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International Opium Convention

International Opium Convention

The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912, was the first international drug control treaty. The United States convened a 13-nation conference of the International Opium Commission in 1909 in Shanghai, China in response to increasing criticism of the opium trade. The treaty was signed by Germany, the United States, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, Persia, Portugal, Russia, and Siam. The Convention provided that "The contracting Powers shall use their best endeavours to control, or to cause to be controlled, all persons manufacturing, importing, selling, distributing, and exporting morphine, cocaine, and their respective salts, as well as the buildings in which these persons carry an such industry or trade." The Convention was implemented in 1915 by the United States, Netherlands, China, Honduras, and Norway. It went into force globally in 1919 when it was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles. A revised International Opium Convention was signed on February 19, 1925, which went into effect on September 25, 1928[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1309/is_2_35/ai_54157834]. It introduced a statistical control system to be supervised by a Permanent Central Opium Board, a body of the League of Nations. Egypt recommended that a prohibition on hashish be added to the Convention, and a sub-committee proposed the following text: :The use of Indian hemp and the preparations derived therefrom may only be authorized for medical and scientific purposes. The raw resin (charas), however, which is extracted from the female tops of the cannabis sativa L, together with the various preparations (hashish, chira, esrar, diamba, etc.) of which it forms the basis, not being at present utilized for medical purposes and only being susceptible of utilisation for harmful purposes, in the same manner as other narcotics, may not be produced, sold, traded in, etc., under any circumstances whatsoever. India and other countries objected to this language, citing social and religious customs and the prevalance of wild-growing cannabis plants that would make it difficult to enforce. Accordingly, this provision never made it into the final treaty. A compromise was made that banned exportation of cannabis to countries that have prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes." It also required Parties to "exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin." These restrictions still left considerable leeway for countries to allow production, internal trade, and use of cannabis for recreational purposes[http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1962-01-01_4_page005.html]. The Convention was superseded by the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.

See also


- Legal issues of cannabis

Reference


- [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1962-01-01_4_page005.html The cannabis problem: A note on the problem and the history of international action], Bulletin on Narcotics, 1962.
- [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1309/is_2_35/ai_54157834 The beginnings of international drug control], UN Chronicle, Summer, 1998.
- [http://www.tc.edu/centers/cifas/drugsandsociety/background/OpiumConvention.html International Opium Convention Signed at The Hague January 23, 1912]. Category:Drug control treaties

The Hague

:This article is about the city in the Netherlands; there is also a region known as (the) Hague in France. France France The Hague (with capital T; Dutch: Image:Ltspkr.pngDen Haag, or officially Image:Ltspkr.png's-Gravenhage) is the administrative capital of the Netherlands, located in the west of the country, in the province South Holland of which it is also the capital. With a population of 469,568 (2004-01-01) (700,000 in the metropolitan area) and an area of approximately 100 km², it is the third-largest city in the Netherlands after Amsterdam and Rotterdam. The Hague hosts the Eerste Kamer (Senaat) and the Tweede Kamer, respectively the upper and lower houses, forming the Dutch parliament. Also the Dutch Queen Beatrix lives and works in The Hague. All foreign embassies and government ministries are located in the city, as well as the Supreme Court and many lobby organisations. Nevertheless, Amsterdam is the official capital of the Netherlands, as is stated in the Dutch constitution. The Hague is host to several institutions of the United Nations:
- The International Court of Justice, located in the Peace Palace (Vredespaleis, its construction was financed by Andrew Carnegie).
- The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.
- The International Criminal Court.
- The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Other major international organisations in The Hague are Europol and the Hague Academy of International Law.

History

Hague Academy of International LawThe Hague was founded in 1248 by William II, Count of Holland and King of Germany, who was supposed to become Holy Roman Emperor. He started the construction of a castle in a forest near the sea in Holland, where he intended to live after his coronation. He died in battle before he could be crowned. His castle was not finished, but parts of it remain and are now called the Ridderzaal (Knights' Hall). It is still in use for political events, such as the state opening of Parliament. Later, the counts of Holland used The Hague as their administrative center. 'Des Graven Hage' literally means "The counts' hedge" or "The count's private enclosure". The powerful cities of Holland, like Leiden, Delft and Dordrecht compromised to choose the then small and unimportant The Hague as their administrative center. This policy was never changed and therefore The Hague is to this day the center of government but not the official capital. To keep The Hague small it was not allowed city rights or allowed to build city walls. When city walls were finally allowed in the 1500s, the population decided to use the money to build a city hall instead of city walls. This proved disastrous during the Eighty Years War, as it allowed the Spanish troops to easily occupy the town. The Hague was finally named a city by the French occupation force in 1806, centuries after other Dutch cities had received similar rights. All this has led to the urban legend that The Hague is not a city but a village. Because of its history it lacks a large historical inner city like the nearby cities of Leiden and Delft. But when the government started playing a more prominent role in Dutch society after 1850, The Hague quickly expanded. The older parts of the city are therefore mostly from the 19th century and the early 20th century. 20th century The city sustained heavy damage during World War II. The Atlantic Wall was built right through the city, causing whole neighbourhoods to be torn down by the german occupiers. On March 3, 1945, the Royal Air Force bombed the Bezuidenhout. The target was an installation of V-2 rockets in a nearby park. Due to navigation errors, the bombs fell on a heavily populated part of the city. Over 500 people died and the scars in the city can still be seen today. After the war The Hague was at some point the largest building site in Europe. The city expanded massively in the southwest. The destroyed areas were also quickly rebuilt. The population peaked at 550.000 inhabitants around 1970. In the 1970s and 1980s the mostly white middle classes moved to the neighbouring boroughs like Voorburg, Leidschendam, Rijswijk and most of all Zoetermeer. This led to the traditional pattern of an impoverished inner city and more prosperous suburbs. Attempts to include parts of the suburbs in The Hague were highly controversial. In the 1990s, after consent of Dutch Parliament, The Hague did succeed in annexing fairly large areas from its neighboring towns on which complete new residential areas were built and are still being built. The stork is the symbol of Den Haag.

The City

storkstorkstorkstorkCity life concentrates around the Hofvijver and the Binnenhof, which is where the Parliament is located. Its location makes it the largest Dutch city by the North Sea. The Hague comprises two distinct beach towns. The main beach resort Scheveningen, in the northwestern part of the city, is a popular destination for tourists and young people to go out. With 10 million visitors a year it is the most popular beach town in the Benelux. It's perhaps for this reason that many people, even Dutch, mistakenly believe Scheveningen is a city in its own right. That is not the case: Scheveningen is one of The Hague's eight districts ("stadsdelen"). Kijkduin is the other beach resort of The Hague, in the southwest, a lot smaller and attracting mainly local people. The former Dutch colony of Netherlands East Indies ("Nederlands-Indië", current-day Indonesia) has left its mark on The Hague. Many streets are named after places in Netherlands East Indies and there is a sizable "Indisch(e)" or "Indo" (i.e. mixed Dutch-Indonesian) community. After the loss of these Dutch possessions in December 1949, "Indisch(e)" or "Indo" people often refer to The Hague as 'the Widow of "Indië"'. The older parts of the town usually have characteristically wide and long streets. Houses are generally low-rise (not more than 3 floors), and quite elegant. The layout of the city is more spacious than other Dutch cities. There are almost no canals in The Hague, as most of them were drained in the late 1800s. You can find some of the most prosperous and some of the poorest neighbourhoods of the Netherlands in The Hague. The wealthier areas are generally located west of the Laan van Meerdervoort. The poorer areas can be found in the southern and eastern parts of the city. This division is reflected in the local accent. The more affluent citizens are usually called "Hagenaars" and speak so-called "bekakt" (Dutch for 'that which has been shit upon') This is contrasted with the "Hagenezen", who speak "plat Haags". There is relatively little social interaction between these groups.

