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Interstate 81

Interstate 81

Interstate 81 (abbreviated I-81) is an interstate highway in the eastern part of the United States. Its southern terminus is at Interstate 40 near Dandridge, Tennessee; its northern terminus is on Wellesley Island (near Fishers Landing, New York) at the Canadian border where the Thousand Islands Bridge connects it to Ontario Highway 401, the main freeway leading from Windsor-Detroit and Toronto to Montréal.

Distances by state

Major cities along the route

Montréal
- Bristol, Virginia
- Roanoke, Virginia
- Harrisonburg, Virginia
- Winchester, Virginia
- Martinsburg, West Virginia
- Hagerstown, Maryland
- Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
- Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania
- Scranton, Pennsylvania
- Binghamton, New York
- Syracuse, New York
- Watertown, New York

Intersections with other Interstates

Watertown, New York
- Interstate 40 near Dandridge, Tennessee, northeast of Knoxville
- Interstate 26 between the Tri-Cities, Tennessee
- Interstate 77 in Wytheville, Virginia. They stay joined for about 10 miles (16 km), and go in opposite directions.
- Interstate 64 in Lexington, Virginia. They stay joined until Staunton, Virginia.
- Interstate 66 in Middletown, Virginia
- Interstate 70 in Hagerstown, Maryland
- Interstate 76 in Carlisle, Pennsylvania
- Interstate 83 in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
- Interstate 78 in Bordnersville, Pennsylvania (near Jonestown, Pennsylvania)
- Interstate 80 in St. Johns, Pennsylvania (near Hazleton, Pennsylvania)
- Interstate 84 and Interstate 380 in Scranton, Pennsylvania
- Interstate 476 in Clarks Summit, Pennsylvania and in Pittston, Pennsylvania
- Interstate 88 and future Interstate 86 in Binghamton, New York
- Interstate 690 in downtown Syracuse, New York
- Interstate 90 in North Syracuse, New York

Spur routes

There are three current child routes either providing access to, or bypassing, various cities along Interstate 81's route.

Current


- I-381 - Bristol, Virginia
- I-581 - Roanoke, Virginia
- I-481 - Syracuse, New York

Past


- I-181 - Kingsport, Tennessee: Deleted in August, 2005 when Interstate 26 took over I-181's entire length.

Notes

Interstate 26.]] This road was originally a "line on a map" Interstate. For many years, it existed more to provide a path through the Appalachians than to relieve congestion on any specific route. However, I-81 has become a major route for interstate truck transportation in recent years. Trucking companies that have tired of fighting big-city congestion along Interstate 95 are now opting to use this less congested inland route. Virginia has proposed to widen its entire portion of I-81 to a minimum of three or four lanes in each direction to accommodate increased truck traffic and to convert the highway into a toll road. Some sections of the new Virginia I-81 may completely separate car and truck traffic. For more comprehensive information on Virginia's plans for the I-81 corridor, see [http://virginiadot.org/projects/constSTAN-I81-overview.asp]. I-81 runs together with Interstate 77 in Wytheville, Virginia for about 10 miles (16 km), but the two go in opposite directions, creating a wrong-way multiplex. Motorists traveling northbound on I-81 are also traveling southbound on I-77, though they are actually going east. Likewise, motorists traveling southbound on I-81 are also traveling northbound on I-77, though they are actually going west. There was an eastern branch, called I-81E, that was a spur from Scranton to Pocono in Pennsylvania. That highway is now I-380. I-481 around Syracuse, New York was planned as I-281, and the first portion of the bypass to be completed was briefly signed as I-281. However, the route number was changed to avoid confusion with nearby NY 281. Around I-81's northern terminus at the Canadian border, two toll bridges over the St. Lawrence River connect it to unsigned Ontario Highway 137, a short link to the MacDonald-Cartier Freeway (ON Provincial Route 401) in Ontario. The bridges are on opposite sides of the border (southern bridge is I-81, northern bridge is ON 137). The southern bridge is one of the few remaining 2-lane interstate stretches left on the system. The border itself is marked by a 90-foot bridge across International Rift between Wellesley Island, New York and Hill Island, Ontario. Not too far to the east lies Highway 416 leading into Ottawa. I-81 parallels US 11 for most of its path.

See also

Interstate Highways in West Virginia

External links


- [http://www.empirestateroads.com/week/week65.html Thousand Islands Bridge System], showing the bridges and connections at the northern terminus
- [http://www.i-81.org I-18.org], I-81 Corridor in Virginia by VDOT 81 81 81 81 81 81 81

Interstate Highway

The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly called the Interstate Highway System, is a network of highways in the United States. The Interstate Highway System is a separate system within the larger National Highway System. With very few exceptions, Interstate highways are controlled-access freeways, allowing for safe high-speed driving when traffic permits. They are assigned a special level of funding at the federal level. Despite this federal funding, these highways are owned, designed, built and maintained by the state in which they are located, with the only exception being the federally-owned Woodrow Wilson Bridge on the Capital Beltway (I-95/I-495). The highways in the system are typically known as Interstate XX or I-XX; sometimes Interstate Highway XX (IH XX) or Interstate Route XX (IR XX) is used. In some areas the more generic Route XX or Highway XX is used. The system serves all major U.S. cities, and unlike its counterparts in most industrialized countries, often goes right through downtown areas rather than bypassing them. This facilitated the emergence of automobile-oriented postwar suburban development patterns, often pejoratively referred to as "urban sprawl". The system is prominent in the daily lives of most Americans. Virtually all goods and services are delivered via the Interstate Highways at some point. Many residents of American cities use the urban segments of the system to go to and from their jobs. Most long-distance journeys (for vacation or business) of less than 300 miles (500 km) use the interstate highway system at some point. Hawaii has several signed Interstates, but Alaska and Puerto Rico do not. The latter two do have roads designated as Interstates for funding purposes, but they are not currently or planned to be built to Interstate standards. The public controlled-access highways of Puerto Rico are the Autopistas (PR-22, PR-52, and PR-53).

History

Autopistas The interstate system was authorized by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, popularly known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956. It was lobbied for by major U.S. automobile manufacturers and championed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and was influenced by both his experiences as a young soldier crossing the country in 1919 following the route of the Lincoln Highway, and by his appreciation of the German autobahn network. Planning for a system of new superhighways began in the late 1930s, even before federal commitment to build the Interstate highway system came in the 1950s. Construction on the world's first public limited-access highway, the Bronx River Parkway, had begun in New York as early as 1907. By the 1920s, longer highways such as the New York City parkway system had been built as part of local or state highway systems. As automotive traffic increased, planners saw a need for such an interconnected national system to supplement the existing, largely non-freeway, U.S. Highway system.The General location of national system of interstate highways, including all additional routes at urban areas designated in September, 1955 maps what became the interstate system, and is informally known as the Yellow Book. Although construction on the Interstate Highway system continues, it was officially regarded as complete in 1991 (though 1.5 miles of the original planned system remain unconstructed as of 2005 [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/programadmin/interstate.html]). The initial cost estimate for the system was $25 billion over twelve years; it ended up costing $114 billion, taking 35 years to complete. As of 2004, the system contains over 42,700 miles (68,500 km) of roads, all at least four lanes wide.

