houston, 1 in Bellaire
- Crispus Attucks Middle School (Houston)
- Frank Black Middle School (Houston)
- Burbank Middle School (Houston)
- Clifton Middle School (Houston)
- Ezekiel W. Cullen Middle School (Houston)
- James S. Deady Middle School (Houston)
- Dowling Middle School (Houston)
- Edison Middle School (Houston)
- Lamar Fleming Middle School (Houston)
- Walter W. Fondren Middle School (Houston)
- R. H. Fonville Middle School (Houston)
- Henry W. Grady Middle School (Houston)
- Alexander Hamilton Middle School (Houston)
- Hartman Middle School (Houston)
- Patrick Henry Middle School (Houston)
- Hogg Middle School (Houston)
- W. S. Holland Middle School (Houston)
- Jackson Middle School (Houston)
- Johnston Middle School (Houston)
- Francis Scott Key Middle School (Houston)
- Sidney Lanier Middle School (Houston)
- Jane Long Middle School (Houston)
- M. C. Williams Middle School (Houston)
- John Marshall Middle School (Houston)
- McReynolds Middle School (Houston)
- Daniel Ortiz, Jr. Middle School (Houston)
- John Pershing Middle School, in Houston, is a fine arts, neighborhood, and gifted and talented Middle School. Pershing celebrated its 75th anniversary in the 2003-2004 school year.
- Pin Oak Middle School (Bellaire)
- Paul Revere Middle School (Houston)
- Ryan Middle School (Houston)
- Sharpstown Middle School (Houston)
- W. I. Stevenson Middle School (Houston)
- Albert Thomas Middle School (Houston)
- Louie Welch Middle School (Houston)
- West Briar Middle School (Houston)
Other
16 in Houston
- Accelerated Learning And Transition Academy (Alta) (Houston)
- Briarmeadow Middle School (Houston)
- H. P. Carter Career Center (Houston)
- Community Services-Secondary (Houston)
- Contemporary Learning Center Middle School (Houston)
- Dominion Academy Charter School (Houston)
- Energized For Excellence Middle School (Houston)
- Harper Alternative School (Houston)
- Kaleidoscope/Caleidoscopio (Houston)
- Kandy Stripe Academy (Houston)
- Kay On-Going Education Center Middle School (Houston)
- Las Américas Middle School (Houston)
- Project Chrysalis Middle School (Houston)
- Pro-Vision School (Houston)
- Soar Center (Houston)
- William A. Lawson Institute for Peace and Prosperity (Walipp) Preparatory Academy for Boys (Houston)
Primary Schools
192 in Houston, 3 in Bellaire, 1 in West University Place
Traditional schools
172 in Houston, 2 in Bellaire, 1 in West University Place
- A.A. Milne Elementary School (Houston)
- Louisa May Alcott Elementary School (Houston)
- Charlotte B. Allen Elementary School (Houston)
- Almeda Elementary School (Houston)
- Ralph Andy Anderson Elementary School (Houston)
- Ashford Elementary School (Houston) (Grades Pre-Kindergarten through 2)
- Askew Elementary School (Houston) (Grades Pre-Kindergarten through 4)
- Atherton Elementary School (Houston)
- Barbara Bush Elementary School (Houston)
- C.E. Barrick Elementary School (Houston)
- Bastian Elementary School (Houston)
- Kate Bell Elementary School (Houston)
- Roy P. Benavidez Elementary School (Houston)
- Joyce Benbrook Elementary School (Houston)
- James Berry Elementary School (Houston)
- Blackshear Elementary School (Houston)
- James Butler Bonham Elementary School (Houston)
- Melinda Bonner Elementary School (Houston)
- James Bowie Elementary School (Houston)
- Braeburn Elementary School (Houston)
- Briargrove Elementary School (Houston)
- Andrew Briscoe Elementary School (Houston)
- Brookline Elementary School (Houston)
- Robert Browning Elementary School (Houston)
- Blanche Kelso Bruce Elementary School (Houston)
- Burbank Elementary School (Houston)
- David G. Burnet Elementary School (Houston)
- James D. Burrus Elementary School (Houston)
- Rufus Cage Elementary School (Houston) (formerly Eastwood Elementary School)
- Edna Carrillo Elementary School (Houston)
- Robert C. Chatham Elementary School (Houston, closing in 2005)
- John E. Codwell Elementary School (Houston)
- Concord Elementary School (Houston)
- Condit Elementary School (Bellaire)
- Coop Elementary School (Houston)
- Cornelius Elementary School (Houston)
- Crawford Elementary School (Houston)
- Manuel Crespo Elementary School (Houston)
- Crockett Elementary School (Houston)
- L.T. Cunningham Elementary School (Houston)
- Ray K. Daily Elementary School (a.k.a. Westside Relief, Houston, opening Fall 2005)
- Jaime Dávila Elementary School (Houston)
- Helen C. DeChaumes Elementary School (Houston)
- Lorenzo DeZavala Elementary School (Houston)
- Dodson Elementary School (Houston)
- Dogan Elementary School (Houston)
- Durham Elementary School (Houston)
- Durkee Elementary School (Houston)
- Rosa Lee Easter Elementary School (Houston, closing in 2005)
- Charles W. Eliot Elementary School (Houston)
- Elrod Elementary School (Houston)
- Ralph Waldo Emerson Elementary School (Houston)
- T.M. Fairchild Elementary School (Houston, closing in 2006)
- Eugene Field Elementary School (Houston)
- Cecile Foerster Elementary School (Houston)
- W.W. Fondren Elementary School (Houston)
- M.E. Foster Elementary School (Houston)
- Benjamin Franklin Elementary School (Houston)
- Robert Lee Frost Elementary School (Houston)
- Gallegos Elementary School (Houston)
- Garcia Elementary School (Houston)
- Garden Oaks Elementary School (Houston)
- Garden Villas Elementary School (Houston)
- Golfcrest Elementary School (Houston)
- Gregg Elementary School (Houston)
- Grimes Elementary School (Houston)
- Grissom Elementary School (Houston)
- Gross Elementary School (Houston)
- J. R. Harris Elementary School (Houston)
- R. P. Harris Elementary School (Houston)
- Hartsfield Elementary School (Houston)
- Harvard Elementary School (Houston)
- Helms Elementary School (Houston)
- J. P. Henderson Elementary School (Houston)
- Nat Q. Henderson Elementary School (Houston)
- Herod Elementary School (Houston)
- Herrera Elementary School (Houston)
- Highland Heights Elementary School (Houston)
- Hobby Elementary School (Houston)
- Hohl Elementary School (Houston)
- Paul W. Horn Academy (Bellaire)
- Houston Gardens Elementary School
- Isaacs Elementary School (Houston)
- Janowski Elementary School (Houston)
- Jean Hines/Caldwell Elementary School (initially named Corinthian Pointe Relief Elementary School before its fall 2005 opening) (Houston)
- Jefferson Elementary School (Houston)
- Anson Jones Elementary School (Houston)
- J. Will Jones Elementary School (Houston)
- Kashmere Gardens Elementary School (Houston)
- Kelso Elementary School (Houston)
- Kennedy Elementary School (Houston)
- Ketelsen Elementary School (Houston)
- Kolter Elementary School (Houston)
- Lantrip Elementary School (Houston)
- James H. Law Elementary School (Houston)
- Judd Mortimer Lewis Elementary School (Houston)
- Lockhart Elementary School (Houston)
- Longfellow Elementary School (Houston)
- Looscan Elementary School (Houston)
- Love Elementary School (Houston)
- E.O. Lovett Elementary School (Houston)
- Lyons Elementary School (Houston)
- MacArthur Elementary School (Houston)
- MacGregor Elementary School (Houston)
- Mading Elementary School (Houston)
- C. Martinez Elementary School (Houston)
- R. Martinez Elementary School (Houston)
- McDade Elementary School (Houston)
- McNamara Elementary School (Houston)
- Memorial Elementary School (Houston)
- Mitchell Elementary School (Houston)
- Montgomery Elementary School (Houston)
- Joe E. Moreno Elementary School (Houston, opened Fall 2005)
- Pat Neff Elementary School (Houston)
- Northline Elementary School (Houston)
- Oak Forest Elementary School (Houston)
- Oates Elementary School (Houston)
- John G. Osborne Elementary School (Houston)
- Park Place Elementary School (Houston)
- Cynthia Ann Parker Elementary School (Houston)
- Patterson Elementary School (Houston)
- Peck Elementary School (Houston)
- Petersen Elementary School (Houston)
- Pilgrim Elementary School (Houston)
- Piney Point Elementary School (Houston)
- Pleasantville Elementary School (Houston)
- Edgar Allen Poe Elementary School (Houston)
- Port Houston Elementary School (Houston)
- L. L. Pugh Elementary School (Houston)
- S. C. Red Elementary School (Houston)
- J. R. Reynolds Elementary School (Houston)
- Joseph James Rhoads Elementary School (Houston)
- River Oaks Elementary School, in Houston, is a school which draws students from the entire Houston Independent School District. River Oaks Elementary celebrated its 75th anniversary in the 2003-2004 school year.