Business

Professional life in the city is dominated by the large number of civil servants working. Government ministries and public organisations are almost all located in The Hague. Added to that several large businesses have their headquarters in The Hague.
- Royal Dutch Shell, one of the largest companies in the world
- KPN, the Dutch national phone company (fixed and mobile divisions)
- AEGON and Nationale Nederlanden (shared HQ with Rotterdam), two of the largest Dutch insurance companies
- Royal TPG Post, the national provider of postal and logistics services. Part of TNT N.V. There has never been a large industrial base in The Hague, with perhaps the exception of the fishing harbour of Scheveningen.

Culture

The Hague does not have a reputation for a bustling night life. What night life there is centres around the three main squares in the city centre: the Plein (lit. "(the) Square"), the Grote Markt (lit. "Large Market") and the Buitenhof (lit. "Outer Court", which lies just outside the Binnenhof, or "Inner Court"). The Buitenhof contains the luxurious Pathé Buitenhof cinema and a handful of bars and restaurants in its immediate vicinity. A similar pattern of night life centering around a cinema is present in Scheveningen, although, especially in the summer, the sea-side boulevard with its bars, restaurants and entertainment attracts the most people. The Hague does have its share of good museums and cultural institutions, such as:
- Madurodam is a miniature city in The Hague, which reflects what the Netherlands look like (focusing on architecture, infrastructure and history).
- The Mauritshuis exhibits many paintings by Johannes Vermeer, Rembrandt van Rijn and Paulus Potter.
- The Royal Theatre and the Nationaal Toneel-group are located at the Korte Voorhout.
- The Gemeentemuseum hosts a large collection of images from the Dutch painter Piet Mondriaan as well as other modern art.
- The Escher Museum is located in the former Royal Palace at the Lange Voorhout.
- Panorama Mesdag houses a cylindrical 'panoramic' painting of 14 meter high x 120 meter long, depicting The Hague and Scheveningen in the 19th century, made by Hendrik Willem Mesdag. It is presented in such a way that it is almost as if one is looking at a real scene instead of a painting.
- The Louis Couperus Museum is devoted to the life and works of the great author (1863-1923. See: famous people, arts, Louis Couperus)
- The museum Beelden aan Zee has a large collection of sculptures, mainly from 20th century artists.
- The Museon is a science museum.
- The Congresgebouw hosts the annual North Sea Jazz Festival. However, the festival organisation intends to move to Rotterdam in the near future.
- Lucent Theatre hosts celebrated Nederlands Dans Theatre, or the NDT, a modern dance company. The building of NDT was designed by the Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas in 1988.

Sport

The local football (i.e. Soccer) club is called ADO Den Haag.

Annual Events


- August: HaSchiBa - multicultural festival
- Summer: series of weekly fireworks, and in one week a fireworks festival
- Koninginnedag (Queen's Day) April 30, is the birthday of the former queen of the Netherlands, Queen Juliana. As she considered her own birthday in January too cold for celebrations, upon her succession Queen Beatrix kept Queen's Day on April 30.
- Koninginnenach (Queen's Night, spoken in a 'plat Haags' accent) is the night before Queen's Day and is a night with a lot of open air concerts and in fact, the entire inner city of The Hague is filled with visitors. There's also a lot of beer served and the event is mainly popular among the youth
- Prinsjesdag (Princes' Day), the State opening of Parliament, is also held in The Hague, on the third Tuesday in September. It's mainly popular among monarchists and tourists who are out to see Queen Beatrix' Golden State Coach.
- 'Parkpop' is the largest free Open Air Concert in Europe and is held on the last Sunday in June.

Transportation

Public transportation in The Hague consists of a sizeable number of tram- and buslines, operated by the Haagsche Tramwegmaatschappij, or HTM. Plans for a subway were shelved in the early 1970s. However, since 2004 there is a tunnel with two underground tram stations (Spui and Grote Markt) in the city centre; it is shared by tram lines 2, 3 and 6. A light rail system called Randstadrail [http://www.randstadrail.nl] is under construction, connecting The Hague, Rotterdam, Zoetermeer and suburbs. There are two main train stations: Den Haag Hollands Spoor (gv) and Den Haag Centraal (gvc). It is somewhat confusing that many trains bypass the central station; this is because it is a terminus. The Thalys Paris - Amsterdam stops at Den Haag Hollands Spoor. Central Station connects The Hague to every major city in the Netherlands, often with direct train connections. The nearest airport is Rotterdam Airport, but it is not easy to reach by public transport. With four trains per hour going directly from Hollands Spoor or Centraal to Amsterdam Schiphol Airport, most travellers for The Hague fly to Schiphol. Major highways near The Hague are the A12 (which also was the first highway in the Netherlands), running to Utrecht and further to the border with Germany and the A4, connecting Amsterdam, The Hague and Rotterdam with the Belgian cities of Antwerp and Brussels.

Famous People from The Hague

Politicians


- Willem Drees - former prime minister
- Jaap de Hoop Scheffer - Secretary-General of NATO
- Wim Deetman - former Speaker of the Dutch parliament. Currently Mayor of The Hague
- Jozias van Aartsen - former foreign minister See also: List of mayors of The Hague

Royalty (Actual Heads of State Only)


- William V (stadtholder)
- King William I
- King William II
- Queen Wilhelmina
- Queen Juliana

Arts


- Anouk Teeuwe - singer
- Sjaak Bral - writer and comedian
- Ferdinand Bordewijk - writer
- Louis Couperus - writer
- Wieteke van Dort - actrice, singer
- Golden Earring - music group
- Gruppo Sportivo - music group
- Kane - music group
- Di-rect - music group
- Constantijn Huygens - Poet
- Paul Verhoeven - movie director
- Harrie Jekkers - singer
- Van Kooten en De Bie - humorists
- Shocking Blue - music group, famous for the song "Venus".
- Remco Campert - writer
- Simon Carmiggelt - writer
- Bart Chabot - poet
- Hendrik Berlage - architect

Sports


- The twice former coach of the Dutch national football (soccer) team, Dick Advocaat
- Four times Embassy / Lakeside Darts champion Raymond van Barneveld
- 1992 Olympic Champion (10 km speed skating) Bart Veldkamp
- 1964 Olympic Champion (swimming) and current President of the Netherlands Olympic Committee Erica Terpstra
- Peter Blangé. One of the leading players of the Dutch volleyball team that won the gold medal at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta.
- Michael Boogerd - cyclist
- Aad Mansveld - football player
- Ties Kruize - hockeyinternational

Miscellaneous


- Erwin Krol - weatherman
- Christian Huygens - 17th century astronomer, physicist, mathematician. Member of the Royal Society, inventor of the pendulum clock and the pocket watch.
- Jan Tinbergen - economist, won the Nobel Prize for economy in 1969
- Peter Timofeeff - weatherman

Population

1796: 41,300 inhabitants
1830: 56,100
1849: 63,600
1879: 113,500
1899: 206,000
1925: 394,500
1970: 550,000
1990: 441,327
2000: 441,097
2004: 469,568

Subdivisions

The Hague has eight official parts (stadsdelen)[http://www.denhaag.nl/smartsite.html?id=22281]:
- Center
- Escamp
  - Rustenburg-Oostbroek
- Haagse Hout
  - Benoordenhout
  - Bezuidenhout (see also V-2 rocket)
  - Haagse Bos
  - Marlot
  - Mariahoeve
- Laak
  - Laakkwartier
- Leidschenveen-Ypenburg
- Loosduinen
  - Waldeck
  - Kraayenstein
  - Loosduinen
- Scheveningen
  - Scheveningen
  - Duinoord
  - Statenkwartier
  - Belgisch Park
- Segbroek
  - Bomen- en Bloemenbuurt
  - Regentessekwartier
  - Valkenboskwartier
  - Vogelwijk
  - Vruchtenbuurt

