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Interstate 95

Interstate 95

Interstate 95 or (I-95) is an interstate highway that runs 1907 miles (3070 kilometers) north-south along the east coast of the United States. The southern terminus is in the city of Miami, Florida ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Miami,+Florida&ll=25.744549,-80.218134&spn=0.036062,0.046151&hl=en Map]); the northern terminus is at the Canadian border at Houlton, Maine ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Houlton,+Maine&ll=46.126318,-67.795601&spn=0.055495,0.092302&hl=en Map]). Interstate 95 is one of the most well-known, most important, and heaviest travelled highways in the Interstate system. It serves and connects the major cities along the Northeast corridor, and it is the major north-south highway along the east coast. It is the longest north-south Interstate highway (five east-west routes are longer), and it passes through the most states (15) of any Interstate.

Length

1: (up from 298 miles [484 km] due to realignment along old Interstate 495 and the remainder of the Maine Turnpike)

Major cities along the route

Interstate 495 From South to North:
- Miami, Florida
- Fort Lauderdale, Florida
- West Palm Beach, Florida
- Port Saint Lucie, Florida
- Melbourne, Florida
- Daytona Beach, Florida
- Jacksonville, Florida
- Brunswick, Georgia
- Savannah, Georgia
- Florence, South Carolina
- Fayetteville, North Carolina
- Petersburg, Virginia
- Richmond, Virginia
- Alexandria, Virginia
- Washington, D.C.
- Baltimore, Maryland
- Newark, Delaware
- Wilmington, Delaware
- Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- Trenton, New Jersey
- Newark, New Jersey
- Jersey City, New Jersey
- New York City, New York
- New Rochelle, New York
- Stamford, Connecticut
- Bridgeport, Connecticut
- New Haven, Connecticut
- New London, Connecticut
- Providence, Rhode Island
- Boston, Massachusetts
- Portsmouth, New Hampshire
- Portland, Maine (downtown no longer directly served by I-95 which bypasses in the same manner as it does Boston; Interstate 295 now serves city center)
- Augusta, Maine
- Bangor, Maine
- Houlton, Maine

Intersections with other Interstates

From south to north:
- Interstate 4 in Daytona Beach, Florida ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Daytona+Beach,+Florida&ll=29.127572,-81.053009&spn=0.270095,0.360077&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 10 in Jacksonville, Florida ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Jacksonville,+Florida.&ll=30.315543,-81.682663&spn=0.066729,0.090019&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 16 in Savannah, Georgia ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Savannah,+Georgia&ll=32.106134,-81.229477&spn=0.130955,0.180038&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 26 near Harleyville, South Carolina ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Harleyville,+South+Carolina&ll=33.288064,-80.473480&spn=0.516927,0.720154&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 20 in Florence, South Carolina ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Florence,+SC&ll=34.189086,-79.836273&spn=0.127882,0.180038&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 40 in Benson, North Carolina ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Benson,+NC&ll=35.371695,-78.511391&spn=0.126062,0.180038&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 85 in Petersburg, Virginia ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Petersburg,+Virginia&ll=37.241262,-77.449493&spn=0.492298,0.720154&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 64 for 4 miles (6.4 km) in Richmond, Virginia ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Richmond,+Virginia&ll=37.554104,-77.446060&spn=0.122562,0.180038&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 76 (east) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Philadelphia,+Pennsylvania&ll=39.889719,-75.159531&spn=0.118620,0.180038&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 78 in Newark, New Jersey ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Newark,+NJ&ll=40.707450,-74.160976&spn=0.058597,0.090019&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 80 in Teaneck, New Jersey ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Teaneck,+NJ&ll=40.851216,-73.999443&spn=0.116940,0.180038&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 87 in New York City, New York ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=New+York,+NY&ll=40.847710,-73.924770&spn=0.058473,0.090019&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 91 in New Haven, Connecticut ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=New+Haven,+CT&ll=41.302765,-72.914028&spn=0.014517,0.022505&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 93 in Canton, Massachusetts ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Canton,+MA&ll=42.197749,-71.098022&spn=0.114531,0.180038&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 90 in Weston, Massachusetts ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Weston,+MA&ll=42.337103,-71.261959&spn=0.028570,0.045010&hl=en Map])
- Interstate 93 in Woburn, Massachusetts ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Woburn,+MA&ll=42.499947,-71.121025&spn=0.056991,0.090019&hl=en Map])

Spur routes


- Miami, Florida - I-195, I-395
- Fort Lauderdale, Florida - I-595
- Jacksonville, Florida - I-295, future I-795
- Fayetteville, North Carolina - future I-295
- Richmond, Virginia - I-195, I-295, defunct I-795, VA 895
- Washington, D.C. area - defunct I-195, I-295, I-395, I-495, unsigned I-595 in Maryland, defunct I-595 in Virginia, I-695
- Baltimore, Maryland - I-195, I-395, defunct I-595, I-695, I-795, I-895
- Wilmington, Delaware - I-495, defunct I-895
- Wilmington, Delaware to Trenton, New Jersey, eventually turning south towards Philadelphia, PA - I-295
- Philadelphia, Pennsylvania - defunct I-695, defunct I-895
- Spur to New Jersey shore points - I-195
- Northern New Jersey - defunct I-695
- Western spur of New Jersey Turnpike - Route 95W (signed for I-95 through traffic, while the older eastern spur, technically I-95, is signed for the exits along it, and only as I-95 from intersecting roads)
- New York, New York - I-295, I-495, I-695, I-895
- Connecticut Turnpike/Spur to Worcester, Massachusetts - I-395
- Providence, Rhode Island - I-195, I-295, defunct I-895
- Boston, Massachusetts - I-495, defunct I-695
- Saco, Maine - I-195
- Portland, Maine to Gardiner, Maine - I-295
- Falmouth, Maine spur - former I-95/I-295 connector - unsigned I-495
- Bangor, Maine - I-395

Tolls

Portions of the highway have or used to have tolls:
- Fuller Warren Bridge (defunct)
- Trout River Bridge (defunct)
- Richmond-Petersburg Turnpike (defunct)
- Fort McHenry Tunnel (Baltimore)
- John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway (Maryland)
- Delaware Turnpike
- Pennsylvania Turnpike (after interchange completed in 2009[http://www.paturnpikei95.com/])
- New Jersey Turnpike
- George Washington Bridge
- New England Thruway
- Connecticut Turnpike (defunct)
- New Hampshire Turnpike
- Maine Turnpike