- Roberts Elementary School (Houston)
- Robinson Elementary School (Houston)
- Sylvan Rodriguez Elementary School (Houston)
- Will Rogers Elementary School (Houston, closing in 2006)
- Roosevelt Elementary School (Houston)
- Ross Elementary School (Houston)
- Pearl S. Rucker Elementary School (Houston)
- Rusk Elementary School (Houston)
- Sanchez Elementary School (Houston)
- Sanderson Elementary School (Houston)
- Scarborough Elementary School (Houston)
- Scott Elementary School (Houston)
- Scroggins Elementary School (Houston)
- Seguin Elementary School (Houston)
- Shadowbriar Elementary School (Houston) (Grades 3 through 5)
- Shearn Elementary School (Houston)
- Sherman Elementary School (Houston)
- Thomas Albert Sinclair Elementary School (Houston)
- Katherine "Kate" Smith Elementary School (Houston)
- Southmayd Elementary School (Houston)
- St. George Place Elementary School (Houston, opening Fall 2005)
- Stevens Elementary School (Houston)
- Stevenson Elementary School (Houston)
- Sutton Elementary School (Houston)
- Thompson Elementary School (Houston)
- Tijerina Elementary School (Houston)
- Tinsley Elementary School (Houston)
- Travis Elementary School (Houston)
- Turner Elementary School (Houston)
- Mark Twain Elementary School (Houston)
- Valley West Elementary School (Houston)
- Wainwright Elementary School (Houston)
- Walnut Bend Elementary School (Houston)
- Wesley Elementary School (Houston)
- West University Elementary School (West University Place)
- Wharton Elementary School (Houston)
- Whidby Elementary School (Houston)
- White Elementary School (Houston)
- Whittier Elementary School (Houston)
- Wilson Elementary School (Houston)
- Windsor Village Elementary School (Houston) (Formerly a grocery store)
- Young Elementary School (Houston) (Formerly Sunny Side Elementary School)
Other
20 in Houston, 1 in Bellaire
- A.D.S.D.P. (Houston)
- Banneker-McNair Math/Science Academy (Houston)
- Bellfort Academy (Houston)
- Briarmeadow Charter School (Houston)
- Community Services-Sec (Houston)
- Dominion Academy Charter School (Houston)
- Energized For Excellence Academy (Houston)
- Maud W. Gordon Elementary School (Bellaire)
- Kandy Stripe Academy (Houston)
- Kazi Shule (Houston) - Kazi Shule is an alternative school for pupils with behavioral problems. It opened as a middle school but became an elementary school in 2001 for the 2001-2002 school year.
- Mount Hebron Academy (Houston) - Mount Hebron is an alternative school for pupils with behavioral problems.
- Pleasant Hill Academy (Houston)
- Pro-Vision School (Houston)
- Sands Point Elementary School (Houston)
- School At Post Oak (Houston)
- Soar Center (Houston)
- St John's Academy (Houston)
- Sugar Grove Elementary School (Houston)
- TSU/HISD Lab School (Houston)
- Young Learners (Houston)
- Young Scholars Academy For Excellence (Houston)
Early Childhood Centers
8 in Houston
- Armandina Farias Early Childhood Center (Houston, opening August 2005)
- Crockett Early Childhood Center (Houston) (The campus was formerly Brock Elementary School - Elementary students were rezoned to Crockett ES)
- Sharon Goldstein Halpin Early Childhood Center (Houston)
- Martin Luther King Early Childhood Center (Houston)
- Las Américas Early Childhood Development Center (Houston)
- Ninfa Laurenzo Early Childhood Center (Houston)
- Gabriela Mistral Early Childhood Center (Houston, opening August 2005)
- Wheatley Child Development (Houston)
Interagency Alternative Schools
- CEP
Former schools
Former secondary schools
Former 7-12 schools
- Terrell Alternative School (Houston) (Originally an alternative middle school)
Former high schools
2 in Houston
- Ninth Grade Academy (Houston)
- San Jacinto High School (Houston)
Former middle schools
2 in Houston
- Miller Junior High School (Houston)
Former primary schools
17 in Houston
- Argyle Elementary School (Argyle was located in a strip mall - Students rezoned to Foerster ES)
- Richard Brock Elementary School (Students rezoned to Crockett ES) - Campus became an early childhood center
- Carnegie Elementary School (Students rezoned to Woodson K-8 Center) - Campus became a high school
- Clinton Park Elementary School (Students rezoned to Pleasantville ES)
- Diversity Roots And Wings Academy (Draw) (Houston)
- Frederick Douglass Elementary School (Students rezoned to Dodson ES - The campus later became New Orleans West)
- Eighth Avenue Elementary School (Students rezoned to Love ES)
- Gregory Elementary School
- Holden Elementary School (Students rezoned to Helms ES)
- Lamar Elementary School (School replaced by Ketelsen ES)
- Robert E. Lee Elementary School (School replaced by Ketelsen ES)
- McGowan Elementary School
- Milam Elementary School (Students rezoned to Memorial ES)
- Montrose Elementary School
- J. D. Ryan Elementary School (Students rezoned to Jefferson ES and Looscan ES)
- Sharpview Elementary School
- Southland Elementary School
- YMCA Of Greater Houston Charter School (Houston)
Former early childhood centers
1 in Houston
- Langston Early Childhood Center (Students transferred to Crawford ES)
Notable employees and teachers
- Laura Bush, a teacher at Kennedy Elementary School, who later became the First Lady of the United States
- Alberto Gonzales, chair of the Commission for District Decentralization, later became the U.S. Attorney General
- Rod Paige, former superintendent, became the Secretary of Education
See also
- List of school districts in Texas
- List of schools in Harris County, Texas
External links
- [http://www.houstonisd.org HISD Homepage]
- [http://www.hisdlibraryservices.org HISD Library Services]
- [http://www.hisdtax.com HISD Tax Office]
- [http://www.greatschools.net/modperl/browse_district/499/tx//?level=a List of schools in the HISD] from GreatSchools.net (this link is outdated)
Links on controversies
- [http://www.click2houston.com/education/2629076/detail.html News article on New York Times report]
- [http://www.khou.com/news/local/stories/khou040107_mh_hisd60minutes.11b764a43.html Local news report on the Sharpstown controversy]
- [http://www.vdare.com/guzzardi/paige.htm A link critical of HISD due to the droupout controversy]
- [http://www.berkeleypta.org/pta/topics/testing/20030710a-nyt.html Another link critical of HISD's dropout rate]
Category:Houston public education
Category:School districts in Texas
Category:Harris County, Texas
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Texas
Texas is a state located in the United States of America. The 28th U.S. state, Texas joined the United States in 1845. Its postal abbreviation is TX.