Nearby Towns


- Delft
- Leiden
- Rijswijk
- Voorschoten
- Wassenaar
- Wateringen
- Zoetermeer
- Leidschendam
- Voorburg
- Rotterdam

External Links


- [http://www.denhaag.nl/ City of Den Haag (Dutch)]
- [http://www.denhaag.com/ City of Den Haag (English)]
- [http://wikitravel.org/en/The_Hague Guide to The Hague] (from Wikitravel)
- [http://home-2.worldonline.nl/~aarde01/ "About The Hague"]
- [http://www.panorama-mesdag.nl/index.php?page=/home_nl.php# Panorama Mesdag]
- [http://www.gemeentemuseum.nl/ Gemeentemuseum]
- [http://www.haagschecourant.nl/ Haagsche Courant] - local newspaper.
- [http://www.denhaag.org/ De Digitale Hofstad - off-beat news about The Hague].
- [http://www.htm.net/smartsite.dws?goto=1694 Public transport map] (from HTM)
- [http://www.the-hague.info/ The Hague Hotel Guide]
- [http://foto.denhaag.org/denhaag.htm Very large number of photographs of The Hague]
- For some edges of The Hague see the detailed maps of Rijswijk [http://www.plattegronden.nl/rijswijk/], Leidschendam-Voorburg [http://www.plattegronden.nl/gemeentevoorburg-leidschendam/index.html] and Wassenaar [http://www.plattegronden.nl/wassenaar/]. Hague Hague Hague Hague ko:헤이그 ja:ハーグ

International Opium Commission

The International Opium Commission was a meeting convened in 1909 in Shanghai that represented one of the first steps toward international drug prohibition. Dr. Hamilton Wright and Episcopal Bishop Henry Brent headed the U.S. delegation. According to Release, "The formal designation of the meeting as 'commission' reflects the fact that the United States had been unsuccessful in its attempts to convene a 'conference': this latter status would have conferred upon the meeting the power to draft regulations to which signatory states would be bound by international law"[http://www.release.org.uk/html/~The_Law/~Legal_History/1900_to_1939.php]. The Commission was only authorized to make recommendations. The meeting united the attending nations behind the cause of opium prohibition, leading to the 1912 International Opium Convention.

Reference

[http://www.release.org.uk/html/~The_Law/~Legal_History/1900_to_1939.php UK Drugs and UK Drug Laws: 1900-1939].

Shanghai, China

: Alternate meanings: See Shanghai (disambiguation) Shanghai (; Shanghainese IPA: ; Lumazi: Zanhe) , situated on the banks of the Yangtze River Delta, is China's largest city. The city's development in the past few decades has made it one of the most important economic, commercial, financial and communications centers of China. Administratively, Shanghai is one of four municipalities of the People's Republic of China that have provincial-level status. Shanghai is also home to the world's busiest port, followed by Singapore and Rotterdam. The two characters in the name "Shanghai" literally mean "up/above" and "sea". The earliest occurrence of this name dates from the Song Dynasty, at which time there was already a river confluence and a town called "Shanghai" in the area. It is unclear how the name originated or how its meaning should be interpreted, though a literal reading suggests the sense "onto the sea". In Chinese, Shanghai's abbreviations are Hù (滬 or 沪) and Shēn (申). The city has had various nicknames in English, including "Paris of the East", "Queen of the Orient" (or "Pearl of the Orient"), and even "The Whore of Asia" (a reference to corruption in the 1920s and 1930s, including vice, drugs and prostitution.)

History

Before the forming of Shanghai city, Shanghai was part of Songjiang county, governed by Suzhou prefecture. The county was formed around 1000 years ago. From the time of the Song Dynasty (960-1279), Shanghai gradually became a busy seaport. A city wall was built in AD 1553, which is generally regarded as the beginning of Shanghai City. However, before the 19th century, Shanghai was not a major city, and in contrast to other major Chinese cities, there are few ancient Chinese landmarks there. Before 1927 Shanghai belonged to Jiangsu province with the capital of Nanjing. Since Shanghai became a Special Administration City in 1927, its official position has been equal to a Chinese province. The role of Shanghai changed radically in the 19th century, as the city's strategic position at the mouth of the Yangtze River made it an ideal location for trade with the West. During the First Opium War in the early-19th century, British forces temporarily held Shanghai. The war ended with the 1842 Treaty of Nanjing, which saw the treaty ports, Shanghai included, opened for international trade. The Treaty of the Bogue signed in 1843, and the Sino-American Treaty of Wangsia signed in 1844 together saw foreign nations achieve extraterritoriality on Chinese soil. 1844 The Taiping Rebellion broke out in 1850, and in 1853 Shanghai was occupied by a triad offshoot of the rebels, called the Small Swords Society. The fighting destroyed the countryside but left the foreigners' settlements untouched, and Chinese arrived seeking refuge. Although previously Chinese were forbidden to live in foreign settlements, 1854 saw new regulations drawn up making land available to Chinese. Land prices rose substantially. The year also saw the first annual meeting of the Shanghai Municipal Council, substantiated in order to manage the foreign settlements. In 1863, the British and American settlements joined in order to form the [http://www.geocities.com/Vienna/5047/SHANGFLG.html International Settlement]. The Sino-Japanese War fought 1894-95 over control of Korea concluded with the Treaty of Shimonoseki, which saw Japan emerge as an additional foreign power in Shanghai. Japan built the first factories in Shanghai, which were soon copied by other foreign powers to effect the emergence of Shanghai industry. Japan Shanghai was then the biggest financial city in the Far East. Under the Republic of China, Shanghai was made a special city in 1927, and a municipality in May 1930. The Japanese Navy bombed Shanghai on January 28, 1932, in an effort to crush down Chinese student protests of the Manchurian Incident and the subsequent Japanese occupation. Shanghai was lost to Japan in the Battle of Shanghai in 1937 until its surrender in 1945. During World War II, Shanghai was a centre for refugees from Europe. It was the only city in the world that was open unconditionally to the Jews at the time. However, under pressure from their allies, the Nazis, the Japanese ghettoised the Jewish immigrants in late 1941, and diseases such as amoebic dysentery became rife. On May 27, 1949, Shanghai came under communist control and was one of the only two former ROC municipalities not immediately merged into neighbouring provinces (the other being Beijing). It then underwent a series of changes in the boundaries of its subdivisions, especially in the next decade. After 1949, however, most foreign firms moved their offices from Shanghai to Hong Kong. During the 1950s and 1960s, Shanghai became an industrial center and center for revolutionary leftism. Yet, even during the most tumultuous times of the Cultural Revolution, Shanghai was able to maintain high economic productivity and relative social stability. In most of the history of the PRC, Shanghai has been the largest contributor of tax revenue to the central government compared with other Chinese provinces and municipalities. This came at the cost of severely crippling Shanghai's infrastructure and capital development. Its importance to China's fiscal well-being also denied it economic liberalizations that were started in the far southern provinces such as Guangdong during the mid-1980s. At that time Guangdong province paid nearly no taxes to the central government, and thus was perceived as fiscally expendable for experimental economic reforms. Shanghai was not permitted to initiate economic reforms until 1991. 1991 Political power in Shanghai has traditionally been seen as a stepping stone to higher positions within the PRC central government. In the 1990s, there was what was often described as the "Shanghai clique," which included the president of the PRC Jiang Zemin and the premier of the PRC Zhu Rongji. Starting in 1992, the central government under Jiang Zemin, a former Mayor of Shanghai, began reducing the tax burden on Shanghai and encouraging both foreign and domestic investment in order to promote it as the economic hub of east Asia and to encourage its role as gateway of investment to the Chinese interior. Since then it has experienced continuous economic growth of between 9-15% annually, arguably at the expense of growth in Hong Kong, leading China's overall development.