Notes


- The highway's spurs have set three records. I-95 has the most child highways of any interstate. There are soon to be eight separate I-295s, making this designation used for the most number of highways. Also, six I-695s were planned, but postponed or never built, setting another record.
- I-95 generally parallels US 1 for its entire route, although in some places they are over 100 miles apart. For example, US 1 goes through Raleigh, North Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina and Augusta, Georgia, three cities that are not served by I-95. Also, the southern part of I-95 (Miami, FL to Trenton, NJ) has both ends at US 1; however, this is planned on being changed with the re-routing of I-95 onto the Pennsylvania Turnpike to interchange 6 on the New Jersey Turnpike.
- The Miami hip-hop group 95 South is named after this highway.
- The highway was known as a drug route and was nicknamed Cocaine Alley.
- East-West spur on FL 528 travels between Orlando and Cape Canaveral, Florida; location of Kennedy Space Center
- There are two unsigned spur routes from the Washington area. I-695 is an unsigned route that connects I-395 and I-295; and I-595 to Annapolis is better known as US 50/301. (There is another I-695 not too far to the north, a full beltway around Baltimore.)
- Originally, I-95 was supposed to go through Washington, D.C. instead of around it. The section through the city was re-designated as I-395; it does not connect with I-95 at the northern end, but does at the southern end. The Baltimore-Washington Parkway is not an interstate, but if it were, it would have been I-295; the section not controlled by the National Park Service is designated MD 295, while the portion of the Anacostia Freeway in Washington not designated I-295 is DC 295 – the District's only "state highway". The Capital Beltway article has more about this stretch of highway.
- One portion of the Capital Beltway which is also Interstate 95, there is a very small portion at the Woodrow Wilson Bridge where the road actually crosses through an edge of the District of Columbia in the Potomac River. This small area is within the boundaries surveyed in straight lines when the District was carved out of Virginia and Maryland upon formation in 1790.
- The light towers along I-95 between the I-495 Capital Beltway and the Baltimore city line contain either mercury vapor or metal halide streetlights, both of which cast a soft white light. Once I-95 enters Baltimore, the light towers contain high-pressure sodium lights, which are bright orange. North of Baltimore, there are mercury vapor/metal halide towers at four more interchanges. Light towers are very common on Interstate highways, especially in urban areas, and most of them contain sodium lighting. They usually carry three or four lights, but some light towers can carry as many as 12.
- At eight lanes wide, the Fort McHenry Tunnel is among the widest underwater tunnels in the world. There are four tubes, each of them carrying two lanes.
- In Baltimore, two interstate highways (I-70 and I-83) were planned to intersect with I-95, but they were both cancelled, along with I-170 (which is now part of US 40). I-70 ends unceremoniously at a Park & Ride lot just before the Baltimore city line, and I-83 ends in the downtown district. Ramp stubs remain from both interchanges.
- Originally, a bridge, possibly a suspension bridge, was planned to carry I-95 over Baltimore Harbor, and a tunnel was planned for I-695. Opposition prevented the I-95 bridge from being built (because it would've blocked the view of the Baltimore skyline and Fort McHenry), and it switched positions with the I-695 tunnel, which had also been rejected. The two crossings became the Key Bridge for I-695, and the Fort McHenry Tunnel for I-95.
- The I-895 Harbor Tunnel Thruway in Baltimore intersects with I-95 at three different points. At one of those crossings (where the two Baltimore tunnels are located), there are no ramps between the Thruway and the I-95 freeway.
- I-395, a skyway into downtown Baltimore, was once considered the shortest three-digit Interstate route in the country.
- Also, an I-895 was planned to connect I-95 and I-295 south of Trenton, with the bridge over the Delaware River being a replacement of the Burlington-Bristol Bridge, making a complete loop of Trenton. This was never built, and the Pennsylvania Turnpike Extension would be the interstate in the area if a connection between it and I-295 were ever built.
- I-495 was supposed to link New Jersey and Long Island, but the portion across Manhattan was never built, and the New Jersey section of the freeway was downgraded to NJ 495.
- I-895 around Providence was also planned, but it was never built.
- I-95 in Massachusetts loops around Boston along Massachusetts State Highway 128. I-95 was supposed to go through Boston instead of around it but due to pressure from local residents, all proposed interstate highways within 128 were cancelled in 1972 by Governor Francis Sargent, the exception being the completion of Interstate 93 to Boston. The only section of I-95 completed within the 128 beltway by the Massachusetts Department of Transportation was part of the highway north of Boston to Saugus, called the Northeast Expressway which is now part of US 1. Between 1972 and 1974 plans were to extend I-95 along a northly extension of the Northeast Expressway to Route 128 in Danvers. During this time I-95 was officially routed along Route 128 from Canton to Braintree and along Massachusetts Route 3 from Braintree to intersection with the Northeast Expressway in Boston. When the extension was cancelled in 1974, I-95's route shifted to where it is today, along Route 128 and I-93 was extended to meet I-95 in Canton. Plans for the abandoned roadways can still be seen going from the end of the Northeast Expressway to the Saugus River in Saugus, Massachusetts and on the south end in Canton, there is an abandoned stretch north of the trumpet interchange at I-95 and I-93. From aerial photographs, the planned configuration of the junctions is apparent. [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=42.207620,-71.140155&t=h]
- I-95 was recently rerouted in Maine. Before 2004, the Maine Turnpike between the Falmouth Spur (near Portland, Maine) and Gardiner, Maine was signed as I-495, and I-95 followed a free expressway parallel to the east. Now, the entire Maine Turnpike is signed as I-95, the old I-95 free highway between the Falmouth Spur and Gardiner has been resigned as an extension of I-295 from Portland, and I-495 now only exists as the secret designation for the short Falmouth Spur. The official reason for this change was "to avoid confusion." However, some point out that the new signage might be a ploy to encourage through traffic to use the toll Maine Turnpike instead of the slightly shorter parallel free expressway, and that busy traffic heading for much of the Maine coast must now change from I-95 to I-295 before exiting on US 1.
- Across the Canadian border near Houlton, Maine, I-95 continues in Canada as New Brunswick Highway 95. This is the one of two places where an Interstate and its Canadian extension have the same route number; the other is at the north end of Interstate 29. (However, both of these Canadian extensions are very short, less than ten miles in length, before connecting to another highway.)

Rerouting onto the Pennsylvania Turnpike Project

There is a gap in Interstate 95 in New Jersey, where local opposition groups managed to stop construction of the Somerset Freeway through the area. Heading northbound from Pennsylvania into Ewing Township (by Trenton, New Jersey), Interstate 95 abruptly ends at its intersection with US 1. From there, the highway is then signed as Interstate 295, and turns south. To continue on Interstate 95 northbound, one must travel south on Interstate 295 then east on Interstate 195 (or use a non-freeway section of US 1) in order to reach the northern section of the New Jersey Turnpike, which is signed as Interstate 95. An interchange is currently being planed [http://www.paturnpikei95.com/] with the Pennsylvania Turnpike to install a connection between the two highways. After Philadelphia, I-95 will turn on to the Pennsylvania Turnpike. It will then cross the Delaware River on a expanded bridge to the New Jersey Turnpike extension at exit 6. Users will then continue north on the New Jersey Turnpike, which is already designated Interstate 95. A flat-rate toll will be added before the bridge. This will complete I-95 from Miami, FL to Houlton, ME. Construction is expected to start in late 2006 or early 2007 and will cost approximately 500 million dollars. Some highway mavens think that this will be an inadequate solution, and want the Somerset Freeway built; others want the entire main trunk of the New Jersey Turnpike designated as I-95, as that is where most of the traffic goes anyway; however, this would bypass Philadelphia.