The state name derives from a word in a Caddoan language of the Hasinai, táysha (or tejas, as the Spaniards spelled it), meaning friends or allies. Spanish explorers mistakenly applied the word to the people and their location.
With an area of 696,241 km2 and a population of 22.5 million, Texas is the second largest U.S. state in both area and population, and the largest state in the contiguous 48 states in area. (Alaska is the largest U.S. state in area and California is the most populous.) Texas has historically had a "larger than life" reputation, especially in cowboy films.
History
Texas can claim that "Six Flags" have flown over its soil: the Fleur-de-lis of France, and the national flags of Spain, Mexico, the Republic of Texas, the United States of America and the Confederate States of America.
Native American tribes that once lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include Apache, Atakapan, Bidai, Caddo, Comanche, Cherokee, Kiowa, Tonkawa, and Wichita. Currently, there are three federally recognized Native American tribes which reside in Texas: the Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas, the Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas, and the Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo of Texas.
On November 6, 1528 shipwrecked Spanish conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca became the first known European to set foot on Texas. A member of the Narváez expedition, he was later enslaved by a Native American tribe of the upper Gulf coast, and explored what are now the U.S. states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona on foot from coastal Louisiana to Sinaloa, Mexico, over a period of roughly six years. He returned to Europe in 1537, where he wrote about his experiences in a work called La relación ("The Tale").
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]
Prior to 1821, Texas was part of the Spanish colony of New Spain. After Mexican independence in 1821, Texas became part of Mexico and in 1824 became the northern section of Coahuila y Tejas. On 3 January 1823, Stephen F. Austin began a colony of 300 American families along the Brazos River in present-day Fort Bend County and Brazoria County, centered primarily in the area of what is now Sugar Land. This group became known as the "Old Three Hundred." The "Conventions" of 1832 and 1833 responded to rising unrest at the policies of the ruling Mexican government. Policies that most irritated the Texians included the Mexican ban on slavery, the forcible disarmament of Texian settlers, and the expulsion of illegal immigrants from the United States of America. The example of the Centralista forces' suppression of dissidents in Zacatecas also inspired fear of the Mexican government.
Zacatecas
On March 2, 1836, the "Convention of 1836" signed the Texas "Declaration of Independence," declaring Texas an independent nation. On April 21, 1836 the Texans won their independence when they defeated the Mexican forces of Santa Anna at the Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna himself passed into captivity, and on May 14, Republic of Texas officials and General Santa Anna signed the treaty of Velasco. The Republic of Texas included all the area now included in the state of Texas, although its self-proclaimed western and northwestern borders extended as far west as Santa Fe and as far northwest as present-day Wyoming, respectively.
In 1845, Texas was admitted to the United States as a constituent state of the Union. Annexation was mutually beneficial to Texas and the United States. Texas was in a very susceptible position following independence, with a weak government, little industry, and minimal infrastructure. The U.S. could not allow such a tenuous nation to sit right on its border. Texas also lay partially in the way of the U.S. expansion to the Pacific, and its "Manifest Destiny." The major stumbling block of annexation, besides the potential for war with Mexico, was the fact that Texas was a slave state and potentially would tip the balance between free and slave states due to its huge size. Some southerners were pushing for the ability to divide Texas into multiple states, thereby increasing the number of slave states even more. A compromise was reached in that if Texas were divided, any states north of the Missouri Compromise would be free states.
During the Civil War, Texas seceded from the Union and joined the Confederate States of America. In 1870, the United States Congress readmitted Texas into the Union.
Texas today is a state thoroughly steeped in tradition, yet equally embracing of new social and technological developments. From the state capital of Austin (also headquarters of Dell Computers and known as "Silicon Hills") to the cosmopolitan air of Dallas, to the oil-and-finance rich industry of Houston to the Latinesque cultures of San Antonio and El Paso, the state tourism slogan truly fits: "Texas: It's like a whole other country."
Geography
1870
Location
Texas borders New Mexico on the west, Oklahoma on the north (across the Red River), and Louisiana (across the Sabine River) and Arkansas on the east. To the southwest, across the Rio Grande, Texas borders the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas. To the southeast of Texas lies the Gulf of Mexico.
Texas lies in the south-central part of the United States of America. Texas is considered to form part of the US South and part of the U.S. Southwest. Some regions of Texas are associated with the Southwest more than the South, while other regions are associated with the South more than the Southwest. Texas shares some cultural elements with both regions, with more similarities with the South, especially Arkansas and Louisiana, in East Texas, and more similarities with the Southwest, especially Mexico and New Mexico, in West Texas and South Texas. Texas is so large in its east-west expanse that El Paso, in the western corner of the state, is closer to San Diego, California than to Beaumont, near the Louisiana state line; Beaumont, in turn is closer to Jacksonville, Florida than it is to El Paso. The north-south extent is similarly impressive; Dalhart, in the nortwestern corner of the state, is closer to the state capitals of Kansas,
Colorado, and Wyoming than it is to the Texas state capital (Austin).
Human Geography
Articles on Texas regions:
- Arklatex
- Big Bend
- Central Texas
- Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex
- Deep East Texas
- East Texas
- Edwards Plateau
- Greater Houston
- North Texas
- Northeast Texas
- Piney Woods
- Rio Grande Valley
- Texas Hill Country
- Texas Panhandle
- Llano Estacado
- Southeast Texas
- South Texas
- West Texas
For the 254 counties of Texas,
Natural Geography
counties]
counties]
counties]
Texas has five major topographic regions:
# The Coastal Plain, from the Gulf of Mexico inland to about San Antonio and just southeast of Austin
# The Hill Country and Edwards Plateau, a hilly rocky area in central Texas bordered on the east by the Balcones Fault zone and Blackland Prairie.