Administrative divisions

Shanghai is divided into 19 county-level divisions: 18 districts and 1 county. county.]] Nine of the districts govern "Puxi", or the older part of urban and suburban Shanghai on the west bank of the Huangpu River:
- Huangpu District (Simplified Chinese: 黄浦区; Hanyu Pinyin: Huángpǔ Qū)
- Luwan District (卢湾区 Lúwān Qū)
- Xuhui District (徐汇区 Xúhuì Qū)
- Changning District (长宁区 Chángníng Qū)
- Jing'an District (静安区 Jìng'ān Qū)
- Putuo District (普陀区 Pǔtuó Qū)
- Zhabei District (闸北区 Zháběi Qū)
- Hongkou District (虹口区 Hóngkǒu Qū)
- Yangpu District (杨浦区 Yángpǔ Qū) "Pudong", or the newer part of urban and suburban Shanghai on the east bank of the Huangpu River, is governed by:
- Pudong New District (浦东新区 Pǔdōng Xīn Qū) — Chuansha County until 1992 1992 Eight of the districts govern suburbs, satellite towns, and rural areas further away from the urban core:
- Baoshan District (宝山区 Bǎoshān Qū) — Baoshan County until 1988
- Minhang District (闵行区 Mǐnháng Qū) — Shanghai County until 1992
- Jiading District (嘉定区 Jiādìng Qū) — Jiading County until 1992
- Jinshan District (金山区 Jīnshān Qū) — Jinshan County until 1997
- Songjiang District (松江区 Sōngjiāng Qū) — Songjiang County until 1998
- Qingpu District (青浦区 Qīngpǔ Qū) — Qingpu County until 1999
- Nanhui District (南汇区 Nánhuì Qū) — Nanhui County until 2001
- Fengxian District (奉贤区 Fèngxián Qū) — Fengxian County until 2001 Chongming Island, an island at the mouth of the Yangtze, is governed by:
- Chongming County (崇明县 Chóngmíng Xiàn) As of 2003, these county-level divisions are further divided into the following 220 township-level divisions: 114 towns, 3 townships, 103 subdistricts. Those are in turn divided into the following village-level divisions: 3,393 neighborhood committees and 2,037 village committees. List of towns:
- Anting, Jiading District
- Huamu, Pudong New District
- Pengpu, Zhabei District
- Beicai, Pudong New District
- Qibao, Minhang District

Economy and demographics

Qibao Shanghai is the financial and trade center of China. It began economic reforms in 1992, a decade later than many of the Southern Chinese provinces. Prior to then, much of the city revenue went directly to the capital, Beijing, with little return. Even with a decreased tax burden after 1992, Shanghai's tax contribution to the central government is around 20-25% of the national total (Shanghai's annual tax burden pre-1990s was on average 70% of the national). Shanghai today is the biggest and most developed city in mainland China. The 2000 census put the population of Shanghai Municipality to 16.738 million, including the floating population, which made up 3.871 million. Since the 1990 census the total population has increased by 3.396 million, or 25.5%. Males accounted for 51.4%, females for 48.6% of the population. 12.2% were in the age group of 0-14, 76.3% between 15 and 64 and 11.5% were older than 65. 5.4% of the inhabitants were illiterate. As of 2003, the official registered population is 13.42 million; however, more than 5 million more people work and live in Shanghai undocumented, and of the 5 million, some 4 million belong to the floating population of temporary migrant workers. The average life expectancy in 2003 was 79.80 years, 77.78 for men and 81.81 for women. 2000] 2000] Shanghai and Hong Kong have had a recent rivalry over which city is to be the economic center of China. The city had a GDP of ¥46,586 (ca. US$ 5,620) per capita in 2003, ranked no. 13 among all 659 Chinese cities. Hong Kong has the advantage of a stronger legal system and greater banking and service expertise. Shanghai has stronger links to both the Chinese interior and the central government, in addition to a stronger base in manufacturing and technology. Since the handover of Hong Kong to the PRC in 1997, Shanghai has increased its role in finance, banking, and as a major destination for corporate headquarters, fueling demand for a highly educated and modernized workforce. Shanghai's economy is steadily growing at 11% and for 2004 the forecast is 14%. Shanghai is increasingly a critical center of communication with the western world, examples include the opening of the Pac-Med Medical Exchange in June of 2004. Pac-Med is a clearinghouse of medical data and a link between the Chinese and westernized medical infrastructures. In medicine and other humanitarian fields, China is actively seeking input of first world nations to improve statistical living conditions and trade status. Arguments for and against modern Chinese leadership question the genuine influence the influx of western culture and medicine will have on the internal Chinese populus outside the densely populated, oft visited financial and cultural urban centers. The Pudong district of Shanghai contains purposefully westernized streets (European/American 'feeling' districts) in close proximity to major international trade and hospitality zones. Western visitors to Shanghai are greeted with free public parks, manicured to startling perfection in distinct contrast to the massive industrial installations which reveal China's emerging environmental concerns. For a densely populated urban center and international point of trade, Shanghai is generally noticeably free of crime against its visitors; Shanghai's international diversity is perhaps the world's foremost window into the rich, historic and complex society of today's China.

Architecture

As in many other areas in China, Shanghai is undergoing a building boom. In Shanghai the modern architecture is notable for its unique style, especially in the highest floors, with several top floor restaurants which resemble flying saucers. For a larger view of this gallery see Shanghai (architecture images). Image:ShanghaiWrappedBldg.jpg|A skyscraper being renovated Image:ShanghaiBldgs.jpg|An example of novel architecture Image:ShanghaiBldg3.jpg|A much more formal approach: Tomorrow Square Image:ShanghaiCrownTop.jpg|Bund Center with a unique lotus-shaped roof Image:ShanghaiPlanNine.jpg|An example of retro-futuristic designs: Shanghai Radisson New World Hotel Image:ShanghaiMixedClassic.jpg|A dissonant stack of different styles Image:Shanghaimuseumexterior.jpg|The Shanghai Museum

Geography and climate

retro-futuristic Shanghai faces the East China Sea (part of the Pacific Ocean), and is bisected by the Huangpu River. Puxi contains the city proper on the western side of Huangpu River, while an entirely new financial district has been erected on the eastern bank of the Huangpu in Pudong. :Geographical coordinates: Shanghai experiences all four seasons, with freezing temperatures during the winter season and a 32 degrees Celsius (90 degrees Fahrenheit) average high during the hottest months of July and August. Temperatures extremes of -10C (14F) and +41C (105F) have been recorded. Heavy rain is frequent in early summer. Spring starts in March, summer in June, autumn in September and winter in December. The weather in spring, although considered the most beautiful season, is highly variable, with frequent rain and alternating spells of warmth and cold. Summer is the peak tourist season, but is hot and oppressive. Autumn is generally sunny and dry, and the foliage season is in November. Winters are typically grey and dreary, with a couple of snowfalls a year.