Disasters

In January 1983, a truck with a brake failure slammed into a line of cars waiting to pay a toll on I-95 in Stratford, Connecticut. Seven people were killed and this accident prompted the state to remove tolls from its portion of I-95. On the morning of June 28, 1983, a 100 ft (30 meter) section of the Mianus River Bridge in the Cos Cob section of Greenwich, Connecticut collapsed, plunging northbound I-95 traffic into the river below, killing three. The collapse was blamed on the failure of the steel pins to hold the horizontal beams together and inadequate inspection prior to the collapse. Northbound traffic was diverted on this section of I-95 for 25 days. Southbound traffic was unaffected. On February 1, 2004, a tanker truck fell onto the northbound lanes of I-95 as it was entering the southbound side from the Harbor Tunnel Thruway in Howard County, Maryland, near Baltimore. The truck driver was killed, along with the occupants in additional vehicles traveling north on I-95 (including a pickup truck). The northbound lanes of I-95 were closed to traffic overnight, as cleanup crews cleared the highway of debris from the crash. It is believed that the truck fell onto I-95 while it was crossing the overpass marking the Thruway's southern terminus. On March 26, 2004 a bridge on I-95 near Bridgeport, Connecticut was partly melted by the explosion of a tanker truck carrying over 45,000 liters (11,900 gallons) of fuel oil. Repairs were estimated to take at least two weeks, but the highway was opened to northbound traffic in only a few days. Southbound traffic resumed about a week later. On the morning of July 25, 2005, a Philadelphia-bound Greyhound bus crashed and overturned on the rain-soaked lanes of northbound I-95 in Baltimore, Maryland, near the junction with US 40 in the eastern part of the city, before the junction with I-895. Fourteen people were seriously injured, although nobody died. Slick roads caused by an early-morning thunderstorm was blamed for the crash. The highway was closed in the northbound direction for hours.

State by state

Virginia

I-895
Interstate 95 approaching U.S. 1 in Alexandria, Virginia from the Woodrow Wilson Bridge.
- Exit 177 - U.S. 1, Alexandria, Virginia - Last exit before Woodrow Wilson Bridge into the State of Maryland.

Maryland

Woodrow Wilson Bridge
The evocatively-named North East Rising Sun exit is a favorite sight of northbound travellers on I-95 in northern Maryland.

New Jersey

New York


- George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River from New Jersey into into New York County (Manhattan)
- Trans-Manhattan Expressway
- Alexander Hamilton Bridge over the Harlem River into the Bronx
- Cross-Bronx Expressway (I-295 after the I-95 portion)
- Bruckner Expressway (I-278 before the I-95 portion)
- New England Thruway through the remainder of the Bronx, all of Westchester, and into Connecticut

Connecticut


- Governor John Davis Lodge Turnpike (Connecticut Turnpike)
- Jewish War Veterans Memorial Highway

Rhode Island

Construction

Interstate 95 in Rhode Island was opened in sections between 1955 and 1969. The sections opened in this order:

Exits

Exit 1,
RI 3

Exit 2,
to RI 3

Exit 3,
RI 138

Exit 4, (Northbound only)
to RI 165

Exit 5,
RI 102 (Exeter/West Greenwich)

Exit 6,
RI 3 (Coventry/West Greenwich)

Exit 6a,
Hopkins Hill Road (Coventry/West Greenwich)

Exit 7,
New London Turn Pike (Coventry/ West Greenwich)

Exit 8a,(Northbound)
RI 2 South to RI 401/RI 4
Exit 8b, (Northbound)
RI 2 North
Exit 8, (SouthBound)
RI 2

Exit 9, (southbound Only)
RI 4 to RI 401

Exit 10, (North bound)
RI 117
Exit 10b,(Southbound)
RI 117 West
Exit 10a,(Southbound)
RI 117 East

Exit 11, (Northbound Only)
I-295North (used to access RI Mall, CCRI and Warwick mall)

Exit 12b, (Southbound Only)
I-295 North/ RI 113 West ( used to access RI Mall, CCRI, and Warwick Mall)
Exit 12/12a, (North/South)
RI 113 East to RI 5

Exit 13,
US 1, TF Green Airport

External links


- http://www.usastar.com/i95/homepage.htm

References


- 2005 Rand McNally "The Road Atlas 2005" - newest feature- interstate mileage by state
- [http://www.dot.state.fl.us/planning/statistics/gis/default.htm FDOT] GIS data
- [http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/refdata/sldiag/ NJDOT] Straight Line Diagrams 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95

Interstate Highway

The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways, commonly called the Interstate Highway System, is a network of highways in the United States. The Interstate Highway System is a separate system within the larger National Highway System. With very few exceptions, Interstate highways are controlled-access freeways, allowing for safe high-speed driving when traffic permits. They are assigned a special level of funding at the federal level. Despite this federal funding, these highways are owned, designed, built and maintained by the state in which they are located, with the only exception being the federally-owned Woodrow Wilson Bridge on the Capital Beltway (I-95/I-495). The highways in the system are typically known as Interstate XX or I-XX; sometimes Interstate Highway XX (IH XX) or Interstate Route XX (IR XX) is used. In some areas the more generic Route XX or Highway XX is used. The system serves all major U.S. cities, and unlike its counterparts in most industrialized countries, often goes right through downtown areas rather than bypassing them. This facilitated the emergence of automobile-oriented postwar suburban development patterns, often pejoratively referred to as "urban sprawl". The system is prominent in the daily lives of most Americans. Virtually all goods and services are delivered via the Interstate Highways at some point. Many residents of American cities use the urban segments of the system to go to and from their jobs. Most long-distance journeys (for vacation or business) of less than 300 miles (500 km) use the interstate highway system at some point. Hawaii has several signed Interstates, but Alaska and Puerto Rico do not. The latter two do have roads designated as Interstates for funding purposes, but they are not currently or planned to be built to Interstate standards. The public controlled-access highways of Puerto Rico are the Autopistas (PR-22, PR-52, and PR-53).

History

Autopistas The interstate system was authorized by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, popularly known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act of 1956. It was lobbied for by major U.S. automobile manufacturers and championed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and was influenced by both his experiences as a young soldier crossing the country in 1919 following the route of the Lincoln Highway, and by his appreciation of the German autobahn network. Planning for a system of new superhighways began in the late 1930s, even before federal commitment to build the Interstate highway system came in the 1950s. Construction on the world's first public limited-access highway, the Bronx River Parkway, had begun in New York as early as 1907. By the 1920s, longer highways such as the New York City parkway system had been built as part of local or state highway systems. As automotive traffic increased, planners saw a need for such an interconnected national system to supplement the existing, largely non-freeway, U.S. Highway system.The General location of national system of interstate highways, including all additional routes at urban areas designated in September, 1955 maps what became the interstate system, and is informally known as the Yellow Book. Although construction on the Interstate Highway system continues, it was officially regarded as complete in 1991 (though 1.5 miles of the original planned system remain unconstructed as of 2005 [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/programadmin/interstate.html]). The initial cost estimate for the system was $25 billion over twelve years; it ended up costing $114 billion, taking 35 years to complete. As of 2004, the system contains over 42,700 miles (68,500 km) of roads, all at least four lanes wide.