# The Great Plains region extends into northern Texas, including the Llano Estacado and the Panhandle High Plains
# The North Central Plains
# The Trans-Pecos Desert, a subdivision of the Chihuahuan Desert, in extreme western Texas, west of the Pecos River
Geology
Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded Sierra Madre Oriental of Mexico. It is mostly sedimentary rocks, with east Texas underlain by a Cretaceous and younger sequence of sediments, the trace of ancient shorelines east and south until the active continental margin of the Gulf of Mexico is met. This sequence is built atop the subsided crest of the Appalachian Mountains–Ouachita Mountains–Marathon Mountains zone of Pennsylvanian continental collision, which collapsed when rifting in Jurassic time opened the Gulf. West from this orogenic crest, which is buried beneath the Dallas–Waco–Austin–San Antonio trend, the sediments are Permian and Triassic in age. Oil is found in the Cretaceous sediments in the east, the Permian sediments in the west, and along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas continental shelf. A few exposures of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks are found in the central and western parts of the state, and Oligocene volcanic rocks are found in far west Texas, in the Big Bend area. A blanket of Miocene sediments known as the Ogallala formation in the western high plains region is an important aquifer. Texas has no active or dormant volcanoes and few earthquakes, being situated far from an active plate tectonic boundary.
Government and politics
State Law and Government
plate tectonic]
Austin is the capital of Texas. The State Capitol resembles the federal Capitol Building in Washington, DC, but is faced in pink granite and is topped by a statue of the "Goddess of Liberty" holding aloft a five-point Texas star. Like several other southern state capitols, it faces south instead of north. The capitol building is seven feet taller than the U.S. national capitol, but it is less massive.
Republican Rick Perry has served as Governor of Texas since December 2000 when George W. Bush vacated the office to assume the Presidency. Two Republicans represent Texas in the U.S. Senate: Kay Bailey Hutchison (since 1993) and John Cornyn (since 2002). Texas has 32 representatives in the U.S. House of Representatives: 21 Republicans and 11 Democrats.
The Texas Constitution, adopted in 1876, is the second longest in the nation. As with many state constitutions, it explicitly provides for the separation of powers and incorporates its bill of rights directly into the text of the constitution (as Article I). The bill of rights is considerably lengthier and more detailed than the federal Bill of Rights, and includes some provisions unique to Texas.
The executive branch consists of the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Comptroller of Public Accounts, Land Commissioner, Attorney General, Agriculture Commissioner, the three-member Railroad Commission, the State Board of Education, and the Secretary of State. The Comptroller decides if expected state income is sufficient to cover the propsed state budget. Except for the Secretary of State—who is appointed by the Governor with the advice and consent of the Senate—each of these officials is elected. There are also a large number of state agencies and numerous boards and commissions. Partly because of the large number of elected officials, the Governor's powers are quite limited in comparison to other state governors or the U.S. President. In popular lore and belief the Lieutenant Governor, who heads the Senate and appoints its committees, has more power than the Governor. The Governor commands the state militia and can veto bills passed by the Legislature and call special sessions of the Legislature. He or she also appoints members of various executive boards and fills judicial vacancies between elections.
The Legislature of Texas, like the legislature of every other state except Nebraska, is bicameral (that is, has two chambers). The House of Representatives has 150 members, while the Senate has 31. The speaker of the house, currently Tom Craddick (R-Midland) leads the House, and the Lieutenant Governor (currently Republican David Dewhurst) leads the State Senate. The Legislature meets in regular session only once every two years.
The judicial system of Texas has a reputation as one of the most complex in the United States—if not in the world—with many layers and many overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the Texas Supreme Court—which hears civil cases—and the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals. Except in the case of some municipal benches, partisan elections choose all of the judges at all levels of the judiciary; the Governor fills vacancies by appointment.
County Government
Texas has a total of 254 counties, by far the most counties of any state. Each county is run by a "commissioners court" consisting of four elected commissioners (one from each of four precincts drawn based on population) and a "county judge" elected from all the voters of the county. The county judge does not have authority to veto a decision of the commissioners court, s/he votes along with the commissioners. In smaller counties, the county judge actually does perform judicial duties, but in larger counties the judge's role is limited to serving on the commissioners court. Certain officials such as the sheriff and tax collector are elected separately by the voters and state law specifies their salaries, but the commissioners court determines their office budgets. Counties also have much less legal power than municipalities, for instance, counties in Texas do not have zoning power or eminent domain power (except in very rare circumstances).
Municipal Government
Texas does not have townships; areas within a county are either "incorporated" (i.e., part of a city, though the city may contract with the county for needed services) or "unincorporated" (i.e., not part of a city, in these areas the county has authority for law enforcement and road maintenance).
Cities are classified as either "general law" or "home rule". A city may elect "home rule" status (i.e., draft an independent city charter) once it exceeds 5,000 population and the voters agree to home rule. Otherwise, it is classified as "general law" and has very limited powers. One example of the difference in the two structures regards annexation. General law cities cannot annex adjacent unincorporated areas without the property owner's consent; home rule cities may annex without consent, but must provide essential services within a specified period of time or the property owner may file suit to be deannexed.
School and Special Districts
In addition to cities and counties, Texas has numerous "special districts". The most common is the independent school district, which (with one exception) has a board of trustees that is independent of any other governing authority. School district boundaries are not coaligned with city or county boundaries; it is not uncommon for a school district to cover one or more counties or for a large city to be served by several school districts.
Other special districts include water supply, public hospitals, and community colleges.
Politics
Texas politics are currently dominated by the Republican Party, which has strong majorities in the Texas Senate and House of Representatives. Every executive branch official elected statewide is Republican, as is every member of Texas's two courts of last resort; no Democrat has won a statewide election since 1994. The majority of the state's delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives is Republican, as are both U.S. Senators. A notable exception to this trend is the Travis County District Attorney, Ronnie Earle, a Democrat elected by the people of Austin who has served since 1978 with state-wide authority and responsibility for legally prosecuting political mischief. The position of Travis County DA is uniquely so-empowered by the Texas Constitution; most states grant this authority to the more broadly elected position of Attorney General. Note: the congressional districts in Texas were redrawn in 2003 by the Republican-dominated legislature. Districts are supposed to be drawn after the national census every 10 years, but an impasse in the Texas Legislature resulted in the districts being drawn by the courts. The legislature, with controversial help from U.S. Congressman Tom DeLay, redrew the districts after the Republicans gained a larger share of the legislature. A court challenge of the change was upheld by the Republican-dominated Texas Supreme Court.
Like other Southern states, Texas historically was a one-party state of the Democratic Party. The Democrats controlled a majority in the Texas House and in the state's Congressional delegation until the 2002 and 2004 elections, respectively. One of the most famous Texans was a Democrat: Lyndon Baines Johnson served in the U.S. House of Representatives, the U.S. Senate, and as vice-president and president of the United States.