Astronomical phenomena

The previous total solar eclipse to be seen from the center of Shanghai () occurred on May 10, 1575. The next total solar eclipse that will be seen from Shanghai will be solar eclipse of 2009-Jul-22. Wikisource has an article about solar eclipses as seen from Shanghai from 2001 to 3000. [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Solar_eclipses_as_seen_from_Shanghai]

Transportation

Shanghai has an excellent public transportation system and in contrast to other major Chinese cities has clean streets and surprisingly little air pollution (ranked 22nd best in the [http://www.zhb.gov.cn/eic/649370467852877824/20040329/1047828.shtml 2003 official report on air quality] among 42 major cities in China, compared to 36th, 35th and 41th for Beijing, Tianjin and Chongqing respectively). The public transportation system in Shanghai is flourishing: Shanghai has more than one thousand bus lines and the Shanghai Metro (subway) has four lines (numbers 1, 2, 3, 5) at present. According to the development schedule of the Government, by the year 2010, another 8 lines will be built in Shanghai. Shanghai has two airports: Hongqiao and Pudong International. Transrapid (a German maglev company, which has a test track in Emsland, Germany), constructed the first operational maglev railway in the world, from Shanghai's Long Yang Road subway station to Pudong International Airport. It was inaugurated in 2002. Commercial exploitation has started in 2003. It takes 7 mins to travel 30km and it reaches a maximum speed of 431 km/h. As of December 2004, Shanghai's port is the largest in the world. Three railways intersect in Shanghai: Jinghu Railway (Beijing-Shanghai) Railway passing through Nanjing (京沪线), Shanghai-Hangzhou Railway (沪杭线 Hu Hang Line), and Xiaoshan-Ningbo (萧甬线 Xiao Yong Line). Shanghai has three passenger railway stations, Shanghai Railway Station, Shanghai West Railway Station and Shanghai South Railway Station. Expressways from Beijing (Jinghu Expressway) and from the region around Shanghai liaise with the city. There are ambitious plans to build expressways to connect Chongming Island. Shanghai's first ring road expressway is now complete. Within Shanghai itself, there are elevated roads, which appear expressway-like in road conditions (direction-separated lanes). Tunnels and bridges are used to link Puxi to Pudong. Jinghu Expressway Jinghu Expressway

People and culture

The vernacular language is Shanghainese, a dialect of Wu Chinese; while the official language is Standard Mandarin. The local dialect is mutually unintelligible with Mandarin, but is an inseparable part of the Shanghainese identity. Nearly all Shanghainese under the age of 50 can speak Mandarin fluently; and those under age of 25, have had contact with English since primary school. Shanghai is seen as the birthplace of everything considered modern in China; and was the cultural and economic center of East Asia for the first half of the twentieth century. It was the intellectual battleground between socialist writers who concentrated on critical realism (pioneered by Lu Xun and Mao Dun) and the more bourgeois, more romantically and aesthetically inclined writers (such as Shi Zhecun, Shao Xunmei, Ye Lingfeng, Eileen Chang). Besides literature, Shanghai was also the birthplace of Chinese cinema. China’s first short film, The Difficult Couple (Nanfu Nanqi, 1913), and the country’s first fictional feature film, Orphan Rescues Grandfather (Gu’er Jiuzu Ji, 1923) were both produced in Shanghai. These two films were very influential, and established Shanghai as the center of Chinese film-making. Shanghai’s film industry went on to blossom during the early Thirties, generating Marilyn Monroe like stars such as Zhou Xuan, who committed suicide in 1957. The talent and passion of Shanghainese filmmakers following World War II and the Communist Revolution contributed enormously to the development of the Hong Kong film industry. Shanghainese people have often been stereotyped by other Chinese (both urban and rural) as being pretentious, arrogant, and xenophobic; and at the same time, however, they are admired for their meticulous attention to detail, faithfulness in contract, and professionalism. Nearly all registered Shanghainese residents are descendants of immigrants from the two small adjacent provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang, regions that generally speak the same family of dialects as the Shanghainese, that is Wu Chinese. Much of pre-modern Shanghainese culture is an integration of cultural elements from these two regions. The Shanghainese dialect reflects this as well. Recent migrants into Shanghai, however, come from all over China, do not speak the local dialect and are therefore forced to use Mandarin as a lingua franca. Rising crime rates, littering, harassive panhandling, and an overloading of the basic infrastructure (mainly public transportation, schools) associated with the rise of these migrant populations (over 3 million new migrants in 2003 alone) have been generating some extent of ill will and xenophobia from the Shanghainese. The new migrants are easy to spot by the Shanghainese, and are often targets of both intentional and unintentional discrimination. This further intensifies the misunderstandings and stereotypes between the Shanghainese and the Chinese outside of the Lower Yangtze basin. It is a belief of many Chinese of other provinces of China that Shanghainese men can be very henpecked (nagged or controlled by their wives). Admittedly there is some truth in the opinion: husbands in Shanghai often simultaneously play the roles of a bread-winner, cook, plumber, carpenter, etc. Interestingly, this view, though a somewhat outmoded in the context of the new century, is still one of first things many people think of at the mention of Shanghai. One uniquely Shanghainese cultural element is the Shikumen residencies (longtang), which are characteristic two or three-storey black/gray brick structures cut across with a few decorative dark red stripes. Each residence is connected and arranged in straight alleys, with the entrance to each alley, the gate, wrapped by a stylistic stone arc (the name Shikumen is literally stone gate). The Shikumen residencies is a cultural blend of the elements found in Western architecture with traditional Lower Yangtze Chinese architecture and social behavior. All traditional Chinese dwellings had a courtyard, and the Shikumen was no exception. Yet, to compromise with its urban nature, it was much much smaller, and served mainly as a room without a roof, providing a "interior haven" to the commotions in the streets, allowing for raindrops to fall and vegetation to grow freely within a residence. The courtyard also allowed sunlight and adequate ventilation into the rooms. Before World War II, more than 80% of the population in the city lived in these kinds of dwellings. Other Shanghainese cultural artifacts include the cheongsam, a modernization of the traditional Chinese/Manchurian qipao garment which first appeared in the 1910s in Shanghai. The cheongsam dress was slender with high cut sides, and tight fitting. This contrasts sharply with the traditional qipao which was designed to conceal the figure and be worn regardless of age. The cheongsam went along well with the western overcoat and the scarf, and portrayed an unique East Asian modernity, epitomizing the Shanghainese population in general. As Western fashions changed, the basic cheongsam design changed, too, introducing high-necked sleeveless dresses, bell-like sleeves and, the black lace frothing at the hem of a ball gown. By the 1940s, cheongsams came in transparent black, beaded bodices, matching capes and even velvet. And later, checked fabrics became also quite common. The 1949 Communist Revolution ended the cheongsam and other fashions in Shanghai. However, the Shanghainese styles have seen a recent revival as stylish party dresses. Much of the Shanghainese culture (Shanghainese Pops) were transferred to Hong Kong by the millions of Shanghainese emigrants and refugees after the Communist Revolution. The movie In the Mood for Love (Hua Yang Nian Hua) directed by Wong Kar-wai (a native Shanghainese himself) depicts one slice of the displaced Shanghainese community in Hong Kong and the nostalgia for that era, featuring 1940s music by Zhou Xuan. In the Mood for Love] In the Mood for Love Cultural sites in Shanghai include:
- The Bund
- Shanghai Museum
- Shanghai Grand Theatre
- Longhua temple, largest temple in Shanghai, built during the Three Kingdoms period
- Yuyuan Gardens
- Jade Buddha Temple
- Jing An Temple
- Xujiahui Cathedral, largest Catholic cathedral in Shanghai
- Dongjiadu Cathedral
- She Shan Cathedral
- The Orthodox Eastern Church
- Xiaodaoyuan (Mini-Peach Orchard) Mosque
- Songjiang Mosque
- Ohel Rachel Synagogue
- Lu Xun Memorial
- Shikumen site of the First CPC Congress
- Residence of Sun Yat-sen
- Residence of Chiang Kai-shek
- Shanghai residence of Qing Dynasty Viceroy and General Li Hongzhang
- Ancient rivertowns of Zhujiajiao and Zhoushi on the outskirts of Shanghai
- Wen Miao Market
- Yunnan Road
- Flowers and birds: Jiang yi lu market
- Cheongsam: Chang le lu Cheongsam Street
- Curio Market: Dong Tai Lu Curio Market
- Shanghai Peking Opera Troupe See also: Shanghai cuisine