Standards

:Main article: Interstate Highway standards The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has defined a set of standards that all new Interstates must meet unless a waiver from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is obtained. These standards have become stricter over the years. One almost absolute standard is the controlled access nature of the roads. Except for a few exceptions, traffic lights (and cross traffic in general) are limited to toll booths and ramp meters (metered flow control for lane merging during rush hours).

Speed limits

Speed limits vary according to location. By initial planning, the Interstate system was designed to provide reasonable road safety at speeds of 75 to 80 miles per hour (120 to 130 km/h) except in limited stretches (such as steep mountain passes or urban cores) where many vehicles cannot maintain such speeds. Many western states had high speed limits. Kansas, for example, had a posted limit of 80 mph (130 km/h)[http://people.smu.edu/acambre/blog/PermaLink,guid,5575625c-bbd4-47a3-be9f-9d5517d3a06f.aspx]. Some states, such as Oregon, defined the limit as whatever was "reasonable and proper", which would not be allowed today (see Montana reference below). In 1974, the federal government enacted 55 mph (90 km/h) as a gasoline conservation measure in response to the 1973 energy crisis. After the end of the embargo this restriction was continued as a safety measure. It was very unpopular, especially in western states. The 55 mph cap was relaxed in 1987 to allow 65 mph (105 km/h) speeds on rural Interstates if the states so chose. During this interim period, some roads (such as I-335 in Kansas) were specifically designated as Interstates to take advantage of this higher speed limit. Shortly thereafter, 65 mph limits were allowed on roads not numbered as interstates but which were built to interstate standards. The 55/65 mph caps were eliminated in late 1995, fully returning speed limit control to the states. Many states maintain several different limits. For example, in California, most interstates are limited to 55 mph within a major city, 65 mph (105 km/h) for most of the suburban highway stretches, and up to 70 mph (115 km/h) throughout the desert and rural stretches of the state. In some states, commercial trucks have a lower speed limit than passenger automobiles. In some mountainous regions, the condition of the roadway mandates a lower speed limit than would otherwise have applied. While some states have maintained the 65 mph limit, other states have increased the limits to 70 or 75 mph (110 or 120 km/h). Generally, the highest speed limits are found in the South and Southwest, while the lowest are found in the Northeast. Soon after the end of the National Maximum Speed Limit, the state of Montana ended daytime speed limits for automobile traffic on Interstate Highways in the state, instead instructing motorists to maintain a "reasonable and prudent" speed. A few years later, the "reasonable and prudent" law was declared unconstitutional for being too vague and a limit of 75 mph (120 km/h) was enacted in its place. Texas recently enacted a law allowing 80 MPH speed limits on certain portions of Interstates 10 and 20 in far west Texas. However, these limits are on hold pending further study by the Texas Department of Transportation.

Dual-purpose design

In addition to being designed to support automobile and heavy truck traffic, interstate highways are also designed for use in military and civil defense operations within the United States, particularly troop movements. One potential civil defense use of the Interstate Highway System is for the emergency evacuation of cities in the event of a potential nuclear war. Although this use has never happened, the Interstate Highway System has been used to facilitate evacuations in the face of hurricanes and other natural disasters. An option for maximizing throughput is to reverse the flow of traffic on one side so that all lanes become outbound lanes. This procedure is known as Contraflow, and could be seen in the evacuations of New Orleans, Louisiana and Houston, Texas prior to hurricanes Katrina and Rita, respectively. Several Interstates in the South, including I-16 in Georgia, I-40 in North Carolina, I-65 in Alabama, I-10 & I-59 in Louisiana, and I-59 in Mississippi, are equipped and signed specifically for contraflow, with crossovers inland after major interchanges to distribute much of the traffic. This is however not limited to Interstates; US 49 from Gulfport to Jackson and State Road 528, in Central Florida, have the same setup. A widespread but false urban legend states that one out of every five miles of the Interstate highway system must be built straight and flat, so as to be usable by aircraft during times of war.[http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/mayjun00/onemileinfive.htm] However, the Germans in World War II used the Autobahns for just such a purpose.

Terminology

While the name implies that these highways cross state lines, many Interstates do not. Rather, it is the system of interstates that connects states. There are interstate highways in Hawaii, funded in the same way as in the other states, but entirely within the populous island of Oahu. They have the designation of H-X, and connect military bases. Similarly, both Alaska and Puerto Rico have public roads that receive funding from the Interstate program, though these routes are not signed as Interstate Highways.

Primary routes

The numbering scheme for the Interstate Highway System (as well as the U.S. Highway System) is coordinated by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), though their authority is occasionally trumped by a number written into Federal law. Within the continental United States, primary Interstates (also called main line Interstates or two-digit Interstates) are given one- or two-digit route numbers. Most Interstates have two numbers; there are only three one-digit Interstates in the system: I-4, I-5 and I-8. Within this category, east-west highways are assigned even numbers, and north-south highways are assigned odd-numbers. Odd route numbers increase from west to east, and even numbered routes increase from south to north. Numbers divisible by 5 are intended to be primary routes, carrying traffic long distances. For example, I-5 runs from Canada to Mexico along the west coast (the only interstate to do so) while I-95 runs from Miami north to Canada. In addition, I-10 runs from Los Angeles, California to Jacksonville, Florida while I-90 runs from Seattle to Boston. However, not all primary routes traverse long distances. I-45 runs from Galveston, Texas north to Dallas, Texas, a distance of only 284 miles. It is the only primary route that does not cross state lines (see List of intrastate Interstate Highways). It should be noted that I-50 and I-60 do not exist (and there are no even-numbered Interstates between 46 and 62), mainly because they would most likely have passed through the same states that already have US 50 and US 60. AASHTO rules discourage Interstate and US Highways with the same number to exist in the same state, although I-24 and US 24 exist at opposite ends of Illinois. Some planned Interstates do not follow this guideline - I-69 will enter Texas (which has US 69), I-74 will have a multiplex with US 74 in North Carolina, and I-41 will do the same with US 41 in Wisconsin. Several two-digit numbers are shared between two roads at opposite ends of the country, namely I-76, I-84, I-86 and I-88. Some of these were the result of a change in the numbering system in the 1970s; previously letter-suffixed numbers were used for long spurs off primary routes; for example, western I-84 was I-80N, as it went north from I-80. In the 1970s, AASHTO decided to eliminate these; some became additional two-digit routes, while others became three-digit routes (see below). Only two pairs of these exist; I-35 splits into I-35W and I-35E through both the Dallas-Fort Worth and the Minneapolis-St. Paul areas. Strict adherence to the directional nature of the system results in some amusing oddities. For a ten-mile stretch east of Wytheville, Virginia, the driver can be traveling on both North I-81 and South I-77 at the same time (and vice versa) (see also Wrong-way multiplex). For the sake of efficiency, some Interstates double up for short or sometimes long distances, as in the example above. Another notable example are Interstates I-90 and I-94, which double and then separate several times as they criss-cross the upper Midwest and Great Plains.

