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Invid (Robotech)

Invid (Robotech)

In Robotech, the Invid are an alien race of invertebrate, slug-like hive creatures that originate from the world of Optera. Their world was defoilated by the Robotech Masters in an attempt to monopolise a powerful narcotic, the Flower of Life that was native to the planet; the Flower was also the source of an incredibly powerful energy source called protoculture. Enraged by the devastation and betrayal of their one-time allies, the sedate and agrarian Invid militarize and begin a program of genetic manipulation to evolve to a point of superiority above the Masters. Eventually, the Invid trace the stolen Flowers to Earth which turns out to be the only other place in the galaxy where the Flower can grow. The Invid invade Earth without a moments' hesitation, an ironic act of perpetuating the crimes committed on them, thus beginning the Third Robotech War. The Invid are led by a pair of monarchs, the Regent, who is vehemently against the genetic manipulation of their race; and the Regis, the queen mother of the race, the proponent of the genetic evolution program. Unlike the Regent, who has chosen to remain in the original form of the species, the Regis has genetically modified herself to the point that she is humanoid in form and nearly human overall; she was the first of her race to evolve as she was seduced by the Masters' scientist Zor. The Regent and Regis have since separated and split the race between them; the Regis leading the invasion of Earth, while the Regent continued to hold the space around Optera and continue the war in space against the Masters on their own homeworld of Tirol. Category:Fictional alien species category:Villain races

Robotech

Robotech is an 85-episode science-fiction television series about three successive extraterrestrial invasions of Earth. It was one of the first anime released in the United States to largely preserve the complexity and drama of its original Japanese source material. Produced by Harmony Gold USA, Inc. in association with Tatsunoko Prod. Co., Ltd., Robotech is a story adapted with edited content and revised dialogue from the animation of three different mecha anime series: The Super Dimension Fortress Macross, Super Dimension Cavalry Southern Cross, and Genesis Climber Mospeada. Harmony Gold's cited reasoning for combining these 3 unrelated series was that the American TV stations had a minimum number of episodes (65) for weekday syndication at the time, and none of the three series met that requirement alone. Harmony Gold hired American writers to adapt the scripts of the three Japanese series. This complicated process was supervised by producer Carl Macek, a pioneer of the anime industry in United States. The adaptation of Robotech was developed in nine months, although writer Gregory Snegoff said in ideal conditions, it should have taken 18 months. The Japanese scriptwriters of the three component series were not credited in the final release. This combination resulted in a storyline that spanned three generations: The characters in The Macross Saga, their children in The Robotech Masters saga, and their descendants in The New Generation saga as they must fight three destructive wars in succession over a powerful energy source called "Protoculture". Notably, the original Southern Cross was originally intended to be a massive, end-all-be-all space opera, but was cancelled by low ratings in Japan before it could be completed. Its inclusion as part of The Robotech Masters saga actually increased fan awareness of Southern Cross. Harmony Gold attempted to produce several sequels and spinoffs, most notably Robotech II: The Sentinels, but only enough footage for a single feature was completed. The project fell through due to problems with toy licensing and changes in the Japanese yen-US Dollar exchange rate, among other reasons. The Sentinels saga continued to be chronicled in the novelizations by Jack McKinney and a comic book adaptations by the Waltrip brothers. Announced at Anime Expo 2004, the latest incarnation currently in production is Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles. The first teaser trailer debuted one year later at Anime Expo 2005 for the 20th anniversary of Robotech. The series has been confirmed as a direct-to-DVD release, but as yet no specific release date has been set and, at present, no distribution channel has even been announced.

Robotech (Harmony Gold) chronology

The "Robotech chronology" (according to Harmony Gold) is described in the present article, the timeline is described in the Robotech Wars detailed article.