Sister Cities

Shanghai has city partnerships with the following cities:
- Since 1979: Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- Since 1979: Milan, Italy
- Since 1980: Zagreb, Croatia
- Since 1986: Hamburg, Germany
- Since 1990: Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Since 2004: Marseille, France (for the cultural year of China in France)
- Since 2005: Cork, Ireland

Colleges and universities

National


- Fudan University (复旦大学) (founded in 1905)
  - Fudan University Shanghai Medical College (formerly Shanghai Medical University, founded 1927) (复旦大学上海医学院, 原上海医科大学医学院）
- Shanghai Jiaotong University (上海交通大学) (founded in 1896)
  - Medical School of Shanghai Jiaotong University (formerly Shanghai Second Medical School, founded 1896) (上海交通大学医学院, 原上海第二医科大学)
- Tongji University (同济大学) (founded in 1907)
- East China Normal University (华东师范大学)
- East China University of Science and Technology (华东理工大学)
- Donghua University (东华大学)
- Shanghai International Studies University (上海外国语大学)
- Shanghai University of Finance and Economics (上海财经大学)
- China Europe International Business School China Europe International Business School

Public


- Second Military Medical University (第二军医大学)
- Shanghai Teachers University (上海师范大学)
- East China University of Politics and Law (华东政法学院)
- Shanghai Conservatory of Music (上海音乐学院)
- Shanghai Theater Academy (上海戏剧学院)
- Shanghai University (上海大学)
- Shanghai Maritime University (上海海运学院)
- Shanghai University of Electric Power (上海电力学院)
- University of Shanghai for Science and Technology (上海理工大学)
- Shanghai University of Engineering Sciences (上海工程技术大学)
- Shanghai Institute of Technology (上海应用技术学院)
- Shanghai Fisheries University (上海水产大学)
- Shanghai Institute of Foreign Trade (上海对外贸易学院)
- Shanghai Institute of Physical Education (上海体育学院)

Private


- Sanda University (上海杉达学院) Note: Institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed.

Shanghai in fiction

Literature


- Han Bangqing (韩邦庆), Shanghai Demi-monde (海上花列传; pinyin: Haishang Hua Liezhuan), also called Flowers of Shanghai, a novel following the lives of Shanghainese flower girls and the timeless decadence surrounding them. First published in 1892 during the last two decades of the Qing Dynasty, with the dialogue completely in vernacular Wu Chinese. The novel set a precedent for all Chinese literature and was highly popular until the standardization of vernacular Standard Mandarin as the national language in the early 1920s. It was later translated into Mandarin by Eileen Chang, a famous Shanghainese writer during World War II. Nearly all her works of bourgeois romanticism are set in Shanghai, and many have been made into arthouse films (see Eighteen Springs). Besides Eileen Chang, other Shanghainese "petit bourgeois" writers in the first half of twentieth century: Shi Zhecun, Liu Na'ou and Mu Shiyang, Shao Xunmei and Ye Lingfeng. Socialist writers include: Mao Dun (famous for his Shanghai-set ZIYE), Ba Jin, and Lu Xun. One of the great Chinese novel of the twentieth century, Zhongshu Qian's Fortress Besieged is partially set in Shanghai. Noel Coward wrote his novel Private Lives while staying at Shanghai's Cathay Hotel.
- André Malraux, La Condition Humaine, 1933 (Man's Fate, 1934), a novel about the defeat of a communist regime in Shanghai and the choices the losers have to face. Malraux won the 1933 Prix Goncourt of literature for the novel. Tom Bradby's 2002 historical detective novel The Master of Rain is set in the Shanghai of 1926. Neal Stephenson's science fiction novel The Diamond Age is set in an ultra-capitalist Shanghai of the future.

Films


- Godzilla: Final Wars (2004), in which Anguirus attacks the city and destroys the Pearl Tower
- Kung Fu Hustle (Gong Fu, 2004), directed by Stephen Chow
- Code 46 (2003), directed by Michael Winterbottom
- [http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr/awards/cannes/review_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1877855 Purple Butterfly] (Zihudie, 2003), directed by Ye Lou
- Suzhou River (Suzhou he, 2000), directed by Ye Lou
- [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0156587/ Flowers of Shanghai] (Hai shang hua, 1998), directed by Hou Hsiao-Hsien
- A Romance in Shanghai (新上海假期) (1996), starring Fann Wong.
- Shanghai Triad (Yao a yao yao dao waipo qiao, 1995), directed by Zhang Yimou
- [http://www.chinesecinemas.org/eighteen.html Eighteen Springs] (Ban sheng yuan, 1998), directed by Ann Hui On-wah.
- Fist of Legend (Jing wu ying xiong, 1994), action movie starring Jet Li, a remake of Fist of Fury.
- Empire of the Sun (1987), directed by Steven Spielberg
- Le Drame de Shanghaï (1938), directed by Georg Wilhelm Pabst, filmed in France and in Saigon
- [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0023458/ Shanghai Express] (1932), starring Marlene Dietrich

More Photos

Image:Shanghai-NanjingRd01-l.jpg|Nanjing Road by night Image:Xintiandi.jpg|Xin Tian Di District at night Image:Shanghai_panoramic_view.jpeg|Shanghai (Pudong district) - panoramic view Image:Pudong.jpg|Alternate View of Pudong Image:ShanghaiChineseCity.JPG|The old Chinese City in Shanghai still remains very traditional (2005 photo). Image:ShanghaiStreet.JPG|A typical Shanghai street (2005 photo).

Miscellaneous

The tallest structure in China, the distinctive Oriental Pearl Tower, is located in Shanghai. Its lower sphere is now available for living quarters, starting at very high prices. The Jin Mao tower located nearby is mainland China's tallest skyscraper, and ranks fifth in the world. Shanghai will be the host of Expo 2010, a World's Fair. Professional sports teams in Shanghai include:
- Chinese Football Association Super League
  - Shanghai Shenhua
  - Shanghai Zobon
  - Inter Shanghai
- Chinese Football Association Jia League
  - Shanghai Jiucheng
- Chinese Basketball Association
  - Shanghai Sharks The city has hosted the first Formula One Chinese Grand Prix at the Shanghai International Circuit on 26 September 2004. The Chinese government, which controls all its citizens' internet acccess, has blocked Wikipedia from use by its citizens.