Economy
vice-president
Texas remained largely rural until World War II, with cattle ranching, oil, and agriculture as its main industries. Contrary to popular mythology, cattle ranching was never Texas's chief industry. Before the oil boom, back to the period of the first anglo settlers, this was cotton farming (as in most of the South).
In 1926 San Antonio had over 120,000 people, the largest population of any city in Texas. After World War II, Texas became increasingly industralized.
Its economy (circa 2000) relies largely on information technology, oil and natural gas, energy exploration and energy trading, agriculture, and manufacturing. The state has two major economic centers: the Greater Houston area and the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex. Houston stands at the center of the petrochemical and biomedical research trades while Dallas functions as the center of the agricultural and information technology labor market in Texas. Other major cities include San Antonio, Austin, Brownsville, Lubbock, Amarillo, Abilene, Beaumont, McAllen, Tyler, Odessa and Midland. Other important cities include Killeen, home to Fort Hood the largest military Post in the U.S., El Paso, Eagle Pass, and Laredo; these have particular significance due to their location on the border with Mexico, making them important trade points.
The state passed New York in the 1990s to become the second-largest U.S. state in population (after California). Texas had a gross state product of $764 billion, the third highest in America after California and New York respectively. Texas's growth is often attributed to the availability of jobs, the low cost of housing (housing values in the Dallas and Houston areas, while generally rising, have not risen at the astronomical rates of other areas such as San Francisco), the lack of a personal state income tax, low taxation of business, limited government (the state legislature of Texas meets only once every two years), and favorable climate.
Film and television
Texas is one of the top filmmaking states in the United States, just after California and New York. More than $1.2 billion has been spent in Texas just for filming since 1990.
The Texas Film Commission was founded for free services to filmmakers, from location research to traveling.
Demographics
The people of Texas, historically often known as Texians, are now generally referred to as Texans.
As of 2004, the state had a population of 22,490,022. The state has 3,450,500 foreign-born residents (15.6% of the state population), of which an estimated 1.2 million are illegal aliens (illegal aliens account for more than one-third of the foreign-born population in Texas and 5.4% of the total state population). The state's population grew 5.5 million between 1990 and 2004, a growth of 32.4%
Ethnic origins
More than one-third of Texas residents are of Hispanic origin and may be of any racial groups. Some are recent arrivals from Mexico, Central America, or South America, while others, known as Tejanos, have ancestors who have lived in Texas since before Texan independence, or at least for several generations. Tejanos are the largest ancestral group in southern Duval County. Perhaps numerically Mexican-Texans dominate south, south-central, and west Texas and are a significant part of the work force of cities of Dallas and Houston.
Other population groups in Texas also exhibit great diversity. Frontier Texas saw settlements of Germans, particularly in Fredericksburg and New Braunfels. In fact, the largest family in Texas today is of German descent. After the European revolutions of 1848, German, Polish, Swedish, Norwegian, Czech and French immigration grew, and continued until World War I. The influence of the diverse immigrants from Europe survives in the names of towns, styles of architecture, genres of music, and varieties of cuisine. Texans of German descent dominate much of central and southeast-central Texas and one county in the area, Lavaca, is predominately Czech.
In recent years, the Asian population in Texas has grown, especially in Houston and in Dallas. People from mainland China, Vietnam, the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia India, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Pakistan and other countries have settled in Texas.
In August 2005, it was announced by the United States Census that Texas has become the fourth minority-majority state in the nation (after Hawaii, New Mexico, and California). According to the Texas state Data Center, if current trends continue, Hispanics will become a majority in the state by 2030.
All data comes from the United States Census state population estimates.
The largest reported ancestry groups in Texas include: Mexican (24.3%), African American (11.5%), German (9.9%), American (7.2%), and Irish (7.2%).
Much of east, central, and north Texas is inhabited primarily by Texans of White Anglo Saxon Protestant heritage, primarily descended from the British Isles. African Americans, who historically made up one-third of the state population, are concentrated in those parts of East Texas where the ante-bellum cotton plantation culture was most prominent.
Census data reports 7.8% of Texas's population as under 5, 28.2% under 18, and 9.9% over 64 years. Females made up 50.4% of the population.
Cities and metropolitan areas
Largest cities
Roman Catholic]
Roman Catholic]
Roman Catholic]
Roman Catholic]
Roman Catholic]
Texas has two global cities as Houston and Dallas hold the title of "Gamma World City" by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group & Network (GaWC).
Ranked by population of cities (incorporated municipalities), the five largest cities in Texas are Houston, San Antonio, Dallas, Austin, and Fort Worth. Photographs of the downtowns of those five cities are displayed to the right, in order of each city's population according to 2004 U.S. Census estimates within city limits. Texas is the only state in the U.S.A. to have three cities with populations exceeding 1 million (California has two; no other state has more than one)--Houston, San Antonio, and Dallas, which are also among the 10 largest cities of the United States. Austin and Fort Worth are in the top 20 largest US cities.
Some cities not listed are still considered important on the basis of other factors and issues, including culture, economics, heritage, and politics.
Metropolitan areas
Texas has 25 metropolitan areas (MSAs) defined by the United States Census Bureau. The two largest are ranked among the top 10 United States metropolitan areas. In 2003, the U.S. Census introduced "metropolitan divisions" within some metropolitan areas. Texas has two metropolitan divisions within the Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington MSA.
The following table lists population figures for those metropolitan areas, in rank of population. Population figures are as of the 2003 U.S. Census estimates.
Education and scientific research
Public schools
The public school systems are administered by the Texas Education Agency.
All but one of the school districts in Texas are separate from any form of municipal government, hence they are called "independent school districts," or "ISD" for short. School districts may cross city and county boundaries. School districts have the power to tax their residents and to use eminent domain.
The sole exception to this rule is Stafford Municipal School District, which serves all of the city of Stafford.
Texas has twenty Educational Service Center "regions" that serve the local school districts.
Colleges and universities
Stafford]
The University of Texas System, established by the Texas Constitution in 1876, consisted of nine academic universities, six health institutions, and UT System administration in 2004. UT System institutions enrolled a total of 182,752 students in fall 2004 making it one of the largest systems of higher education in the nation. In 2004, The University of Texas at Austin, which is the largest institution in the UT System and in the state of Texas, maintained an enrollment of 50,377 students.
The University of Texas at Austin was once the largest institution in the United States, but it is now one of the top 3 largest by population and is the world's 15th top ranking university. Seven doctoral programs at UT Austin rank in the top 10 in the nation and 22 degree programs rank in the top 25, according to a comprehensive study of the quality of graduate schools conducted by the United States National Research Council. Four of the seven medical schools of Texas are within the University of Texas System. In 2004, the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas was ranked the 16th highest ranking medical school in the United States, with four of Texas' eleven Nobel laureates.
The Texas A&M University System is the second largest state university system of higher learning in Texas. Its flagship institution is Texas A&M University located in College Station and is the state's oldest public institution of higher education. Funded research generally exceeds that of all other Texas universities, and Texas A&M ranks among the top ten national universities in research. It is the second largest university in the state of Texas and also one of the top 10 largest schools in the nation.