Year		Saga (Generation)
1999 - 2014	(1)	Robotech: The Macross Saga (1985)
2022 -		Robotech II: The Sentinels - (1986)
2027		Robotech the Movie: The Untold Story - (1986)
2029 - 2030	(2)	Robotech: The Robotech Masters (1985)
2042 - 2044	(3)	Robotech: The New Generation (1985)
2044 -		Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles (2005)

Note: Asterisked works are now considered "secondary continuity," that is that their events exist in the continuity of Robotech but "don't count" when conflicts arise with the "main continuity" that are the three-part Robotech TV series (four with the addition of 2005's Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles). In 2002, with the publication of the Wildstorm (DC) comics, Harmony Gold officially decided to retcon the Robotech Universe. The following Robotech material is now relegated to the status of secondary continuity:
- The Sentinels in all its incarnations
- Robotech: The Movie (which, in the strictest sense, never was canon)
- All comic book stories published by Comico, Eternity, Academy, and Antarctic Press.
- The Palladium Books RPGs
- The Jack McKinney Novels, most notably End of the Circle. While these materials are not precisely "retired" or "removed" from the continuity, their events are subject to critical review, and are strictly subordinate to the "official" events of the 85-episode animated series (especially the Jack McKinney novels, which strayed further and further into mysticism as the Sentinels novels progressed).

Original Series Episodes

The Macross Saga	The Robotech Masters	The New Generation
#Boobytrap #Countdown #Spacefold #The Long Wait #Transformation #Blitzkrieg #Bye-Bye Mars #Sweet Sixteen #Miss Macross #Blind Game #First Contact #The Big Escape #Blue Wind #Gloval's Report #Homecoming #Battle Cry #Phantasm #Farewell, Big Brother #Bursting Point #Paradise Lost #A New Dawn #Battle Hymn #Reckless #Show Down #Wedding Bells #The Messenger #Force Of Arms #Reconstruction Blues #Robotech Masters #Viva Miriya #Khyron's Revenge #Broken Heart #A Rainy Night #Private Time #Season's Greetings #To The Stars	#Dana's Story #False Start #Southern Cross #Volunteers #Half Moon #Danger Zone #Prelude To Battle #The Trap #Metal Fire #Stardust #Outsiders #Deja Vu #A New Recruit #Triumvirate #Clone Chamber #Love Song #The Hunters #Mind Game #Dana In Wonderland #Crisis Point #Day Dreamer #Final Nightmare #The Invid Connection #Catastrophe	#The Invid Invasion #The Lost City #Lonely Soldier Boy #Survival #Curtain Call #Hard Times #Paper Hero #Eulogy #The Genesis Pit #Enter Marlene #The Secret Route #The Fortress #Sandstorms #Annie's Wedding #Separate Ways #Metamorphosis #The Midnight Sun #Ghost Town #Frostbite #Birthday Blues #Hired Gun #The Big Apple #Reflex Point #Dark Finale #Symphony Of Light

Original Series Cast & Crew

Executive & Creative Staff:
- Ahmed Agrama - Executive Producer,
- Jehan Agrama - Associate Producer,
- Debbie Alba - Dialogue Director,
- Robert V. Barron - Supervising Director / Writer / Dialogue Director,
- Ardwight Chamberlain - Writer,
- Greg Finley - Writer, Dialogue Director,
- Kent Hayes - Production Manager,
- Jason Klassi - Writer,
- Steve Kramer - Script Editor / Writer / Dialogue Director,
- Carl Macek - Producer / Story Editor,
- Mike Reynolds - Writer / Dialogue Director,
- Gregory Snegoff - Script Editor / Writer / Dialogue Director,
- Tao Will - Writer Production Crew:
- Jorge Allia - Transfer,
- Leonardo Araujo - Recording Engineer ,
- George Bours - Recording Engineer,
- Guillermo Coelho - Video Tape Engineer,
- John Reiner - Recording Engineer,
- Bryan J. Rusenko - Chief Engineer,
- Eduardo Torres - Recording Engineer,
- Gerardo Valdez - Transfer,
- Joel Valentine - Final Re-Recording Music Staff: Michael Bradley - Composer / Songwriter / Lancer's Singing Voice, Alberto Ruben Estevez - Music Composer, Ulpio Minucci - Composer / Main Theme, John Mortarotti - Music Editor, Arlon Ober - Composer / Arranger / Songwriter, Reba West - Minmei's Singing Voice, Thomas A. White - Executive Music Producer Cast:
- Robert V. Barron - Admiral Hayes
- Bill Capeze - Robotech Masters , Konda
- Frank Catalano - Rand , Bobby , Dennis Brown
- Cam Clarke - Max Sterling , Lancer
- Tony Clay - Breetai
- Lara Cody - Kim , Jason
- Richard Epcar - Ben Dixon , Grel , Lunk,
- Greg Finley - Henry Gloval , Leonard
- Reba West - Lynn Minmei
- Eddie Frierson - Lynn Kyle
- Barbara Goodson - Marie Crystal , Sera
- Melora Harte - Musica,
- Alexandra Kenworthy - Azonia , Regis
- Steve Kramer - Angelo Dante
- Ted Layman - Exedore
- Wendee Lee - Vanessa
- Susie London - Rook
- Melanie MacQueen - Lisa Hayes , Marlene , Ariel
- Michael McConnaghie - Rolf Emerson
- Kerrigan Mahan - Sean Phillips
- David Millbern - Louie Nichols
- Edie Mirman - Miriya / Nova Satori
- Iona Morris - Claudia Grant
- J. Jay Smith - Narrator
- Mike Sorich - Sparks
- Melissa Newman - Dana Sterling
- Tony Oliver - Rick Hunter
- Paul St. Peter - Zor Prime , Corg , Romy
- Mike Reynolds - Dolza , Senator Russo
- Gregory Snegoff - Khyron , Fredricks , Scott Bernard , Dr. Lang , Mayor
- Dan Woren - Roy Fokker
- Tom Wyner - Jonathan Wolff