See also


- Shanghainese
- Shanghai woman
- Thames Town

External links


- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Shanghai&spn=0.168623,0.234180&t=k&hl=en Interactive satellite view of the area]
- [http://www.info-shanghai.com/ Culture, History and other information to Shanghai]
- [http://www.smartshanghai.com/en/travel/sshamap.php Interactive Map of Shanghai]
- [http://www.muztagh.com/images/map/map-of-shanghai-large.jpg Large map of Shanghai Region]
- [http://www.shanghaidaily.com Shanghai Daily - Newspaper]
- [http://www.zanhei.com/ Project to Introduce and Promote Shanghainese]
- [http://www.shanghaiguide.com/ Shanghai Guide: City Guide and FAQ about Living in Shanghai]
- [http://www.shanghaiexpat.com/ Shanghai Expat: Expats Living and Working in Shanghai]
- [http://www.SmartShanghai.com Nightlife, Dining & Culture in Shanghai]
- [http://home.wangjianshuo.com/archives/categories/shanghai.htm Daily Life in Shanghai]
- [http://www.chinasnippets.com Shanghai China - Snippets & Views]
- [http://www.shanghai.gov.cn Shanghai Municipality\'s official website]
- [http://www.stats-sh.gov.cn Statistics Shanghai]
- [http://www.expo2010china.com/expo/english/eu/index.html The 2010 Shanghai World Expo]
- [http://www.talesofoldchina.com/shanghai/places/t-plac02.htm Old street names of Shanghai]
- [http://drokov.narod.ru/photos/shanghai200507/index.htm Photos]
- [http://virtualshanghai.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/Image.php Virtual Shanghai, photographs +/- 1850-1950]
- Category:Cities in China Category:Coastal cities Category:Metropolitan areas zh-min-nan:Siōng-hái ko:상하이 ms:Shanghai ja:上海 th:เซี่ยงไฮ้



United States

:For alternative meanings, see the disambiguation page for US, USA, United States, or American. The United States of America is a federal democratic republic situated primarily in central North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the States, or simply and most commonly, America. The official founding date of the United States is July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence. However, the structure of the government was profoundly changed in 1788, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The date on which each of the fifty states adopted the Constitution is typically regarded as the date that state "entered the Union" (became part of the United States). Since the mid-20th century, following World War II, the United States has emerged as a dominant global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs.

Geography and climate

The United States shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south), and territorial water boundaries with Canada, Russia, the Bahamas, and numerous smaller nations. It is otherwise bounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea, in the west; the Arctic Ocean, in the northernmost areas; and the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, in the eastern and southeastern areas. Forty-eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, sometimes abbreviated CONUS, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada. The archipelago of Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. The capital city, Washington, District of Columbia is a federal district located on land donated by the state of Maryland. (Virginia also donated land, but it was returned in 1847.) The United States also has overseas territories with varying levels of independence and organization. When inland water is included in the total area, only Russia and Canada are larger than the United States; if inland water is excluded, China ranks third and the U.S. ranks fourth. The United States' total area is 3,718,711 square miles (9,631,418 km²), of which land makes up 3,537,438 square miles (9,161,923 km²) and water makes up 181,273 square miles (469,495 km²). The United States' landscape is one of the most varied among those of the world's nations: among its many features are temperate forestland and rolling hills, on the east coast; mangrove, in Florida; the Great Plains, in the center of the country; the Mississippi–Missouri river system; the Great Lakes, four of the five of which are shared with Canada; the Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains; deserts and temperate coastal zones, west of the Rocky Mountains; and temperate rain forests, in the Pacific northwest. Alaska's tundra, and the volcanic, tropical islands of Hawaii add to the geographic diversity. Hawaii The climate varies along with the landscape, from tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida to tundra in Alaska and atop some of the highest mountains. Most of the North and East experience a temperate continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Most of the South experiences a subtropical humid climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. Rainfall decreases markedly from the humid forests of the Eastern Great Plains to the semi-arid shortgrass prairies on the high plains abutting the Rocky Mountains. Arid deserts, including the Mojave, extend through the lowlands and valleys of the southwest, from westernmost Texas to California and northward throughout much of Nevada. Some parts of California have a Mediterranean climate. Rainforests line the windward mountains of the Pacific Northwest from Oregon to Alaska.

History

American history started with the migration of people from Asia across the Bering land bridge approximately 12,000 years ago following large animals that they hunted into the Americas. These Native Americans left evidence of their presence in petroglyphs, burial mounds, and other artifacts. It is estimated that 2-9 million people lived in the territory now occupied by the U.S. before European contact, and the subsequent introduction of foreign diseases such as small pox that greatly diminished the native populations. Some advanced societies were the Anasazi of the southwest, who inhabited Chaco Canyon, and the Woodland Indians, who built Cahokia, located near present-day St Louis, a city with a population of 40,000 at its peak in AD 1200. Vikings first visited North America around 1000, but did not settle permanently. Following the discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus around 1492, other Europeans began to explore and settle there. During the 1500s and 1600s, the Spanish settled parts of the present-day Southwest and Florida, founding St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and Santa Fe (in what is now New Mexico) in 1607. The first successful English settlement was at Jamestown, Virginia, also in 1607. Within the next two decades, several Dutch settlements, including New Amsterdam (the predecessor to New York City), were established in what are now the states of New York and New Jersey. In 1637, Sweden established a colony at Fort Christina (in what is now Delaware), but lost the settlement to the Dutch in 1655. This was followed by extensive British settlement of the east coast. The British colonists remained relatively undisturbed by their home country until after the French and Indian War, when France ceded Canada and the Great Lakes region to Britain. Britain then imposed taxes on the 13 colonies, widely regarded by the colonists as unfair because they were denied representation in the British Parliament. Tensions between Britain and the colonists increased, and the thirteen colonies eventually rebelled against British rule. British Parliament, George Washington (1789-1797).]] In 1776, the 13 colonies split from Great Britain and formed the United States, the world's first constitutional and democratic federal republic, after their Declaration of Independence of that year, and the Revolutionary War (1775 to 1783). The original political structure was a confederation in 1777, ratified in 1781 as the Articles of Confederation. After long debate, this was supplanted by the Constitution in 1789, forming a more centralized federal government. Prior to all these was the Albany Congress in 1754, in which a union was first seriously proposed. From early colonial times, there was a shortage of labor, which encouraged unfree labor, particularly indentured servitude and slavery. In the mid-19th century, a major division occurred in the United States over the issue of states' rights and the expansion of slavery. The northern states had become opposed to slavery, while the southern states saw it as necessary for the continued success of southern agriculture and wanted it expanded to the territories. Several federal laws were passed in an attempt to settle the dispute, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. The dispute reached a crisis in 1861, when seven southern states seceded1 from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, leading to the Civil War. Soon after the war began, four more southern states seceded. During the war, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, mandating the freedom of all slaves in states in rebellion, though full emancipation did not take place until after the end of the war in 1865, the dissolution of the Confederacy, and the Thirteenth Amendment took effect. The Civil War effectively ended the question of a state's right to secede, and is widely accepted as a major turning point after which the federal government became more powerful than state governments. Thirteenth Amendment). The title of the painting, from a 1726 poem by Bishop Berkeley, was a phrase often quoted in the era of Manifest Destiny, expressing a widely held belief that civilization had steadily moved westward throughout history. [http://americanart.si.edu/t2go/1lw/1931.6.1.html (more)] ]] During the 19th century, many new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the continent. Manifest Destiny was a philosophy that encouraged westward expansion in the United States. As the population of the Eastern states grew and as a steady increase of immigrants entered the country, settlers moved steadily westward across North America. In the process, the U.S. displaced most American Indian nations. This displacement of American Indians continues to be a matter of contention in the U.S. with many tribes attempting to assert their original claims to various lands. In some areas American Indian populations were reduced by foreign diseases contracted through contact with European settlers, and US settlers acquired those emptied lands. In other instances American Indians were removed from their traditional lands by force. Though some would say the U.S. was not a colonial power until the Spanish-American War when it acquired Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, the dominion exercised over land in North America the United States claimed is essentially colonial. The Philippines became independent in 1946. During this period, the nation also became an industrial power. This continued into the 20th century, which has been termed "the American Century" because of the nation's overriding influence on the world. The US became a center for innovation and technological development; major technologies that America either developed or was greatly involved in improving include the telephone, television, computer, the Internet, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, aviation, and aeronautics. In addition to the Civil War, another major traumatic experience for the nation was the Great Depression (1929 to 1939). The nation has also taken part in several major foreign wars, including World War I and World War II (in both of which the US later joined the Allies). During the Cold War, the US was a major player in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and, along with the Soviet Union, was considered one of the world's two "superpowers". With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. Beginning in the 1990s, the United States became very involved in police actions and peacekeeping, including actions in Kosovo, Haiti, Somalia and Liberia, and the first Persian Gulf War driving Iraq out of Kuwait. After attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, the United States and other allied nations found themselves involved in what has come to be called the "War on Terrorism," which has primarily encompassed military actions in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Government

Iraq of the United States.]]