The University of Houston System is the largest urban state system of higher education in the Gulf Coast, which has four universities with three located in Houston. Its flagship institution is the University of Houston, the only doctoral degree granting extensive research institution in Houston and is the third largest in the state of Texas with an enrollment of over 36,000. The interdisciplinary research conducted at UH breaks new ground in such vital areas as superconductivity, space commercialization, biomedical engineering, economics, education, petroleum exploration and management. UH is also home to over 40 research centers and institutes. Amongst the most prestigious of the University of Houston's colleges is the University of Houston Law Center (law school). The UH Law Center's Health Law and Policy Institute is ranked number one in the nation while the Intellectual Property Law Program is ranked fifth, according to U.S. News & World Report.
Houston is home to the Texas Medical Center, the world's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions, such as Baylor College of Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston and The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center. The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, which now ranks as one of the world's most productive and highly regarded academic institutions devoted to cancer patient care, research, education, and prevention.
Houston is the location of a well known prestigious private institution of Rice University, which boasts one of the largest financial endowments of any university in the world. The small undergraduate student body is among the nation's most select and one of the highest percentages of National Merit Scholarship winners. Rice University maintains a variety of research facilities and laboratories. Rice is also associated with the Houston Area Research Center, a consortium supported by Rice, the University of Texas at Austin, Texas A&M University, and the University of Houston.
Houston is also home to Texas Southern University,the first Historically Black College and University (HBCU) to house a law school, and was also the first state-supported institution in the city of Houston. Over the years, the University's educational facilities and programs expanded, and many of its graduates began to achieve local, regional, and national recognition for their influence in politics, education, business, technology, medicine, and the arts. Its pioneering spirit continues today
San Antonio is home to many universities, such as the rapidly-growing UTSA, a branch of the University of Texas system, as well as Trinity University, St. Mary's University, and University of the Incarnate Word, and Our Lady of the Lake University.
Transportation
Interstate highway
- Interstate 10
- Interstate 20
- Interstate 27
- Interstate 30
- Interstate 35
- Interstate 37
- Interstate 40
- Interstate 44
- Interstate 45
- Interstate 69 (proposed extension)
- Interstate 410
- Interstate 610 (Texas)
- Interstate 635
- Interstate 820
United States highway
Professional sports teams
The Houston Oilers, formerly based in Texas, moved to Memphis and later to Nashville, Tennessee, and became the Tennessee Titans. Houston also formerly had the Arena Football League team Houston Thunderbears, and the Minor League Soccer team Houston Hotshots.
Miscellaneous information
Houston Hotshots.]]
- Four ships of the United States Navy have borne the name USS Texas in honor of the state.
- Famous for their role in the history of Texas law enforcement, the Texas Rangers continue today to provide special law enforcement services to the state.
- One state holiday, Juneteenth (from "June" + "Nineteenth," its date), commemorates the day in 1865 that the slaves in Texas learned of the Emancipation Proclamation.
- At 311 feet, Texas's capitol building in Austin is taller than the capitol building in Washington, D.C.
State designations and symbols
Washington, D.C.]
- state flower — the bluebonnet (Lupinus texensis)
- state motto — "Friendship"
- state nickname — The Lone Star State (after the single star on several historical flags of Texas, including the current Texas flag)
- state tree — the pecan
- state bird — the mockingbird
- official state song — Texas Our Texas
- state mammals (three)
- small — armadillo
- large — Texas longhorn
- flying — Mexican free-tailed bat
Other state designations
Mexican free-tailed bat
- Air Force — Commemorative Air Force (formerly known as the Confederate Air Force), based in Midland
- state dance — Square Dance
- state dinosaur — the Brachiosaur Sauropod, Pleurocoelus
- state dish — chili con carne
- state fiber and fabric — cotton
- state fish —
Bilingual education
The phrase "bilingual education" has multiple definitions:
- education where two distinct languages are used for general teaching
- education designed to help children become bilingual (sometimes called "two-way bilingual education"; e.g., Spanish speakers and English speakers in a classroom are all taught to speak both languages
- education in a child's native language for (a) the first year or (b) however long it takes; followed by mainstreaming in English-only classes (in the US)
- education in a child's native language for as long as his parents wish (with as little as 30 minutes a day of ESL instruction)
In the latter cases "native-language instruction" may be a clearer definition.
Examples across the world
Australia
In Australia there are some schools with
bilingual programs which cater for children
speaking community languages other than
English. Baldauf (2005) explains that these
programs are now beginning to benefit from
more government support. Bilingual education
for Indigenous students, however, has only
received intermittent official backing. In
the Northern Territory, for example,
bilingual programs for Indigenous students
were begun with Federal Government support in
the early 1970s but by December 1998 the
Northern Territory Government had announced
its decision to shift $3 million away from
the 21 bilingual programs to a Territory-wide
program teaching English as a second
language. Within 12 months though the
government had softened its position. Most
bilingual programs were allowed to continue
under the guise of two-way education. Then on
24 August 2005 the Minister for Employment,
Education and Training announced that the
government would be "revitalising bi-lingual
education" at 15 Community Education
Centres: Alekerange, Angurugu, Borroloola,
Gapuwiyak, Gunbalunya, Kalkaringi, Lajamanu,
Maningrida, Milingimbi, Ramingining, Ngkurr,
Shepherdson College, Numbulwar, Yirrkala and
Yuendumu. This revitalisation is conceived as
part of an effort aimed at "providing
effective education from pre-school through
to senior secondary at each of the
Territory’s 15 Community Education Centres".
As Harris & Devlin (1986) observe,
“Aboriginal bilingual education in
Australia represents much more than a range
of education programs. It has been a measure
of non-Aboriginal commitment to either
assimilation or cultural pluralism”.
Canada
In Canada, education is under provincial jurisdiction. However, the federal government has been a strong supporter of establishing Canada as a bilingual country and has helped pioneer the French immersion programs in the public education systems throughout Canada. In French immersion students with no previous French language training, usually beginning in Kindergarten or grade 1, do all of their school work in French. In higher grades they will have some instruction in english. There are also some private schools and preschools that do immersion programs in other languages.
- see Bilingualism in Canada
China
Ninety-two percent of the population in China speaks Mandarin. However, there are 55 distinct minoity languages. Mandarin is the national lingua franca and promotes communication between dialect goups. Minority language speakers in China are granted the constitutional right to be educated in thei primary language. However, minority language speakers are expected to master Chinese. The national government retains a policy of "dialect bilingualism" in which individuals are encouraged to become proficient in the lingua franca and their dialectal language. The general consensus among Chinese scholars is that it is better to addess minority education by teaching in the mother tounge instead of inforcing a "Chinese-only" policy. Most bilingual classrooms address the goal of maintenance of the minoity language. Students develop proficiency in the majoity language in the following progression:
- Stage One
Minority language is used to teach Mandarin
- Stage Two
Both languages are used when students develop understanding of Mandarin
- Stage Three
Mandarin is used as a main medium of instuction, and the minoity language is taught for several hours per week.