Three-digit Interstates

Three-digit route numbers, consisting of a single digit prefixed to the number of a primary Interstate highway, are used to designate usually short spur or loop routes from their "parent" route, either directly or via another three-digit Interstate. A route that spurs from its parent and ends at an intersection with no other Interstates is given an odd first digit; a route that returns to its parent is given an even first digit. The number given to the first digit of a route that spurs from the parent and ends at another Interstate depends on the state; some consider these routes spurs and give them odd numbers, while others consider them loop-style connectors and give them even numbers. For instance, I-90 in New York has a full set of three-digit Interstates - I-190, I-290, I-390, I-490, I-590, I-690, I-790, I-890 and I-990. Due to the large number of these routes, they can be repeated in different places along the mainline; no two three-digit Interstates in the same state can share a number. The Minneapolis-St. Paul area has a single loop around the entire Metro area. I-94 intersects the loop in two spots and runs directly through it separating it into a northern and southern half. The southern half of it is labeled I-494 while the northern half of it is labeled I-694. Charlotte, North Carolina has a single loop around the city that intersects with both I-77 and I-85, but the entire loop is known as I-485. The Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area has several spur routes off of I-95. The area has I-195, I-295, I-495, I-795 and I-895. It also has two routes numbered I-395 (in Baltimore and Washington) and two I-695s (one is signed, the other is a secret designation), as well as an unsigned route called I-595. No I-995 exists anywhere. New York City has numerous spur routes off of I-78 and I-95, but none of I-78's spur routes actually intersect with I-78. A three-digit spur off a letter-suffixed two-digit Interstate (see above) was given a number without a letter suffix, except for one case - I-184 in Idaho was I-180N.

Exceptions

:Main article: List of gaps in Interstate Highways Interstate 238 near Oakland, California is one of two major exceptions to the numbering scheme, as no Interstate 38 exists. This number exists because Interstate 238 replaced a segment of California Highway 238, and no appropriate number was available. The other exception is I-99 in Pennsylvania, which was written into law as I-99 by Pennsylvania Congressman Bud Shuster; I-99 (which is also U.S. Highway 220) is west of several Interstates that are numerically less than 99, and was the nearest available unused two-digit number. Some proposed future Interstate routes have been given similarly non-conforming designations by their legislative proponents. For example, backers of the proposed Third Infantry Division Highway, a route in Georgia and Tennessee, have suggested it be named Interstate 3, in honor of the division for which the highway is named [http://www.interstate-guide.com/i-003.html].

Other notable examples


- I-82 lies fully north of I-84, but I-84 was I-80N when I-82 got its number.
- I-85 diverts west of I-75 (intersecting it near Atlanta, Georgia) The following two-digit Interstates change signed direction from their normal (even=east-west, odd=north-south) direction:
- I-69
- I-76 (west) Two-digit interstates in Hawaii, as well as the "paper" interstates of Alaska and Puerto Rico, are numbered sequentially in order of funding, without regard to the rules on odd and even numbers. Business Loop and Business Spur Interstates are not subject to any of the Interstate standards. Their designation is simple - a Business Loop heads into a downtown area from its parent and returns to its parent; a Business Spur ends downtown, occasionally continuing from the end of the main Interstate. Business routes can split from either two- or three-digit Interstates, and can be repeated within a state. In a few cases, where an Interstate has been realigned, the old road has been designated a Business Loop because it is not up to standards.

Financing

About 72% ([http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/ohim/hs03/htm/hf10.htm 2003 FHWA summary]) of the construction and maintenance costs are funded through user fees, primarily gasoline taxes, collected by states and the federal government, and tolls collected on toll roads and bridges. The rest of the costs come out of the federal budget. In the eastern United States, large sections of some Interstate Highways planned or built prior to 1956 are operated as toll roads. The taxes dedicated to the construction and maintenance of highways are often criticized as a direct subsidy from the government to promote and maintain auto-oriented development as we know it today. The dominant role of the federal government in road finance has enabled it to pass laws in areas outside of the powers enumerated in the federal Constitution. By threatening to withhold highway funds, the federal government has been able to force state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. Examples include increasing the legal drinking age to 21, for a number of years reducing the maximum speed limit to 55 miles per hour, passing Megan's Law legislation, lowering the legal intoxication level to 0.08/1000, and other laws. This has proved to be controversial. Those who support this feel that it is a way to provide an impetus to states to pass uniform legislation. Others feel that using highway dollars in this fashion upsets the balance between federal and states' rights in favor of the federal government, and effectively holds funds as ransom in order to coerce state governments into passing laws that would not have otherwised been introduced. As American suburbs push ever outward, the costs incurred of maintaining freeway infrastructure has started to catch up with the economy, leaving little in the way of funds for new interstate construction. This has led to the proliferation of the toll road (turnpike) as the new method of building limited-access highways in suburban areas. Also, some interstates are being privately maintained now (VMS in Texas, I-35) in order to cut rising costs of maintenance and allow state departments of transportation to focus on serving the fastest growing regions in their respective states. The future of the interstate system as we know it is in question. It is entirely possible that parts of the system will have to be tolled in the future to meet maintenance and expansion demands, as is done with adding toll HOV/HOT lanes in certain cities like Minneapolis, Houston, Dallas, and Washington D.C.

Non-chargeable Interstate routes

In addition to Interstate highways financed with federal funds (Chargeable Interstate routes), federal laws allow other highways to be signed as Interstates, if they meet the Interstate Highway standards and that they are logical additions or connections to the System. Called Non-Chargeable Interstate routes, these additions fall under two categories: # Routes that already meet Interstate standards. They can immediately be signed as Interstates once their proposed number is approved. # Routes designated as a future part of the system once they are upgraded to Interstate standards. Until then, it cannot be signed as an Interstate yet.

Signage

dollar Interstate Highways are signed by a number on a red, white and blue sign as shown to the right. In the original design, the state was formerly listed above the highway number, but in many states, this area is now left blank. The sign itself measures 36 inches high, and is 36 inches wide for two-digit interstates, or 45 inches for three-digit interstates. Business Loop and Business Spur Interstates use a special shield where the red and blue are replaced with green; the word BUSINESS appears instead of INTERSTATE, and the word SPUR or LOOP usually appears above the number. The majority of Interstates have exit numbers. All traffic signs and lane markings on the Interstates are supposed to be designed in compliance with the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). However, there are many local and regional variations in signage. The state of California is now adapting to an exit numbering system after many years as being the only state in the country that did not use such a system. In most states, the exit numbers correspond to the mileage markers on the Interstates (with an exception being I-19 in Arizona, whose length is measured in kilometers instead of miles). Many northeastern states label exit numbers sequentially, regardless of how many miles have passed between exits. On even-numbered Interstates, mileage increases to the east and decreases to the west; and on odd-numbered Interstates, mileage increases to the north and decreases to the south. In both cases, the exit numbers increase and decrease accordingly.