Republic and suffrage

The United States is an example of a constitutional republic, with a government composed of and operating through a set of limited powers imposed by its design and enumerated in the United States Constitution. Specifically, the nation operates as a presidential democracy. There are three levels of government: federal, state, and local. Officials of each of these levels are either elected by eligible voters via secret ballot or appointed by other elected officials. Americans enjoy almost universal suffrage from the age of 18 regardless of race, sex, or wealth. There are some limits, however: felons are disenfranchised and in some states former felons are likewise. Furthermore, the national representation of territories and the federal district of Washington, DC in Congress is limited: residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes but their only Congressional representative is a non-voting delegate.

Federal government

The federal government is the national government, comprising the Legislative Branch (led by Congress), the Executive Branch (led by the President), and the Judicial Branch (led by the Supreme Court). These three branches were designed to apply checks and balances on each other. The Constitution limits the powers of the federal government to defense, foreign affairs, the issuing and management of currency, the management of trade and relations between the states, and the protection of human rights. In addition to these explicitly stated powers, the federal government—with the assistance of the Supreme Court—has gradually extended these powers into such areas as welfare and education, on the basis of the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution.

The Congress

necessary and proper The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members, each of whom represents a congressional district and serves for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population; in contrast, each state has two Senators, regardless of population. There are a total of 100 senators, who serve six-year terms. The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the necessary-and-proper clause, which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers."

The President

necessary-and-proper clause At the top level of the executive branch is the President of the United States. The President and Vice-President are elected as 'running mates' for four-year terms by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D. C.) in both houses of Congress (see U.S. Electoral College). The relationship between the President and the Congress reflects that between the English monarchy and parliament at the time of the framing of the United States Constitution. Congress can legislate to constrain the President's executive power, even with respect to his or her command of the armed forces; however, this power is used only very rarely—a notable example was the constraint placed on President Richard Nixon's strategy of bombing Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The President cannot directly propose legislation, and must rely on supporters in Congress to promote his or her legislative agenda. The President's signature is required to turn congressional bills into law; in this respect, the President has the power—only occasionally used—to veto congressional legislation. Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both houses. The ultimate power of Congress over the President is that of impeachment or removal of the elected President through a House vote, a Senate trial, and a Senate vote. The threat of using this power has had major political ramifications in the cases of Presidents Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon, and Bill Clinton. The President makes around 2,000 executive appointments, including members of the Cabinet and ambassadors, which must be approved by the Senate; the President can also issue executive orders and pardons, and has other Constitutional duties, among them the requirement to give a State of the Union address to Congress once a year. Although the President's constitutional role may appear to be constrained, in practice, the office carries enormous prestige that typically eclipses the power of Congress: the Presidency has justifiably been referred to as 'the most powerful office in the world'. The Vice President is first in the line of succession, and is the President of the Senate ex officio, with the ability to cast a tie-breaking vote. The members of the President's Cabinet are responsible for administering the various departments of state, including the Department of Defense, the Justice Department, and the State Department. These departments and department heads have considerable regulatory and political power, and it is they who are responsible for executing federal laws and regulations. George W. Bush is the 43rd President, currently serving his second term.

The Courts

George W. Bush The highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of nine justices. The court deals with federal and constitutional matters, and can declare legislation made at any level of the government as unconstitutional, nullifying the law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. Below the Supreme Court are the courts of appeals, and below them in turn are the district courts, which are the general trial courts for federal law. Separate from, but not entirely independent of, this federal court system are the individual court systems of each state, each dealing with its own laws and having its own judicial rules and procedures. A case may be appealed from a state court to a federal court only if there is a federal question; the supreme court of each state is the final authority on the interpretation of that state's laws and constitution.

State and local governments

supreme court of each state. Note that Alaska and Hawaii are shown at different scales, and that the Aleutian Islands and the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are omitted from this map.]] The state governments have the greatest influence over people's daily lives. Each state has its own written constitution and has different laws. There are sometimes great differences in law and procedure between the different states, concerning issues such as property, crime, health, and education. The highest elected official of each state is the Governor. Each state also has an elected legislature (bicameral in every state except Nebraska), whose members represent the different parts of the state. Of note is the New Hampshire legislature, which is the third-largest legislative body in the English-speaking world, and has one representative for every 3,000 people. Each state maintains its own judiciary, with the lowest level typically being county courts, and culminating in each state supreme court, though sometimes named differently. In some states, supreme and lower court justices are elected by the people; in others, they are appointed, as they are in the federal system. The institutions that are responsible for local government are typically town, city, or county boards, making laws that affect their particular area. These laws concern issues such as traffic, the sale of alcohol, and keeping animals. The highest elected official of a town or city is usually the mayor. In New England, towns operate directly democratically, and in some states, such as Rhode Island and Connecticut, counties have little or no power, existing only as geographic distinctions. In other areas, county governments have more power, such as to collect taxes and maintain law enforcement agencies.

Political divisions

With the Declaration of Independence, the thirteen colonies proclaimed themselves to be nation states modeled after the European states of the time. Although considered as sovereigns initially, under the Articles of Confederation of 1781 they entered into a "Perpetual Union" and created a fully sovereign federal state, delegating certain powers to the national Congress, including the right to engage in diplomatic relations and to levy war, while each retaining their individual sovereignty, freedom and independence. But the national government proved too ineffective, so the administrative structure of the government was vastly reorganized with the United States Constitution of 1789. Under this new union, the continued status of the individual states as sovereign nation states fell into dispute in 1861, as several states attempted to secede from the union; in response, then-President Abraham Lincoln claimed that such secession was illegal, and the result was the American Civil War. Since the Union victory in 1865, the independent status of the individual states has not been broached again by any state, and the status of each state within the union has been deemed by mainstream officials and academics to be settled as being subordinate to the union as a whole. In subsequent years, the number of states grew steadily due to western expansion, the purchase of lands by the national government from other nation states, and the subdivision of existing states, resulting in the current total of 50. The states are generally divided into smaller administrative regions, including counties, cities and townships. The United States–Canadian border is the longest undefended political boundary in the world. The U.S. is divided into three distinct sections:
- the "continental United States," also known as "the Lower 48" and more accurately termed the conterminous, coterminous or contiguous United States
- Alaska, which is physically connected only to Canada
- the archipelago of Hawaii, in the central Pacific Ocean. The United States also holds several other territories, districts, and possessions, notably the federal district of the District of Columbia, which is the nation's capital, and several overseas insular areas, the most significant of which are American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands. The Palmyra Atoll is the United States' only incorporated territory; it is unorganized and uninhabited. The United States Navy has held a base at a portion of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, since 1898. The United States government possesses a lease to this land, which only mutual agreement or United States abandonment of the area can terminate. The present Cuban government of Fidel Castro disputes this arrangement, claiming Cuba was not truly sovereign at the time of the signing. The United States argues this point moot because Cuba apparently ratified the lease post-revolution, and with full