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong where both English and Chinese are official, both languages are taught in school and are mandatory subjects. Either English or Chinese is used as the medium of instruction for other subjects.
Japan
In Japan, the need for bilingualism (mostly Japanese and English) has been pointed out, and there are some scholars who advocate teaching children subjects such as mathematics using English rather than Japanese. As part of this proposal, subjects such as history, however, would be taught solely in Japanese.
Singapore
Bilingual Education was introduced in Singapore due to the mixed racial group nature. English is seen as a link between the different racial groups.
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, there are around 50 bilingual schools. In these schools, some subjects are taught in English, some in Dutch. Most schools are TVWO (Bilingual Preparatory Scientific Education), but there is THAVO (Bilingual Higher General Secondary Education), too. The following subjects are taught in English: Arts, Chemistry, Physics, Drama, English, Mathematics, History and Religious Studies.
United States
According to the U.S. Department of Education website a bilingual education program is “an educational program for limited English proficient students”. Furthermore, the term ‘limited English proficient’, when used with respect to an individual, means an individual whose primary language is other than English and whose difficulties in speaking, reading, writing, or understanding the English language may be sufficient to deny the individual the ability to successfully achieve in classrooms where the language of instruction is English or the opportunity to participate fully in society.
In the 50 states of the United States, proponents of the practice argue that it will help to keep non-English-speaking children from falling behind their peers in while they master English. Opponents of bilingual education argue that it delays students' mastery of English, thereby retarding the learning of other subjects as well. In California there has been considerable politicking for and against bilingual education. Much of the argument against hinges on the idea that California is in the United States and that everyone in the US should learn to speak English (although it is not the official language—there isn't one).
In 1968 U.S. Congress first mandated bilingual education in order to give immigrants access to education in their “first” language. There are two different approaches to this form of instruction. One is called ‘bilingual education’ and it involves teaching in the students’ first language and also English. The other is known as an ‘immersion program’ where the teachers instruct predominantly in English, and use the students’ native language only for explanations.
Controversy
There has been much debate over bilingual education in recent times.
Proponents of bilingual education say that it is easier for students to learn English if they are literate in their first language and that good bilingual programs strive to achieve proficiency in both the primary and secondary language for the student. Some claim that this type of learning works well in a classroom where half the students speak English and half are considered limited English proficient (LEP). The teacher instructs in English and in the LEP’s primary language. The dual purpose of this type of classroom is to teach the children a new language and to let them learn about another culture. It is alleged that if the program is well designed and the teachers are well equipped then kids have a better chance of success.
Opponents of bilingual education claim that many bilingual education programs are, in fact, native language programs with a minimal emphasis on teaching students proficiency in the primary language of the culture they are in (e.g., English). This charge has been particularly brought to bear against the bilingual technique known as transitional bilingual education which emphasizes the theory that students must first become fluent in their native language before learning a second language. Critics of bilingual education have claimed that studies supporting bilingual education tend to have poor methodologies and that there is little empirical support in favor of it. Supporters of bilingual education challenge these contentions.
The controversy over bilingual education is often enmeshed in a larger political and cultural context. Opponents of bilingual education are sometimes accused of racism and xenophobia. This is especially so in the case of such groups as English First which is a conservative organization that promotes the stance that English should be the official language of the United States.
Proponents of bilingual are frequently accused of practicing identity politics to the detriment of children and of immigrants, a position that may be bolstered by the fact that various polls have shown that immigrant communities often support the curtailing of bilingual language programs.
The controversies involved in this issues were highlighted by California's Proposition 227[http://primary98.ss.ca.gov/VoterGuide/Propositions/227text.htm] which sought to curtail bilingual education in favor of so-called "mainstreaming". In 1987, California voters passed the proposition over strenuous objections from bilingual advocates.
The ultimate effect of the passage of Proposition 227 is also controversial. Some have claimed that statistics have shown an improvement in student scores while others have disputed those same statistics with their own. At best, the results can be characterized as ambiguous.
California was followed by Arizona in the passage the similar Arizona Proposition 203 which limited the opportunities available to minority language students.
Further reading
- Baldauf, R.B. (2005). Coordinating government and community support for community language teaching in Australia: Overview with special attention to New South Wales. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,8 (2&3): 132–144
- Carter, Steven. (November 2004). “Oui! They’re only 3.” Oregon Live.com
- Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English Learners: Language Diversity in the Classroom (5th edition). Los Angeles: Bilingual Educational Services (BES).
- Dutcher, N., in collaboration with Tucker, G.R. (1994). The use of first and second languages in education: A review of educational experience. Washington, DC: World Bank, East Asia and the Pacific Region, Country Department III.
- Gao, Helen. (November 2004). “Fight over bilingual education continues.” The San Diego Union-Tribune.
- Gonzalez, A. (1998). Teaching in two or more languages in the Philippine context. In J. Cenoz & F. Genesee (Eds.),Beyond bilingualism: Multilingualism and multilingual education (pp. 192-205). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
- Grimes, B.F. (1992). Ethnologue: Languages of the world Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
- Hakuta, K. (1986).Mirror of language: The debate on bilingualism. New York: Basic Books.
- Harris, S.G. & Devlin, B.C. (1996). Bilingual programs involving Aboriginal languages in Australia". In Jim Cummins and David Corso (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education, vol 5, pp. 1–14. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
- Kloss, Heinz (1977, reprinted 1998). The American Bilingual Tradition. (Language in Education; 88) McHenry,IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems. ISBN 1-887744-02-9
- Summer Institute of Linguistics. (1995). A survey of vernacular education programming at the provincial level within Papua New Guinea. Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea: Author.
- Swain, M. (1996). Discovering successful second language teaching strategies and practices: From program evaluation to classroom experimentation." Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 17," 89-104.
External links
- [http://www.ed.gov/offices/OELA U.S. Department of Education Office of English Language Acquisition]
- [http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/ National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition]
- [http://www.nabe.org/ National Association for Bilingual Education]
- [http://www.gwu.edu/~ccps/pop_billing.html Twisted Tongues: The Failure of Bilingual Education]
- [http://www.tesol.org/ Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages]
- [http://www.usc.edu/dept/education/CMMR Center for Multilingual, Multicultural Research]
- [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/ Language Policy Website]
- [http://www.helpforschools.com/ELLKBase/ The English Language Learner KnowledgeBase]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/ten.htm Ten Common Fallacies about Bilingual Education]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/bilingual.html Why Bilingual Education?]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9211/brief.htm A Brief History of Bilingual Education in Spanish]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-1/two.htm Two-Way Bilingual Education Programs in Practice: A National and Local Perspective]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/education.htm Bilingual Special Education]
- [http://www.civilrightsproject.harvard.edu/resources/bilingual.php Bilingual Education Tools]
- [http://www.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/depts/edu/textbooks/bilingual.html Bilingual Education Resources]
Hispanic
Hispanic, as used in the United States, is one of several terms used to categorize persons whose ancestry hails either from Spain, the Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America, or the original settlers of the traditionally Spanish-held Southwestern United States. The term is used as a broad form of classification in the U.S. census, local and federal employment, and numerous business market researches.