Interstate oddities


- Vinita, Oklahoma — A McDonalds is built over the top of Interstate 44. It goes from one side of the interstate to the other, passing over the interstate. Customers can sit inside and eat while traffic drives beneath them. It is also purported to be the "world's largest".
- Kearney, Nebraska — The Great Platte River Road Archway Museum is built over top of Interstate 80. The 1,500 ton structure spans 308 feet across the interstate and houses a museum dedicated to frontier culture.
- Reno, Nevada — A Walgreens store sits on top of a segment of Interstate 80 in downtown Reno.
- Newton, Massachusetts — A Star Market supermarket is built over the top of Interstate 90. Traffic reporters refer to this point on the highway as the "Star Market overpass".
- Newton, Massachusetts — A Sheraton hotel is built over the top of Interstate 90.
- Boston, Massachusetts — The Prudential Tower in downtown Boston is built over top of Interstate 90 as well. A less known fact about Interstate 90 is that it is built over what used to be the largest railroad corridor in New England; photos from the 1950s show huge rail yards where I-90 now comes into the city. Many of the oddities on I-90 are the result of deals struck by the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority, Perini Corporation (which constructed the majority of the highway), and existing buildings at the time of construction. In return for not obstructing the highway project, the MTA went to lengths such as preserving the aforementioned Star Market.
- Atlanta, Georgia — The Civic Center MARTA station is located over the Downtown Connector (Interstate 75/85) at West Peachtree Street, making it the only subway station built over an Interstate highway.
- Illinois — The Illinois Tollway oasis is a type of rest area which spans the top of the interstate highway it is on. There are seven of them which are on the Tri-State Tollway (Interstates 80, 94 & 294), Northwest Tollway (Interstate 90) and the Ronald Reagan Memorial Tollway (Interstate 88). Customers are able to sit inside the Oases and eat while traffic goes by beneath them. This type of development is common in the UK.
- Seattle, Washington — The [http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/parks/parkspaces/FreewayPark.htm Seattle Freeway Park] sits on top of Interstate 5 (NB and SB, including HOV express lanes). The park is connected to the [http://www.wsctc.com Washington State Convention Center] connecting downtown to the [http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/tour/capitol.htm Capitol Hill] and First Hill districts (locally, First Hill is also known as "Pill Hill" as this is Seattle's medical district). The park is multi-level and as such, there are areas where visitors are able to watch traffic pass by.
- Breezewood, Pennsylvania — There is a sign of a policeman pointing at you saying, "You! Slow Down!" You then have to drive a few blocks on US 30 before returning to I-70. This is a rare instance of a traffic light on an interstate.
- Jersey City, New Jersey — Interstate 78 follows a pair of one-way streets for a short distance between the Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike and the Holland Tunnel, which leads into New York City. Along with the aforementioned I-70, this is the only other primary interstate with traffic lights.

Criticism

In addition to the various economic issues, the system has roused criticism on aesthetic grounds. The efficiency and faster speeds of the system, made possible in part by engineering techniques that often tend to cut through the land rather than merely following it as with the older U.S. Highway, have inevitably resulted in a safer but less-scenic drive. When the cross-country I-40 was finally finished in the late 1980s, by completing the segment between Raleigh, North Carolina and Wilmington, North Carolina, Charles Kuralt stated, "It is now possible to travel from coast to coast without seeing anything!"

References

# 65 MPH Approved for Route, Wichita Eagle-Beacon, October 24, 1987 # Field, David. "On 40th birthday, interstates face expensive midlife crisis." Insight on the News, 29 July 1996, 40-42.

See also


- Autobahn
- Freeway
- Gas tax
- Highway patrol
- Non-motorized vehicle access on freeways
- List of roads and highways
- Mile-log
- Parkway
- Ramp meter
- Speed limit
- Toll road
- Traffic light
- United States highway
- National Highway System
- List of major freeway systems
- Controlled-access highway

External links


- [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/programadmin/interstate.html Interstate Highway information]
- [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/routefinder/index.htm FHWA Route Log and Finder List]
- [http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/septoct00/urban.htm FHWA Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center] - Analysis and History of Interstate Highway System
- [http://www.kurumi.com/roads/3di/ 3-digit Interstate Highways]
- [http://www.aaroads.com/ Pictures of all Interstates]
- [http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=88 One] of 100 milestone documents of American history
- Federal Highway Administration's [http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/summer96/p96su10.htm article on the act]
- Fortune magazine on [http://www.fortune.com/fortune/fortune500/articles/0,15114,574088,00.html history of the Interstate Highway System]
- [http://www.geocities.com/michelleskinnerfreeway Another great Interstate Page], with facts on all 2-digit Interstates and links to their exit lists
- [http://www.ajfroggie.com/triskele Highway Heaven] Contains exit lists for most Interstate highways
- [http://www.triskele.com/fonts/index.html RoadGeek] - A complete set of TrueType fonts for simulating Interstate and other highway signage ja:ドワイト・デーヴィッド・アイゼンハワー全米州間国防高速道路網

Interstate 40

Interstate 40 (abbreviated I-40) is a major west-east interstate highway in the United States. Its western terminus is at Interstate 15 in Barstow, California; its eastern terminus is at North Carolina State Highway 132 in Wilmington, North Carolina. Much of the western portion of I-40, from Oklahoma City to Barstow, follows historic Route 66.