Standards

:Main article: Interstate Highway standards The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has defined a set of standards that all new Interstates must meet unless a waiver from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) is obtained. These standards have become stricter over the years. One almost absolute standard is the controlled access nature of the roads. Except for a few exceptions, traffic lights (and cross traffic in general) are limited to toll booths and ramp meters (metered flow control for lane merging during rush hours).

Speed limits

Speed limits vary according to location. By initial planning, the Interstate system was designed to provide reasonable road safety at speeds of 75 to 80 miles per hour (120 to 130 km/h) except in limited stretches (such as steep mountain passes or urban cores) where many vehicles cannot maintain such speeds. Many western states had high speed limits. Kansas, for example, had a posted limit of 80 mph (130 km/h)[http://people.smu.edu/acambre/blog/PermaLink,guid,5575625c-bbd4-47a3-be9f-9d5517d3a06f.aspx]. Some states, such as Oregon, defined the limit as whatever was "reasonable and proper", which would not be allowed today (see Montana reference below). In 1974, the federal government enacted 55 mph (90 km/h) as a gasoline conservation measure in response to the 1973 energy crisis. After the end of the embargo this restriction was continued as a safety measure. It was very unpopular, especially in western states. The 55 mph cap was relaxed in 1987 to allow 65 mph (105 km/h) speeds on rural Interstates if the states so chose. During this interim period, some roads (such as I-335 in Kansas) were specifically designated as Interstates to take advantage of this higher speed limit. Shortly thereafter, 65 mph limits were allowed on roads not numbered as interstates but which were built to interstate standards. The 55/65 mph caps were eliminated in late 1995, fully returning speed limit control to the states. Many states maintain several different limits. For example, in California, most interstates are limited to 55 mph within a major city, 65 mph (105 km/h) for most of the suburban highway stretches, and up to 70 mph (115 km/h) throughout the desert and rural stretches of the state. In some states, commercial trucks have a lower speed limit than passenger automobiles. In some mountainous regions, the condition of the roadway mandates a lower speed limit than would otherwise have applied. While some states have maintained the 65 mph limit, other states have increased the limits to 70 or 75 mph (110 or 120 km/h). Generally, the highest speed limits are found in the South and Southwest, while the lowest are found in the Northeast. Soon after the end of the National Maximum Speed Limit, the state of Montana ended daytime speed limits for automobile traffic on Interstate Highways in the state, instead instructing motorists to maintain a "reasonable and prudent" speed. A few years later, the "reasonable and prudent" law was declared unconstitutional for being too vague and a limit of 75 mph (120 km/h) was enacted in its place. Texas recently enacted a law allowing 80 MPH speed limits on certain portions of Interstates 10 and 20 in far west Texas. However, these limits are on hold pending further study by the Texas Department of Transportation.

Dual-purpose design

In addition to being designed to support automobile and heavy truck traffic, interstate highways are also designed for use in military and civil defense operations within the United States, particularly troop movements. One potential civil defense use of the Interstate Highway System is for the emergency evacuation of cities in the event of a potential nuclear war. Although this use has never happened, the Interstate Highway System has been used to facilitate evacuations in the face of hurricanes and other natural disasters. An option for maximizing throughput is to reverse the flow of traffic on one side so that all lanes become outbound lanes. This procedure is known as Contraflow, and could be seen in the evacuations of New Orleans, Louisiana and Houston, Texas prior to hurricanes Katrina and Rita, respectively. Several Interstates in the South, including I-16 in Georgia, I-40 in North Carolina, I-65 in Alabama, I-10 & I-59 in Louisiana, and I-59 in Mississippi, are equipped and signed specifically for contraflow, with crossovers inland after major interchanges to distribute much of the traffic. This is however not limited to Interstates; US 49 from Gulfport to Jackson and State Road 528, in Central Florida, have the same setup. A widespread but false urban legend states that one out of every five miles of the Interstate highway system must be built straight and flat, so as to be usable by aircraft during times of war.[http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/mayjun00/onemileinfive.htm] However, the Germans in World War II used the Autobahns for just such a purpose.

Terminology

While the name implies that these highways cross state lines, many Interstates do not. Rather, it is the system of interstates that connects states. There are interstate highways in Hawaii, funded in the same way as in the other states, but entirely within the populous island of Oahu. They have the designation of H-X, and connect military bases. Similarly, both Alaska and Puerto Rico have public roads that receive funding from the Interstate program, though these routes are not signed as Interstate Highways.

Primary routes

The numbering scheme for the Interstate Highway System (as well as the U.S. Highway System) is coordinated by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), though their authority is occasionally trumped by a number written into Federal law. Within the continental United States, primary Interstates (also called main line Interstates or two-digit Interstates) are given one- or two-digit route numbers. Most Interstates have two numbers; there are only three one-digit Interstates in the system: I-4, I-5 and I-8. Within this category, east-west highways are assigned even numbers, and north-south highways are assigned odd-numbers. Odd route numbers increase from west to east, and even numbered routes increase from south to north. Numbers divisible by 5 are intended to be primary routes, carrying traffic long distances. For example, I-5 runs from Canada to Mexico along the west coast (the only interstate to do so) while I-95 runs from Miami north to Canada. In addition, I-10 runs from Los Angeles, California to Jacksonville, Florida while I-90 runs from Seattle to Boston. However, not all primary routes traverse long distances. I-45 runs from Galveston, Texas north to Dallas, Texas, a distance of only 284 miles. It is the only primary route that does not cross state lines (see List of intrastate Interstate Highways). It should be noted that I-50 and I-60 do not exist (and there are no even-numbered Interstates between 46 and 62), mainly because they would most likely have passed through the same states that already have US 50 and US 60. AASHTO rules discourage Interstate and US Highways with the same number to exist in the same state, although I-24 and US 24 exist at opposite ends of Illinois. Some planned Interstates do not follow this guideline - I-69 will enter Texas (which has US 69), I-74 will have a multiplex with US 74 in North Carolina, and I-41 will do the same with US 41 in Wisconsin. Several two-digit numbers are shared between two roads at opposite ends of the country, namely I-76, I-84, I-86 and I-88. Some of these were the result of a change in the numbering system in the 1970s; previously letter-suffixed numbers were used for long spurs off primary routes; for example, western I-84 was I-80N, as it went north from I-80. In the 1970s, AASHTO decided to eliminate these; some became additional two-digit routes, while others became three-digit routes (see below). Only two pairs of these exist; I-35 splits into I-35W and I-35E through both the Dallas-Fort Worth and the Minneapolis-St. Paul areas. Strict adherence to the directional nature of the system results in some amusing oddities. For a ten-mile stretch east of Wytheville, Virginia, the driver can be traveling on both North I-81 and South I-77 at the same time (and vice versa) (see also Wrong-way multiplex). For the sake of efficiency, some Interstates double up for short or sometimes long distances, as in the example above. Another notable example are Interstates I-90 and I-94, which double and then separate several times as they criss-cross the upper Midwest and Great Plains.