In Spain and Spanish-speaking Latin America, Hispano ("Hispanic") is ascribed as indicating a derivation from Spain, her people and culture. It follows the same style of use as Anglo indicates a derivation of England and the English, Hellenic of Greece and the Greeks, or Sino of China and the Chinese. Thus, the Spanish-American War in Spanish is known as "Guerra Hispano-Estadounidense", the "Spanish-German Treaty" as "Tratado Hispano-Alemán", "Spanish America" as Hispanoamérica, etc.
The term is not commonly employed as a generalized indicator of ancestry and/or ethnicity in either Spain or Spanish-speaking Latin America, however, this can be implied depending on the context. When used in this manner, in Spanish-speaking Latin America an Hispano is commonly regarded to be any person whose ancestry and practiced culture both stem, whether in whole or in part, from the people and culture of Spain, to the contrast of the non-Hispanic (non-Spanish descended) populations. In Spanish America, when speaking of any given nation's Hispanic population, those who are implied include creoles, mestizos, and mulattos, but excludes indigenous Amerindians, the unmixed descendants of black African slaves, and other more recent non-Spanish immigrants which may now reside in Latin America. In this context, whether or not the excluded groups now use Spanish as their first and only language — as is the case with all blacks, most Amerindians and the great majority of immigrants — does not qualify for Hispanicity, since here the implication is based on more than just linguistic parameters. This use of the term is more so evident in addresses regarding affairs of indigenous and African-descended peoples made by government and minority agencies, where the creole, mestizo, and mulatto collective majority and their culture — which is accredited as the national identity — is distinguished as Hispanic for purposes of contrast to the plight of national minorities.
History of the term "Hispanic"
Etymologically, the term Hispanic (Hispano) is derived from Hispania, the name given by the Romans to the the entire Iberian Peninsula during the period of the Roman Republic.
Its usage as an ethnic indicator in the United States is believed to have come into mainstream prominence following its inclusion in a question in the 1980 U.S. Census, which asked people to voluntarily identify if they were of "Spanish/Hispanic origin or descent".
Criticisms on the U.S. application of "Hispanic"
Racial Diversity
Hispanic, as the term is often defined and used in the United States (of Spanish-speaking Latin American or Spanish descent) encompasses a very diverse population, which often makes efforts toward creating a Pan-Hispanic sense of identity difficult. While in the United States "Hispanics" are often treated as a group apart from whites, blacks and other racial groups, they actually include people who identify with any or all of the aforementioned racial groups, as well as identifying as various others.
In the mass media and in law enforcement, as well as popular culture, "Hispanic" is often used to physically describe a subject's race or appearance. In general, Hispanics are assumed to have traits such as dark hair and eyes, and olive or brown skin, and are viewed as physically intermediate between whites and Amerindians or blacks. Hispanics with mostly Caucasoid or Negroid features may not be recognized as such by many people, despite the ethnic and racial diversity of most Latin American populations. People of Spanish or Latin American ancestry who do not "look Hispanic" may have their ethnic status questioned or even challenged by others.
In the United States, a great proportion of "Hispanics" identify as mestizo (mixed European and Amerindian), regardless of national origin. This is partly because much of Latin America is of that mixed ancestry, and mestizos constitute majority populations in most Latin American countries. Many other Hispanics may be of unmixed Spanish ancestry, primarily those from Uruguay, Argentina and Chile, or mestizos of predominantly Spanish ancestry, not uncommon amongst Costa Ricans. Some may also be of unmixed Native American ancestry, many of those from Bolivia, Guatemala, Peru — where they constitute majorities — and a considerable proportion of those from Mexico, while many Hispanics of Dominican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, and Colombian backgrounds may be mulatto (mixed European and black African) or of unmixed black African ancestry. The presence of these mentioned races and race-mixes are not country-specific, since they can be found in every Latin American country, whether as larger of smaller proportions of their respective populations.
On occasion the demographics of certain nations may not mirror the demographics of their nationals in the United States. This is the case with Cuban Americans. Most Cuban Americans are of unmixed, or relatively unmixed, Spanish ancestry, despite Cuba being a mulatto/black majority country. The racial disparity between Cubans on the U.S. mainland and those on the island is caused largely by the fact that most emigrants with the means to flee communist Cuba belong to the upper and upper-middle classes; classes which have traditionally been predominantly white.
Additionally, a percentage of U.S. "Hispanics" may have no Spanish ancestry at all, and instead trace their ancestries from other European countries, the Middle East, or even East Asia. Examples of these would include Argentinian and Uruguayan-born Italians (around one third of their countries' populations); Colombian, Ecuadorian, and Mexican-born Lebanese; Cuban, Puerto Rican and Panamanian-born Chinese; Chilean and Paraguayan-born Germans; or Peruvian-born Japanese. However, when they migrate to the United States, the definition as most frequently advocated would consider them Hispanic.
See also: Asian Latino.
As an ethnic identifier
In the U.S. some people consider "Hispanic" to be too general as a label, while others consider it offensive, often preferring to use the term "Latino", which is viewed as a self-chosen label. The preference of "Latino" over "Hispanic" is partly because it more clearly indicates that those it is referring to are the people from Latin America, and not Spain. Different labels prevail in different regions, as well. In places like Arizona and California, the Chicanos are proud of their personal association and their participation in the agricultural movement of the 1960s with César Chávez, that brought attention to the needs of the farm workers.
Previously Hispanics were commonly referred to as "Spanish-Americans", "Spanish-speaking Americans", and "Spanish-surnamed Americans". These terms, however, proved even more misleading or inaccurate since:
- most U.S. Hispanics were not born in Spain, nor were most born to recent Spanish nationals;
- although most U.S. Hispanics speak Spanish, not all do, and though most Spanish-speaking people are Hispanic, not all are (e.g., many U.S. Hispanics by the fourth generation no longer speak Spanish, while there are some non-Hispanics of the Southwestern United States that may be fluent in the language), and;
- although most Hispanics have a Spanish surname, not all do, and while most Spanish-surnamed people are Hispanic, not all are (e.g., there are many Spanish-surnamed Filipinos, however, not all Filipinos are Hispanic).
Synonyms and antonyms
Often the term "Hispanic" is used synonymously with the word "Latino", and frequently with "Latin" as well. Even though the terms may sometimes overlap in meaning, they are not completely synonymous.
"Latin", when not refering directly and exclusively to the inhabitants of Ancient Rome, refers to any of the people related to, or descended from, the original Latin-speaking Romans, and includes all the Romance language-speaking European nationalities, or European Latin peoples (Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium Wallonia, Italy, Italian and French Switzerland, Romania, and Moldova), including their cultures, and their descendants worldwide. As it is patent, the main criterion here is a linguistic one, since all the nationalities and cultures do not constitute an homogenous entity.
"Hispanic", on the other hand, specifically refers to Spain, and to the Spanish-speaking nations of the Americas as cultural and demographic extensions of Spain.
Meanwhile, Latinos are only those from the countries of Latin America, whether Spanish or Portuguese-speaking, though in the latter case, not so frequently and with some ambiguities. Conflict arises with this definition however, since in Spanish "Latino | | |