Route Description

California

State Law

Legal Definition of Route 40: [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/California_Streets_and_Highways_Code%2C_Chapter_2%2C_Article_3%2C_Section_301-635#Route_40 California Streets and Highways Code, Chapter 2, Article 3, Section 340]

Length

Major cities along the route

Route 66
- Barstow, California
- Needles, California
- Kingman, Arizona
- Flagstaff, Arizona
- Gallup, New Mexico
- Albuquerque, New Mexico
- Amarillo, Texas
- Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
- Van Buren, Arkansas
- North Little Rock, Arkansas
- Memphis, Tennessee
- Nashville, Tennessee
- Knoxville, Tennessee
- Asheville, North Carolina
- Hickory, North Carolina
- Statesville, North Carolina
- Winston-Salem, North Carolina
- Greensboro, North Carolina
- Durham, North Carolina
- Raleigh, North Carolina
- Wilmington, North Carolina

Intersections with other Interstates


- Interstate 15 in Barstow, California
- Interstate 17 in Flagstaff, Arizona
- Interstate 25 in Albuquerque, New Mexico
- Interstate 27 in Amarillo, Texas
- Interstate 44 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
- Interstate 35 in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
- Interstate 30 in North Little Rock, Arkansas
- Interstate 55 in West Memphis, Arkansas (the freeways are merged through town)
- Interstate 24 in Nashville, Tennessee
- Interstate 65 in Nashville, Tennessee
- Interstate 75 near Dixie Lee Junction, Tennessee. They stay merged until Knoxville, Tennessee.
- Interstate 81 near Dandridge, Tennessee
- Interstate 26 in Asheville, North Carolina
- Interstate 77 in Statesville, North Carolina
- Interstate 73 in Greensboro, North Carolina
- Interstate 85 in Greensboro, North Carolina. They stay merged until Durham, North Carolina.
- Interstate 95 in Benson, North Carolina ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Benson,+NC&ll=35.371695,-78.511391&spn=0.126062,0.180038&hl=en Map])

Spur routes


- I-140 - Farragut, Tennessee
- I-140 - Wilmington, North Carolina
- I-240 - Asheville, North Carolina
- I-240 - Memphis, Tennessee
- I-240 - Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
- I-430 - Little Rock, Arkansas
- I-440 - Little Rock, Arkansas
- I-440 - Nashville, Tennessee
- I-440 - Raleigh, North Carolina
- I-540 - Spurs to Fort Smith, Arkansas and Bentonville, Arkansas; proposed to become part of an expanded Interstate 49
- I-540 - Raleigh, North Carolina
- I-640 - Knoxville, Tennessee
- I-840 - Greensboro, North Carolina

Notes


- The I-40 Bridge Disaster occurred on May 26, 2002 when a barge collided with a bridge support near Webbers Falls, Oklahoma, causing a 580 foot (177 meter) section of the I-40 bridge to plunge into the Arkansas river. Automobiles and semi-trucks fell into the water killing 14 people, including a three-year-old girl.
- At each end of I-40 there is a sign giving the distance to the other end.
- Because I-40 goes through the Mojave Desert in California (just like Route 66 before it), its unofficial name is the Mojave Freeway.
- In Memphis, I-40 was originally intended to go through the city's Overton Park toward downtown. Several miles of interstate were actually built within the I-240 loop; this portion of highway still exists and is in regular use as Sam Cooper Boulevard, reaching Chickasaw Country Club at its western end. However, public opposition, combined with a court victory by opponents of the Overton Park route, forced abandonment of the plans, and the road never reached the park. For several years, I-40 signage existed on the dead-end route toward Overton Park. Eventually, the northern portion of the I-240 loop was redesignated as I-40.
- The California state government has submitted Highway 58 between Barstow and Bakersfield for I-40 extension potential. This portion of Highway 58 was once signed as U.S. Highway 466. There's also the possibility that I-40 will be extended even further west, to Interstate 5 (at Lost Hills) or US 101 (at Paso Robles).
- In North Carolina, I-40 merges with I-85 between Greensboro and Hillsborough, just west of Durham. In Alamance County, the highway is also known as the Sam Hunt Freeway. Due to a recent rerouting of I-85 around Greensboro, I-40 departs from it eight miles (13 km) east of the original split. However, I-40 will be moved to a new alignment south of Greensboro, which currently carries the new I-85 bypass and will eventually carry Interstate 73 as well. The existing I-40 through Greensboro will become a second I-40 freeway Business Loop once the new alignment is finished by 2007.
- The first Business Loop of I-40, in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, is actually a freeway for its entire length, a rarity for Business Interstates. That's because I-40 was originally routed through downtown Winston-Salem, and it continued to follow that route until a new bypass was built. After the bypass was completed around 1992, I-40 was relocated to the new freeway. There are arguments that the former I-40 freeway in Winston-Salem should become an interstate again, especially since the road is currently undergoing an upgrade. There are no even loop numbers left for I-40, however, since the NCDOT has plans to use last available one Interstate 840 for the northern loop of a beltway that's being built around nearby Greensboro. Given this, with the arrival of Interstate 74 in North Carolina, many highway mavens would like to see the freeway, which would cross I-74, renamed Interstate 274. However, this plan does not appear to agree with NCDOT which has proposed that number for the western half of the future Winston-Salem Northern Beltway. Other Business Loop freeways include the former Interstate 80 in Sacramento, California and two separate sections of what was once the mainline of Interstate 85 in Spartanburg, South Carolina and Greensboro, North Carolina.
- The state of Arkansas originally asked AASHTO to allow the Interstate segment between Fort Smith and Bentonville to be named Interstate 49, to emphasize plans to extend the route from Shreveport, Louisiana through Arkansas to Kansas City, Missouri. AASHTO refused, and the route opened in 1999 as a northern extension of I-540.
- Future Interstate 840 around Nashville, Tennessee was once planned to completely surround the city. But in October 2003, Tennessee DOT discontinued plans for a northern loop around the city. Currently the Highway is signed as Tennessee 840.
- In Oklahoma City, the designation I-440 had been given to a stretch of Interstate highway from I-240 to US-66; a part of Grand Boulevard that had been built compliant with Interstate standards. In 1982, as part of Oklahoma's "Diamond Jubilee", I-44's western terminus was moved from the I-35/I-44 junction to the Texas/Oklahoma border via the Belle Isle Freeway (connecting I-440 with I-35), I-440, the H.E. Bailey Turnpike, and the turnpike connector road on the eastern edge of Lawton, Oklahoma. The I-440 designation was dropped at the time, but may return in the future.
- In Albuquerque, New Mexico, I-40 was originally meant to replace Central Avenue through the center of the city. However, due to development and public opposition, a path going northward was chosen. The freeway intersects Central at either end of the city.
- In violation of Interstate standards, I-40 has one marked and two unmarked at-grade crossings in western North Carolina. About eight miles (13 km) from the Tennessee border in North Carolina, when going westbound, a sign for "Hurricane Road" will appear. Hurricane Road is a local dirt road whose quality is below that of the breakdown lane, and the intersection is controlled by a stop sign. It is a right-in, right-out entrance. A couple other unmarked local roads also directly link onto I-40 in the area, including an private access road for Walters Dam between mile markers 11 and 12 on the westbound side. A few such at-grade access points may also exist in New Mexico and Texas; reports are conflicting.[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/misc.transport.road/browse_thread/thread/b27f488312d2b719/72a8d83e388890f7?q=%22i-40%22+%22new+mexico%22+%22at-grade#72a8d83e388890f7]
- The I-25 and I-40 interchange in Albuquerque, New Mexico was given an honorable mention by the United States Department of Transportation and the Federal Highway Administration for excellence in urban highway design in 2002. [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/eihd/2002/cat1pic8.htm]
- When the last portion of I-40, connecting Wilmington to Raleigh, was completed in the late 1980s, a satirist commented that, "It is now possible to drive from coast to coast without seeing anything!"