Three-digit Interstates

Three-digit route numbers, consisting of a single digit prefixed to the number of a primary Interstate highway, are used to designate usually short spur or loop routes from their "parent" route, either directly or via another three-digit Interstate. A route that spurs from its parent and ends at an intersection with no other Interstates is given an odd first digit; a route that returns to its parent is given an even first digit. The number given to the first digit of a route that spurs from the parent and ends at another Interstate depends on the state; some consider these routes spurs and give them odd numbers, while others consider them loop-style connectors and give them even numbers. For instance, I-90 in New York has a full set of three-digit Interstates - I-190, I-290, I-390, I-490, I-590, I-690, I-790, I-890 and I-990. Due to the large number of these routes, they can be repeated in different places along the mainline; no two three-digit Interstates in the same state can share a number. The Minneapolis-St. Paul area has a single loop around the entire Metro area. I-94 intersects the loop in two spots and runs directly through it separating it into a northern and southern half. The southern half of it is labeled I-494 while the northern half of it is labeled I-694. Charlotte, North Carolina has a single loop around the city that intersects with both I-77 and I-85, but the entire loop is known as I-485. The Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area has several spur routes off of I-95. The area has I-195, I-295, I-495, I-795 and I-895. It also has two routes numbered I-395 (in Baltimore and Washington) and two I-695s (one is signed, the other is a secret designation), as well as an unsigned route called I-595. No I-995 exists anywhere. New York City has numerous spur routes off of I-78 and I-95, but none of I-78's spur routes actually intersect with I-78. A three-digit spur off a letter-suffixed two-digit Interstate (see above) was given a number without a letter suffix, except for one case - I-184 in Idaho was I-180N.

Exceptions

:Main article: List of gaps in Interstate Highways Interstate 238 near Oakland, California is one of two major exceptions to the numbering scheme, as no Interstate 38 exists. This number exists because Interstate 238 replaced a segment of California Highway 238, and no appropriate number was available. The other exception is I-99 in Pennsylvania, which was written into law as I-99 by Pennsylvania Congressman Bud Shuster; I-99 (which is also U.S. Highway 220) is west of several Interstates that are numerically less than 99, and was the nearest available unused two-digit number. Some proposed future Interstate routes have been given similarly non-conforming designations by their legislative proponents. For example, backers of the proposed Third Infantry Division Highway, a route in Georgia and Tennessee, have suggested it be named Interstate 3, in honor of the division for which the highway is named [http://www.interstate-guide.com/i-003.html].

Other notable examples


- I-82 lies fully north of I-84, but I-84 was I-80N when I-82 got its number.
- I-85 diverts west of I-75 (intersecting it near Atlanta, Georgia) The following two-digit Interstates change signed direction from their normal (even=east-west, odd=north-south) direction:
- I-69
- I-76 (west) Two-digit interstates in Hawaii, as well as the "paper" interstates of Alaska and Puerto Rico, are numbered sequentially in order of funding, without regard to the rules on odd and even numbers. Business Loop and Business Spur Interstates are not subject to any of the Interstate standards. Their designation is simple - a Business Loop heads into a downtown area from its parent and returns to its parent; a Business Spur ends downtown, occasionally continuing from the end of the main Interstate. Business routes can split from either two- or three-digit Interstates, and can be repeated within a state. In a few cases, where an Interstate has been realigned, the old road has been designated a Business Loop because it is not up to standards.

Financing

About 72% ([http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/ohim/hs03/htm/hf10.htm 2003 FHWA summary]) of the construction and maintenance costs are funded through user fees, primarily gasoline taxes, collected by states and the federal government, and tolls collected on toll roads and bridges. The rest of the costs come out of the federal budget. In the eastern United States, large sections of some Interstate Highways planned or built prior to 1956 are operated as toll roads. The taxes dedicated to the construction and maintenance of highways are often criticized as a direct subsidy from the government to promote and maintain auto-oriented development as we know it today. The dominant role of the federal government in road finance has enabled it to pass laws in areas outside of the powers enumerated in the federal Constitution. By threatening to withhold highway funds, the federal government has been able to force state legislatures to pass a variety of laws. Examples include increasing the legal drinking age to 21, for a number of years reducing the maximum speed limit to 55 miles per hour, passing Megan's Law legislation, lowering the legal intoxication level to 0.08/1000, and other laws. This has proved to be controversial. Those who support this feel that it is a way to provide an impetus to states to pass uniform legislation. Others feel that using highway dollars in this fashion upsets the balance between federal and states' rights in favor of the federal government, and effectively holds funds as ransom in order to coerce state governments into passing laws that would not have otherwised been introduced. As American suburbs push ever outward, the costs incurred of maintaining freeway infrastructure has started to catch up with the economy, leaving little in the way of funds for new interstate construction. This has led to the proliferation of the toll road (turnpike) as the new method of building limited-access highways in suburban areas. Also, some interstates are being privately maintained now (VMS in Texas, I-35) in order to cut rising costs of maintenance and allow state departments of transportation to focus on serving the fastest growing regions in their respective states. The future of the interstate system as we know it is in question. It is entirely possible that parts of the system will have to be tolled in the future to meet maintenance and expansion demands, as is done with adding toll HOV/HOT lanes in certain cities like Minneapolis, Houston, Dallas, and Washington D.C.

Non-chargeable Interstate routes

In addition to Interstate highways financed with federal funds (Chargeable Interstate routes), federal laws allow other highways to be signed as Interstates, if they meet the Interstate Highway standards and that they are logical additions or connections to the System. Called Non-Chargeable Interstate routes, these additions fall under two categories: # Routes that already meet Interstate standards. They can immediately be signed as Interstates once their proposed number is approved. # Routes designated as a future part of the system once they are upgraded to Interstate standards. Until then, it cannot be signed as an Interstate yet.

Signage

dollar Interstate Highways are signed by a number on a red, white and blue sign as shown to the right. In the original design, the state was formerly listed above the highway number, but in many states, this area is now left blank. The sign itself measures 36 inches high, and is 36 inches wide for two-digit interstates, or 45 inches for three-digit interstates. Business Loop and Business Spur Interstates use a special shield where the red and blue are replaced with green; the word BUSINESS appears instead of INTERSTATE, and the word SPUR or LOOP usually appears above the number. The majority of Interstates have exit numbers. All traffic signs and lane markings on the Interstates are supposed to be designed in compliance with the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD). However, there are many local and regional variations in signage. The state of California is now adapting to an exit numbering system after many years as being the only state in the country that did not use such a system. In most states, the exit numbers correspond to the mileage markers on the Interstates (with an exception being I-19 in Arizona, whose length is measured in kilometers instead of miles). Many northeastern states label exit numbers sequentially, regardless of how many miles have passed between exits. On even-numbered Interstates, mileage increases to the east and decreases to the west; and on odd-numbered Interstates, mileage increases to the north and decreases to the south. In both cases, the exit numbers increase and decrease accordingly.

Interstate oddities


- Vinita, Oklahoma — A McDonalds is built over the top of Interstate 44. It goes from one side of the interstate to the other, passing over the interstate. Customers can sit inside and eat while traffic drives beneath them. It is also purported to be the "world's largest".
- Kearney, Nebraska — The Great Platte River Road Archway Museum is built over top of Interstate 80. The 1,500 ton structure spans 308 feet across the interstate and houses a museum dedicated to frontier culture.
- Reno, Nevada — A Walgreens store sits on top of a segment of Interstate 80 in downtown Reno.
- Newton, Massachusetts — A Star Market supermarket is built over the top of Interstate 90. Traffic reporters refer to this point on the highway as the "Star Market overpass".
- Newton, Massachusetts — A Sheraton hotel is built over the top of Interstate 90.
- Boston, Massachusetts — The Prudential Tower in downtown Boston is built over top of Interstate 90 as well. A less known fact about Interstate 90 is that it is built over what used to be the largest railroad corridor in New England; photos from the 1950s show huge rail yards where I-90 now comes into the city. Many of the oddities on I-90 are the result of deals struck by the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority, Perini Corporation (which constructed the majority of the highway), and existing buildings at the time of construction. In return for not obstructing the highway project, the MTA went to lengths such as preserving the aforementioned Star Market.
- Atlanta, Georgia — The Civic Center MARTA station is located over the Downtown Connector (Interstate 75/85) at West Peachtree Street, making it the only subway station built over an Interstate highway.
- Illinois — The Illinois Tollway oasis is a type of rest area which spans the top of the interstate highway it is on. There are seven of them which are on the Tri-State Tollway (Interstates 80, 94 & 294), Northwest Tollway (Interstate 90) and the Ronald Reagan Memorial Tollway (Interstate 88). Customers are able to sit inside the Oases and eat while traffic goes by beneath them. This type of development is common in the UK.
- Seattle, Washington — The [http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/parks/parkspaces/FreewayPark.htm Seattle Freeway Park] sits on top of Interstate 5 (NB and SB, including HOV express lanes). The park is connected to the [http://www.wsctc.com Washington State Convention Center] connecting downtown to the [http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/tour/capitol.htm Capitol Hill] and First Hill districts (locally, First Hill is also known as "Pill Hill" as this is Seattle's medical district). The park is multi-level and as such, there are areas where visitors are able to watch traffic pass by.
- Breezewood, Pennsylvania — There is a sign of a policeman pointing at you saying, "You! Slow Down!" You then have to drive a few blocks on US 30 before returning to I-70. This is a rare instance of a traffic light on an interstate.
- Jersey City, New Jersey — Interstate 78 follows a pair of one-way streets for a short distance between the Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike and the Holland Tunnel, which leads into New York City. Along with the aforementioned I-70, this is the only other primary interstate with traffic lights.

Criticism

In addition to the various economic issues, the system has roused criticism on aesthetic grounds. The efficiency and faster speeds of the system, made possible in part by engineering techniques that often tend to cut through the land rather than merely following it as with the older U.S. Highway, have inevitably resulted in a safer but less-scenic drive. When the cross-country I-40 was finally finished in the late 1980s, by completing the segment between Raleigh, North Carolina and Wilmington, North Carolina, Charles Kuralt stated, "It is now possible to travel from coast to coast without seeing anything!"

References

# 65 MPH Approved for Route, Wichita Eagle-Beacon, October 24, 1987 # Field, David. "On 40th birthday, interstates face expensive midlife crisis." Insight on the News, 29 July 1996, 40-42.

See also


- Autobahn
- Freeway
- Gas tax
- Highway patrol
- Non-motorized vehicle access on freeways
- List of roads and highways
- Mile-log
- Parkway
- Ramp meter
- Speed limit
- Toll road
- Traffic light
- United States highway
- National Highway System
- List of major freeway systems
- Controlled-access highway

External links


- [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/programadmin/interstate.html Interstate Highway information]
- [http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/reports/routefinder/index.htm FHWA Route Log and Finder List]
- [http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/septoct00/urban.htm FHWA Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center] - Analysis and History of Interstate Highway System
- [http://www.kurumi.com/roads/3di/ 3-digit Interstate Highways]
- [http://www.aaroads.com/ Pictures of all Interstates]
- [http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=88 One] of 100 milestone documents of American history
- Federal Highway Administration's [http://www.tfhrc.gov/pubrds/summer96/p96su10.htm article on the act]
- Fortune magazine on [http://www.fortune.com/fortune/fortune500/articles/0,15114,574088,00.html history of the Interstate Highway System]
- [http://www.geocities.com/michelleskinnerfreeway Another great Interstate Page], with facts on all 2-digit Interstates and links to their exit lists
- [http://www.ajfroggie.com/triskele Highway Heaven] Contains exit lists for most Interstate highways
- [http://www.triskele.com/fonts/index.html RoadGeek] - A complete set of TrueType fonts for simulating Interstate and other highway signage ja:ドワイト・デーヴィッド・アイゼンハワー全米州間国防高速道路網

United States

:For alternative meanings, see the disambiguation page for US, USA, United States, or American. The United States of America is a federal democratic republic situated primarily in central North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the States, or simply and most commonly, America. The official founding date of the United States is July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British colonies—adopted the Declaration of Independence. However, the structure of the government was profoundly changed in 1788, when the states replaced the Articles of Confederation with the United States Constitution. The date on which each of the fifty states adopted the Constitution is typically regarded as the date that state "entered the Union" (became part of the United States). Since the mid-20th century, following World War II, the United States has emerged as a dominant global influence in economic, political, military, scientific, technological, and cultural affairs.

Geography and climate

The United States shares land borders with Canada (to the north) and Mexico (to the south), and territorial water boundaries with Canada, Russia, the Bahamas, and numerous smaller nations. It is otherwise bounded by the Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea, in the west; the Arctic Ocean, in the northernmost areas; and the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea, in the eastern and southeastern areas. Forty-eight of the states are in the single region between Canada and Mexico; this group is referred to, with varying precision and formality, as the continental or contiguous United States, sometimes abbreviated CONUS, and as the Lower 48. Alaska, which is not included in the term contiguous United States, is at the northwestern end of North America, separated from the Lower 48 by Canada. The archipelago of Hawaii is in the Pacific Ocean. The capital city, Washington, District of Columbia is a federal district located on land donated by the state of Maryland. (Virginia also donated land, but it was returned in 1847.) The United States also has overseas territories with varying levels of independence and organization. When inland water is included in the total area, only Russia and Canada are larger than the United States; if inland water is excluded, China ranks third and the U.S. ranks fourth. The United States' total area is 3,718,711 square miles (9,631,418 km²), of which land makes up 3,537,438 square miles (9,161,923 km²) and water makes up 181,273 square miles (469,495 km²). The United States' landscape is one of the most varied among those of the world's nations: among its many features are temperate forestland and rolling hills, on the east coast; mangrove, in Florida; the Great Plains, in the center of the country; the Mississippi–Missouri river system; the Great Lakes, four of the five of which are shared with Canada; the Rocky Mountains, west of the Great Plains; deserts and temperate coastal zones, west of the Rocky Mountains; and temperate rain forests, in the Pacific northwest. Alaska's tundra, and the volcanic, tropical islands of Hawaii add to the geographic diversity. Hawaii The climate varies along with the landscape, from tropical in Hawaii and southern Florida to tundra in Alaska and atop some of the highest mountains. Most of the North and East experience a temperate continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Most of the South experiences a subtropical humid climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. Rainfall decreases markedly from the humid forests of the Eastern Great Plains to the semi-arid shortgrass prairies on the high plains abutting the Rocky Mountains. Arid deserts, including the Mojave, extend through the lowlands and valleys of the southwest, from westernmost Texas to California and northward throughout much of Nevada. Some parts of California have a Mediterranean climate. Rainforests line the windward mountains of the Pacific Northwest from Oregon to Alaska.