External links

[http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/cepa/pubs/jul02/story2.htm The I-40 Bridge Disaster]

California


- [http://www.westcoastroads.com/california/ca-040.html WestCoastRoads - Interstate 40]
- [http://www.cahighways.org/033-040.html#040 California Highways: I-40]
- [http://www.geocities.com/bennyp81/ca40.html The Big Highways Page: California Route 40]
- [http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/traffops/signtech/calnexus/reports/fortywest.htm Cal-NExUS: Route 40 West]
- [http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/traffops/signtech/calnexus/reports/fortyeast.htm Cal-NExUS: Route 40 East]

Reference


- Rand McNally (2004). The Road Atlas 2005. Rand McNally & Company. ISBN 0528845454. Includes interstate mileage by state. 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 Category:The Triangle, North Carolina Category:U.S. Highway 66 40

Dandridge, Tennessee

Dandridge is a town located in Jefferson County, Tennessee. As of the 2000 census, the town had a total population of 2,078. It is the county seat of Jefferson County. Its most notable landmark is a large country club and golf course.

Geography

Jefferson County Dandridge is located at 36°1'43" North, 83°25'26" West (36.028493, -83.424010). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 13.9 km² (5.3 mi²). 13.9 km² (5.3 mi²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 2,078 people, 749 households, and 516 families residing in the town. The population density is 150.0/km² (388.4/mi²). There are 856 housing units at an average density of 61.8/km² (160.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the town is 92.44% White, 6.54% African American, 0.24% Native American, 0.05% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.19% from other races, and 0.53% from two or more races. 0.96% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 749 households out of which 27.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.7% are married couples living together, 11.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 31.0% are non-families. 28.3% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.8% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 2.81. In the town the population is spread out with 24.0% under the age of 18, 7.8% from 18 to 24, 26.3% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 20.2% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 39 years. For every 100 females there are 100.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.4 males. The median income for a household in the town is $34,167, and the median income for a family is $40,357. Males have a median income of $31,667 versus $21,176 for females. The per capita income for the town is $19,753. 13.1% of the population and 9.4% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 18.4% of those under the age of 18 and 10.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

External link

Category:Jefferson County, Tennessee Category:Towns in Tennessee

Fishers Landing, New York

Wellesley Island (formerly Wells Island) is an island in the St. Lawrence River at the international boundary of the United States of America and Canada. It is one of the large Thousand Islands in the river. The island is in Jefferson County, New York. Part of Wellesley Island is the Town of Orleans and the other part is the Town of Alexandria.

Geography

The location is at the west end of the St. Lawrence. The southeast peninsula of the island is separated from the Village of Alexandria Bay by the Upper (American) Narrows. The island has a narrow central section. Wellesley Island is traversed by Interstate Highway 81 to the Port of Entry located on the northeastern part of the island, adjacent to the Thousand Islands International Bridge, connecting the United States and Canada. Routes 100 and 191 also are on the island.

Geographic features


- Upper (American) Narrows -- the branch of the St. Lawrence River passing to the south of Wellesley Island.
- Barnett Marsh -- A swamp in the south part of the island.
- Crow Island -- an small island off the north shore.
- Densmore Bay -- A bay on the south shore of the southeast peninsula.
- Eel Bay -- A large bay between Wellesley Island and Grindstone Island.
- Grenell Island -- A smaller island southwest of Wellesley Island.
- Lake of the Isles -- A body of water connected to the St. Lawrence River, lying between the northeast and southeast peninsulas.
- Manhattan Group -- A cluster of small islands northeast of Wellesley Island.
- Murray Isle -- A smaller island southwest of Wellesley Island.
- South Bay -- A bay on the southeast part of the island.

Communities on the Island


- Collins Landing
- Grandview
- Moore Landing
- Fineview
- Saint Lawrence Park
- Thousand Islands
- Westminster Park

Parks on the island


- Wellesley Island State Park -- In several locations on the island.
- Dewolf Point State Park -- On the northeast peninsula.
- Mary Island State Park -- At the tip of the southeast peninsula. Category:Islands of New York

Canada

Canada is the second largest country in the world in terms of area, extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean with claims extending to the North Pole. The northern-most country on the mainland of North America, Canada has land borders only with the United States. Governed as a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, Canada is a federation of ten provinces with three territories. Initially constituted in 1867, the country's constitution was patriated in 1982 from the United Kingdom. Canada's head of state is its monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented in Canada by the Governor General, presently Michaëlle Jean. The head of government is the Prime Minister, currently Paul Martin; his minority government recently lost a vote of non-confidence in the Canadian House of Commons and asked for the dissolution of the Parliament by the Governor General, who then issued a Royal proclamation authorising the issue of election writs, and stating a federal election will take place on 2006 January 23. Canada's official languages are English and French. As of 2005, its official population estimate is approximately 32.4 million [http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm].

Overview

The capital city is Ottawa, Ontario, the seat of Canada's Parliament. The Governor General, the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Loyal Opposition, and the Speaker of the House of Commons have official residences in the National Capital Region.National Capital Region, Ontario.]] Originally a union of British colonies with significant French influence and entitled as a "dominion", Canada is a founding member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, and La Francophonie. Canada defines itself as a bilingual and multicultural nation:
- English is the official (and majority) language in most provinces of Canada.
- French is the official language of Quebec, an official language of New Brunswick, and is spoken in various areas throughout the country.
- Several Aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories; Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and has official status there. Canada is a technologically advanced and industrialized nation. It is a net exporter of energy because of its large fossil fuel deposits, nuclear energy generation, and hydroelectric power capacity. Its diversified economy relies heavily on an abundance of natural resources and trade, particularly with the United States, with which it has had a long and complex relationship. Canada has ten provinces and three territories: Canada's major cities that are not capital cities include Montreal, Quebec; Vancouver, British Columbia; and Calgary, Alberta.

Canada's name

The name Canada is believed to come from the Huron-Iroquois word kanata, which means "village" or "settlement". In 1535, locals used the word to tell Jacques Cartier the way to Stadacona, site of present-day Quebec City. Cartier used Canada to refer not only to Stadacona, but also to the entire area subject to Donnacona, Chief at Stadacona; by 1547, maps began referring to this and the surrounding area as Canada.

History

Aboriginal tradition holds that the First Peoples have inhabited parts of what is now called Canada since the dawn of time. Archaeological records show that these lands have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years. Several Viking expeditions occurred circa AD 1000, with evidence of settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows. British claims to North America date from 1497, when John Cabot reached what he called Newfoundland, though it is unclear whether Cabot landed in current Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, or Maine. French claims date from explorations by Jacques Cartier (from 1534) and Samuel de Champlain (from 1603). Neither Cabot's nor Cartier's explorations left any permanent settlers behind. On August 5, 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed Newfoundland as England's first overseas colony under Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I. In 1604, French settlers were the first Europeans to settle permanently in what is now Canada. After an unsuccessful winter in St. Croix Island (today in Maine), they settled Port-Royal in what is now the Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia, but moved to found Quebec City in 1608. The current Acadians are descendants of settlers who came later in the same century and re-founded Port-Royal. New France was generally the name given to the French colonies of Canada and Acadia (and later Louisiana).Louisiana, depicts British General Wolfe's final moments during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759.]] British settlements were established along the Atlantic seaboard and around Hudson Bay. As these colonies expanded, a struggle for control of North America took place between 1689 and 1763 (see French and Indian Wars), exacerbated by wars in Europe between France and Great Britain. France progressively lost territory to Great Britain, surrendering peninsular Nova Scotia in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and the remainder of New France including what was left of Acadia in the Treaty of Paris (1763). During and after the American Revolution approximately 70,000 [http://www.uelac.org/whatis.html] Loyalists fled the Thirteen Colonies. Of these, roughly 50,000 United Empire Loyalists [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0850061.html] settled in the British North American colonies which then consisted of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, the Province of Quebec, and Prince Edward Island (created 1769). To accommodate the Loyalists, Britain created the colony of New Brunswick in 1784 from part of Nova Scotia, and divided Quebec into Lower Canada and Upper Canada under the Constitutional Act of 1791. The War of 1812 began when the U.S. attacked British forces in Canada in an attempt to end British influence in North America (and particularly, the British seizures of American merchant ships in the Atlantic). In April 1813, U.S. forces burned York (now Toronto). The British/Canadians retaliated with the burning of Washington (DC) in a surprise attack in August 1814, but were subsequently turned back at Plattsburgh, Baltimore, and New Orleans. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in December 1814. It was only after the French and Napoleonic wars ended in Europe that large-scale immigration to Canada resumed. The Canadas were merged into a single colony, the United Province of Canada, with the Act of Union (1840) in an attempt to assimilate the French Canadians. Once the U.S. agreed to the 49th parallel north as its border with western British North America, the British government created the colonies of British Columbia in 1848 and Vancouver Island in 1849. By the late 1850s, politicians in the Province of Canada had launched a series of western exploratory expeditions with the intention of assuming control of Rupert's Land (administered by the Hudson's Bay Company) and the Arctic. In 1864 and 1866, British North American politicians, in what became known as the Great Coalition, held three conferences to create a federal union. Spearheaded by John A. Macdonald, on July 1, 1867, three colonies—Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick—were granted a constitution, the British North America Act, by the United Kingdom, creating the Dominion of Canada. The term "Canadian Confederation" refers to this 1867 unification of the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (formerly Canada East or Lower Canada), and Ontario (formerly Canada West or Upper Canada). The remaining British colonies and territories soon joined Confederation. By 1880 Canada included all of its present area except for Newfoundland and Labrador, which joined in 1949. (It should be noted that, although part of Canada, Alberta and Saskatchewan did not gain Provincial status until 1905.) Newfoundland and Labrador In 1919, Canada became a member of the League of Nations and, in the Imperial Conference of 1926, Canada assumed full control of its own through the Balfour Declaration. In 1927, Canada appointed its first ambassador to a foreign country, the United States. In 1931, the Statute of Westminster gave the Balfour Declaration constitutional force, confirming that no act of the UK's parliament would thereafter extend to Canada without its consent. Canadian citizenship was first distinguished from British in 1947; judicial appeals to the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council ended in 1949. The power to amend Canada's constitution remained with the British parliament, although subject to the Statute of Westminster, until it was finally "patriated" to Canadian control by the Canada Act 1982. The Quebec sovereignty movement has led to two referendums held in 1980 and 1995, with votes of 59.6% and 50.6% respectively against its proposals for sovereignty-association. In 1997, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional.

Geography

unconstitutionalCanada occupies the northern portion (precisely 41%) of North America. It is bordered to the south by the contiguous United States and to the northwest by Alaska. The length of these borders are 6,416 km (3,987 mi) and 2,477 km (1,539 mi), respectively. Off the southern coast of Newfoundland lies Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, an overseas community of France. The country stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west (hence the country's motto). To the north lies the Arctic Ocean; Greenland is to the northeast. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60° and 141° W longitude ([http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1]); this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82.5° N – just 834 kilometres (518 mi) from the North Pole. Also, the magnetic North Pole lies within Canadian boundaries (although is moving towards Siberia). Canada is the world's second-largest country in total area, after Russia. Much of Canada lies in Arctic regions, however, and thus Canada has only the fourth-most arable land area behind Russia, China, and the U.S. The population density of 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.0/mi²) is among the lowest in the world: Canada has more land area than the U.S., but only one-ninth of its population. The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City-Windsor Axis in the east. To the north of this region is the broad Canadian Shield, an area of rock scoured clean by the last ice age, thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and dotted with lakes and rivers—over 60% of the world's lakes are in Canada. The Canadian Shield encircles the immense Hudson Bay, extending from Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories at its westernmost point, to the Atlantic coast in Labrador in the east. Newfoundland, North America's easternmost island if Greenland is excluded, is at the mouth of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the world's largest estuary. The Canadian Maritimes protrude eastward from the southern coasts of Quebec. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are divided by the Bay of Fundy, which experiences the world's largest tidal variations. Prince Edward Island is Canada's smallest province. Prince Edward Island; at 5 959 m (19,551 ft), Canada's highest point and second highest in North America.]]West of Ontario, the broad, flat Canadian Prairies spread toward the Rocky Mountains, which separate them from British Columbia. Northern Canadian vegetation tapers from coniferous forests to tundra and finally to Arctic barrens in the far north. The northern Canadian mainland is ringed with a vast archipelago containing some of the world's largest islands. Some specific geographical features of note include the world's largest freshwater island, Manitoulin Island, which divides Georgian Bay and Lake Huron and the world's longest freshwater beach, Wasaga Beach, on the Georgian Bay shoreline. Thanks to past glacial activity in the Canadian Shield, Canada boasts a considerable reserve of fresh water and more lakes than any other nation, roughly two million in all, the overwhelming majority of which are relatively small.