History

American history started with the migration of people from Asia across the Bering land bridge approximately 12,000 years ago following large animals that they hunted into the Americas. These Native Americans left evidence of their presence in petroglyphs, burial mounds, and other artifacts. It is estimated that 2-9 million people lived in the territory now occupied by the U.S. before European contact, and the subsequent introduction of foreign diseases such as small pox that greatly diminished the native populations. Some advanced societies were the Anasazi of the southwest, who inhabited Chaco Canyon, and the Woodland Indians, who built Cahokia, located near present-day St Louis, a city with a population of 40,000 at its peak in AD 1200. Vikings first visited North America around 1000, but did not settle permanently. Following the discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus around 1492, other Europeans began to explore and settle there. During the 1500s and 1600s, the Spanish settled parts of the present-day Southwest and Florida, founding St. Augustine, Florida in 1565 and Santa Fe (in what is now New Mexico) in 1607. The first successful English settlement was at Jamestown, Virginia, also in 1607. Within the next two decades, several Dutch settlements, including New Amsterdam (the predecessor to New York City), were established in what are now the states of New York and New Jersey. In 1637, Sweden established a colony at Fort Christina (in what is now Delaware), but lost the settlement to the Dutch in 1655. This was followed by extensive British settlement of the east coast. The British colonists remained relatively undisturbed by their home country until after the French and Indian War, when France ceded Canada and the Great Lakes region to Britain. Britain then imposed taxes on the 13 colonies, widely regarded by the colonists as unfair because they were denied representation in the British Parliament. Tensions between Britain and the colonists increased, and the thirteen colonies eventually rebelled against British rule. British Parliament, George Washington (1789-1797).]] In 1776, the 13 colonies split from Great Britain and formed the United States, the world's first constitutional and democratic federal republic, after their Declaration of Independence of that year, and the Revolutionary War (1775 to 1783). The original political structure was a confederation in 1777, ratified in 1781 as the Articles of Confederation. After long debate, this was supplanted by the Constitution in 1789, forming a more centralized federal government. Prior to all these was the Albany Congress in 1754, in which a union was first seriously proposed. From early colonial times, there was a shortage of labor, which encouraged unfree labor, particularly indentured servitude and slavery. In the mid-19th century, a major division occurred in the United States over the issue of states' rights and the expansion of slavery. The northern states had become opposed to slavery, while the southern states saw it as necessary for the continued success of southern agriculture and wanted it expanded to the territories. Several federal laws were passed in an attempt to settle the dispute, including the Missouri Compromise and the Compromise of 1850. The dispute reached a crisis in 1861, when seven southern states seceded1 from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America, leading to the Civil War. Soon after the war began, four more southern states seceded. During the war, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, mandating the freedom of all slaves in states in rebellion, though full emancipation did not take place until after the end of the war in 1865, the dissolution of the Confederacy, and the Thirteenth Amendment took effect. The Civil War effectively ended the question of a state's right to secede, and is widely accepted as a major turning point after which the federal government became more powerful than state governments. Thirteenth Amendment). The title of the painting, from a 1726 poem by Bishop Berkeley, was a phrase often quoted in the era of Manifest Destiny, expressing a widely held belief that civilization had steadily moved westward throughout history. [http://americanart.si.edu/t2go/1lw/1931.6.1.html (more)] ]] During the 19th century, many new states were added to the original 13 as the nation expanded across the continent. Manifest Destiny was a philosophy that encouraged westward expansion in the United States. As the population of the Eastern states grew and as a steady increase of immigrants entered the country, settlers moved steadily westward across North America. In the process, the U.S. displaced most American Indian nations. This displacement of American Indians continues to be a matter of contention in the U.S. with many tribes attempting to assert their original claims to various lands. In some areas American Indian populations were reduced by foreign diseases contracted through contact with European settlers, and US settlers acquired those emptied lands. In other instances American Indians were removed from their traditional lands by force. Though some would say the U.S. was not a colonial power until the Spanish-American War when it acquired Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines, the dominion exercised over land in North America the United States claimed is essentially colonial. The Philippines became independent in 1946. During this period, the nation also became an industrial power. This continued into the 20th century, which has been termed "the American Century" because of the nation's overriding influence on the world. The US became a center for innovation and technological development; major technologies that America either developed or was greatly involved in improving include the telephone, television, computer, the Internet, nuclear weapons, nuclear power, aviation, and aeronautics. In addition to the Civil War, another major traumatic experience for the nation was the Great Depression (1929 to 1939). The nation has also taken part in several major foreign wars, including World War I and World War II (in both of which the US later joined the Allies). During the Cold War, the US was a major player in the Korean War and Vietnam War, and, along with the Soviet Union, was considered one of the world's two "superpowers". With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the US emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. Beginning in the 1990s, the United States became very involved in police actions and peacekeeping, including actions in Kosovo, Haiti, Somalia and Liberia, and the first Persian Gulf War driving Iraq out of Kuwait. After attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001, the United States and other allied nations found themselves involved in what has come to be called the "War on Terrorism," which has primarily encompassed military actions in both Afghanistan and Iraq.

Government

Iraq of the United States.]]

Republic and suffrage

The United States is an example of a constitutional republic, with a government composed of and operating through a set of limited powers imposed by its design and enumerated in the United States Constitution. Specifically, the nation operates as a presidential democracy. There are three levels of government: federal, state, and local. Officials of each of these levels are either elected by eligible voters via secret ballot or appointed by other elected officials. Americans enjoy almost universal suffrage from the age of 18 regardless of race, sex, or wealth. There are some limits, however: felons are disenfranchised and in some states former felons are likewise. Furthermore, the national representation of territories and the federal district of Washington, DC in Congress is limited: residents of the District of Columbia are subject to federal laws and federal taxes but their only Congressional representative is a non-voting delegate.

Federal government

The federal government is the national government, comprising the Legislative Branch (led by Congress), the Executive Branch (led by the President), and the Judicial Branch (led by the Supreme Court). These three branches were designed to apply checks and balances on each other. The Constitution limits the powers of the federal government to defense, foreign affairs, the issuing and management of currency, the management of trade and relations between the states, and the protection of human rights. In addition to these explicitly stated powers, the federal government—with the assistance of the Supreme Court—has gradually extended these powers into such areas as welfare and education, on the basis of the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution.

The Congress

necessary and proper The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives consists of 435 members, each of whom represents a congressional district and serves for a two-year term. House seats are apportioned among the states by population; in contrast, each state has two Senators, regardless of population. There are a total of 100 senators, who serve six-year terms. The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the necessary-and-proper clause, which grants Congress the power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers."