Climate

Canada has a reputation for cold temperatures in the winter months. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the Prairie Provinces. Temperatures can reach lows of -50°C (-58°F) in the far North however, such low temperatures are not the norm; the record coldest temperature in North America was -63°C (-81°F), at Snag, Yukon, in 1947. Coastal British Columbia is an exception: it enjoys a temperate climate with much milder winters than the rest of the country however, rainy winters are common. Summers in Canada range from mild (low 20s Celsius [70°F]) on the east and west coasts, to hot (mid 20s to low 30s Celsius [75-90°F]) in Central Canada, the Prairies and the intermontane regions of British Columbia. The highest recorded temperature in Canada was 45°C (113°F) at both Midale and Yellow Grass in Saskatchewan on July 5, 1937. For a more complete description of weather norms around Canada, go to www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html

Politics

1937] Canada's head of state is the monarch, currently Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and commonly referred to as the Queen of Canada. However, the day-to-day duties of head of state are exercised by the Governor General, who is generally a retired politician, military leader, or other notable Canadian; the current Governor General is Michaëlle Jean. All government authority is derived from the monarch, and executive power is wielded by the Prime Minister of Canada and the cabinet. The Governor General is formally appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister and is a non-partisan figure who fulfils many ceremonial and symbolic roles including providing Royal Assent to bills, reading the Speech from the Throne, officially welcoming dignitaries of foreign countries, presenting honours such as the Order of Canada, signing state documents, formally opening and ending sessions of Parliament, and dissolving Parliament for an election. The Governor General is also the titular Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces. The position of Governor General also beholds considerable reserve powers, but these have been rarely used. The last to do so was Jeanne Sauvé, who ignored the National Capital Commission and closed the grounds of Rideau Hall in the late 1980s; the most famous use of the Governor General's extraordinary powers was during the King-Byng Affair in 1926. Canada's constitution governs the legal framework of the country and consists of [http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/const/index.html written text] and unwritten traditions and conventions (see Westminster system). The federal government and the governments of nine provinces agreed to the patriation of the constitution, with procedures for amending it, at a meeting of First Ministers in November 1981. The Quebec government did not agree to the changes, and Quebec nationalists refer to that night as the Night of the Long Knives. The patriation of the Constitution included the adoption of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees basic rights and freedoms for Canadians that, generally, cannot be overridden by legislation of any level of government in Canada. It contains, however, a "notwithstanding clause", which allows the federal parliament and the provincial legislatures the power to override other sections of the Charter temporarily, for a period of five years. notwithstanding clause]]The position of Prime Minister, Canada's head of government, in practice belongs to the leader of the political party who can command a majority in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister and his or her cabinet are formally appointed by the Governor General; however, the Prime Minister effectively chooses the cabinet and the Governor General, by convention, has to appoint the Prime Minister's desired choices. The Cabinet is drawn, by convention, from members of the prime minister's party in both legislative houses, though mostly from the Commons. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the Privy Council of Canada and become ministers of the Crown. The Prime Minister exercises a great deal of individual political power, especially in terms of the appointment of other officials within the government and civil service. The legislative branch of government has two houses: the elected House of Commons and the appointed Senate. Each member in the Commons is elected by simple plurality in one electoral district or "riding"; general elections are called by the Governor General when the prime minister so advises, and must occur every five years or less. Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the prime minister and formally appointed by the Governor General, and serve until age 75. electoral district]]Canada has four main political parties today. The traditionally centrist / left-of-centre Liberal Party of Canada formed the government in Canada for most of the 20th century, and is the party of the current Prime Minister Paul Martin. The only other party to have formed a government is the now-defunct, right-of-centre Progressive Conservative (PC) Party and its predecessor, the Conservative Party, which was the dominant political party in the 19th century. The PC Party merged with the Canadian Alliance to form a new rightist Conservative Party of Canada in December 2003. The New Democratic Party (NDP) is the major party furthest to the political left. The Bloc Québécois promotes Quebec independence from Canada and currently holds a majority of Quebec's seats in the Commons. There are many smaller parties and, while none have current representation in Parliament, the list of historical parties with elected representation is substantial. Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter; its nine members are directly appointed by Cabinet. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are selected and appointed by the federal government, after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels. Judicial posts at the lower provincial and territorial levels are filled by their respective governments (see Court system of Canada for more detail). Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in most provinces policing is contracted to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). The RCMP is one of few police forces in the world to perform three different levels of enforcement: municipal, provincial, and federal.

Foreign relations

Canada has a close relationship with the United States, sharing the world's longest undefended border, co-operating on some military campaigns and exercises, and being each other's largest trading partners. Canada also shares a history and long relationship with the United Kingdom as its "mother country". United Kingdom.]] In the last century, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to reach out to the rest of the world and promoting itself as a "middle power" able to work with large and small nations alike. This was clearly demonstrated during the Suez Crisis when Lester B. Pearson mollified the tension by introducing the idea of peacekeeping and the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force. In 1957, Pearson was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize. In that spirit, Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts. Canada has cumulatively contributed more troops to peacekeeping operations worldwide than all other nations combined and currently serves in over 40 different peacekeeping missions, most recently in Afghanistan. Canada has contributed in some way to all UN peacekeeping missions. Canada is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, La Francophonie, the Organization of American States (OAS), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the World Trade Organization, the G8, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC).

Military

Asia-Pacific Economic CooperationA founding member of the NATO alliance, Canada currently employs about 62,000 regular and 26,000 reserve military personnel.[http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/family_e.asp] The unified Canadian Forces (CF) are comprised of army, navy, and air force branches. Major CF equipment deployed includes 2,400 armoured fighting vehicles, 34 combat vessels, and 140 combat aircraft. Defence is an exclusive federal jurisdiction: defence spending in fiscal year 2004-5 was approximately $14 billion.[http://www.vcds.forces.gc.ca/dgsp/pubs/rep-pub/ddm/rpp/rpp05-06/sec3c_e.asp] However, in the 2005 federal budget, the Liberal government allocated an additional $12.8 billion over five years to the armed forces, and committed to increasing troop levels by an additional 8,000 regular and reserve personnel over the same period.[http://www.fin.gc.ca/budget05/speech/speeche.htm] Canadian forces have served in various wars including World War I, World War II, the Korean War and recently, in Afghanistan. Since Lester B. Pearson proposed the first UN peacekeeping force in 1956, the Canadian Forces have served in 42 peacekeeping missions — more than any other country. Canada was also the prime destination of American draft dodgers during the Vietnam War. These factors – along with its comparatively low level of military spending, other positions such as nuclear non-proliferation, and an international treaty banning personnel land mine usage – have led to Canada sometimes being referred to as a pacifist country. Battles significantly contributing to Canada's development and self-identity include the Battle of Vimy Ridge, the Second Battle of Ypres, the Third Battle of Ypres, and Juno Beach. Currently, CF personnel are involved in the NATO mission in Afghanistan. Smaller missions are also taking place in Haiti and Kosovo. Canada's Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) has participated in two relief operations in the last year. The two-hundred member relief crew helped in Southeast Asia after the December 2004 tsunami, and DART was also deployed in response to the devastating earthquake that struck the Kashmir region in South Asia in October 2005. Moreover, CF (and RCMP) personnel recently assisted in Hurricane Katrina relief efforts.

Provinces and territories of Canada

Canada is composed of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces have a large degree of autonomy from the federal government, the territories somewhat less. Each has its own provincial or territorial symbols. The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as health care, education, and welfare) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. The federal government can initiate national policies that the provinces can opt out of, but this rarely happens in practice.