The President

necessary-and-proper clause At the top level of the executive branch is the President of the United States. The President and Vice-President are elected as 'running mates' for four-year terms by the Electoral College, for which each state, as well as the District of Columbia, is allocated a number of seats based on its representation (or ostensible representation, in the case of D. C.) in both houses of Congress (see U.S. Electoral College). The relationship between the President and the Congress reflects that between the English monarchy and parliament at the time of the framing of the United States Constitution. Congress can legislate to constrain the President's executive power, even with respect to his or her command of the armed forces; however, this power is used only very rarely—a notable example was the constraint placed on President Richard Nixon's strategy of bombing Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The President cannot directly propose legislation, and must rely on supporters in Congress to promote his or her legislative agenda. The President's signature is required to turn congressional bills into law; in this respect, the President has the power—only occasionally used—to veto congressional legislation. Congress can override a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority vote in both houses. The ultimate power of Congress over the President is that of impeachment or removal of the elected President through a House vote, a Senate trial, and a Senate vote. The threat of using this power has had major political ramifications in the cases of Presidents Andrew Johnson, Richard Nixon, and Bill Clinton. The President makes around 2,000 executive appointments, including members of the Cabinet and ambassadors, which must be approved by the Senate; the President can also issue executive orders and pardons, and has other Constitutional duties, among them the requirement to give a State of the Union address to Congress once a year. Although the President's constitutional role may appear to be constrained, in practice, the office carries enormous prestige that typically eclipses the power of Congress: the Presidency has justifiably been referred to as 'the most powerful office in the world'. The Vice President is first in the line of succession, and is the President of the Senate ex officio, with the ability to cast a tie-breaking vote. The members of the President's Cabinet are responsible for administering the various departments of state, including the Department of Defense, the Justice Department, and the State Department. These departments and department heads have considerable regulatory and political power, and it is they who are responsible for executing federal laws and regulations. George W. Bush is the 43rd President, currently serving his second term.

The Courts

George W. Bush The highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of nine justices. The court deals with federal and constitutional matters, and can declare legislation made at any level of the government as unconstitutional, nullifying the law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. Below the Supreme Court are the courts of appeals, and below them in turn are the district courts, which are the general trial courts for federal law. Separate from, but not entirely independent of, this federal court system are the individual court systems of each state, each dealing with its own laws and having its own judicial rules and procedures. A case may be appealed from a state court to a federal court only if there is a federal question; the supreme court of each state is the final authority on the interpretation of that state's laws and constitution.

State and local governments

supreme court of each state. Note that Alaska and Hawaii are shown at different scales, and that the Aleutian Islands and the uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are omitted from this map.]] The state governments have the greatest influence over people's daily lives. Each state has its own written constitution and has different laws. There are sometimes great differences in law and procedure between the different states, concerning issues such as property, crime, health, and education. The highest elected official of each state is the Governor. Each state also has an elected legislature (bicameral in every state except Nebraska), whose members represent the different parts of the state. Of note is the New Hampshire legislature, which is the third-largest legislative body in the English-speaking world, and has one representative for every 3,000 people. Each state maintains its own judiciary, with the lowest level typically being county courts, and culminating in each state supreme court, though sometimes named differently. In some states, supreme and lower court justices are elected by the people; in others, they are appointed, as they are in the federal system. The institutions that are responsible for local government are typically town, city, or county boards, making laws that affect their particular area. These laws concern issues such as traffic, the sale of alcohol, and keeping animals. The highest elected official of a town or city is usually the mayor. In New England, towns operate directly democratically, and in some states, such as Rhode Island and Connecticut, counties have little or no power, existing only as geographic distinctions. In other areas, county governments have more power, such as to collect taxes and maintain law enforcement agencies.

Political divisions

With the Declaration of Independence, the thirteen colonies proclaimed themselves to be nation states modeled after the European states of the time. Although considered as sovereigns initially, under the Articles of Confederation of 1781 they entered into a "Perpetual Union" and created a fully sovereign federal state, delegating certain powers to the national Congress, including the right to engage in diplomatic relations and to levy war, while each retaining their individual sovereignty, freedom and independence. But the national government proved too ineffective, so the administrative structure of the government was vastly reorganized with the United States Constitution of 1789. Under this new union, the continued status of the individual states as sovereign nation states fell into dispute in 1861, as several states attempted to secede from the union; in response, then-President Abraham Lincoln claimed that such secession was illegal, and the result was the American Civil War. Since the Union victory in 1865, the independent status of the individual states has not been broached again by any state, and the status of each state within the union has been deemed by mainstream officials and academics to be settled as being subordinate to the union as a whole. In subsequent years, the number of states grew steadily due to western expansion, the purchase of lands by the national government from other nation states, and the subdivision of existing states, resulting in the current total of 50. The states are generally divided into smaller administrative regions, including counties, cities and townships. The United States–Canadian border is the longest undefended political boundary in the world. The U.S. is divided into three distinct sections:
- the "continental United States," also known as "the Lower 48" and more accurately termed the conterminous, coterminous or contiguous United States
- Alaska, which is physically connected only to Canada
- the archipelago of Hawaii, in the central Pacific Ocean. The United States also holds several other territories, districts, and possessions, notably the federal district of the District of Columbia, which is the nation's capital, and several overseas insular areas, the most significant of which are American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands. The Palmyra Atoll is the United States' only incorporated territory; it is unorganized and uninhabited. The United States Navy has held a base at a portion of Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, since 1898. The United States government possesses a lease to this land, which only mutual agreement or United States abandonment of the area can terminate. The present Cuban government of Fidel Castro disputes this arrangement, claiming Cuba was not truly sovereign at the time of the signing. The United States argues this point moot because Cuba apparently ratified the lease post-revolution, and with full sovereignty, when it cashed one rent check in accordance with the disputed treaty.

Foreign relations and military

sovereign] The immense military and economic dominance of the United States has made foreign relations an especially important topic in its politics, with considerable concern about the image of the United States throughout the world. Reactions towards the United States by other nationalities are often strong, ranging from uninhibited admiration and mimicking of all things American to anti-Americanism. US foreign policy has swung about several times over the course of its history between the poles of strict isolationism and imperialism and everywhere in between. Three of the nation's four military branches are administered by the Department of Defense: the Army, the Navy (including the Marine Corps), and the Air Force. The Coast Guard falls under the jurisdiction of the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime, but is placed under the Department of the Navy in time of war. The combined United States armed forces consist of 1.4 million active duty personnel, along with several hundred thousand each in the Reserves and the National Guard. Military conscription ended in 1973. The United States Armed forces are considered to be the most powerful military (of any sort) on Earth and their force projection capabilities are unrivaled by any other nation. The 2005 defense budget amounted to $401.7 billion, which is an increase of 4% over 2004 and of 35% since 2001. Over 50% of that number is spent in research & development. (For comparison, in 2004 the European Union (considered as the second-largest military force) had a combined total of 1.6 million troops, and a defense budget of €160 billion, with less than 10% of that being spent on R&D.)

Largest cities

The United States has dozens of major cities, including 11 of the 55 global cities of all types — with three "alpha" global cities: New York City, Los Angeles,