Television Broadcast

- Television debut: Robotech originally aired in 1985 in first-run syndication, meaning it was sold directly to local television stations without having been run on a network first — this was part of a trend in animation in the 1980s. Previously, local stations would rerun theatrical cartoons like Looney Tunes or shows that had previously aired on network TV on Saturday mornings. This changed after He-Man and the Masters of the Universe introduced a new economic model: shows sold directly for first-run to stations, driving and funded by sales of related toys. Though the original Robotech series did well in ratings, the attempt to cash in on toys may have doomed Robotech II: The Sentinels as the original series attracted older viewers, not necessarily the children targeted by the toy line. The failure of the Matchbox toy line is cited as a primary reason for the cancellation of the Sentinels series.
- International Broadcast: In Australia, Robotech was aired by both the Seven and Ten networks in differnt states. Ten cut the series at episode 52, while Seven broadcast all 85 episodes.
- Subsequent airings: Robotech appeared on cable television in the 1990s, on both the Sci-Fi Channel, and on Cartoon Network, which made the curious decision to run only episodes 1 through 60, bailing out at the end of the Robotech Masters story-line. Cartoon Network recently reran selected episodes of Robotech as part of a "Giant Robot" special. KTEH, a public television station in San Jose, California also aired Codename: Robotech. Robotech currently airs daily on The Anime Network.

Home Video

- Family Home Entertainment (FHE) first attempted to release one episode per VHS tape, but only got through a handful of early episodes before abandoning this approach. The company then heavily edited the 36-episode Macross Saga portion into six feature-length tapes, cutting out episode introductions and slower scenes, and ignoring the Masters and New Generation segments entirely. A third VHS run finally succeeded at releasing the entire series with 2 uncut episodes per tape over a total of 42 volumes.
- Palladium Books, which once published a Robotech Role-playing game, also released VHS home videos of part of the series as well as Robotech II: The Sentinels via mail-order.
- Streamline Pictures, founded by Macek after the end of Robotech, released an incomplete series of "Perfect Collection" VHS videos. Each volume included two episodes of Robotech after their corresponding episodes of Macross, Southern Cross, or Mospeada, completely uncut but inaccurately subtitled [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.anime/browse_frm/thread/5c51a7bdff5bb20b/18c60182f4fd52ed?lnk=st&rnum=4#18c60182f4fd52ed]. This series allowed English-speaking viewers to see many of the changes made.
- ADV Films, the largest distributor of anime, began releasing the entire series on DVD in 2001, typically with six episodes per disc. The first box sets of the series (dubbed the Robotech Legacy Collection) included extra discs with special features ranging from Robotech II: The Sentinels to pre-Robotech dubs of the first Macross and Mospeada episodes. Complete collection box sets were also released, containing all the episodes of each of the 3 Robotech sagas minus the extras discs. In 2003, ADV began to release Robotech: Remastered, using digitally remastered footage made available from the recent releases of Macross, Southern Cross, and Mospeada which included the restoration of some scenes cut from the original Robotech release, new opening/ending sequences, 5.1 stereo surround sound with re-done sound effects, and new eyecatch sequences. Many fans prefer the unremastered version of the series because it represents Robotech that they love and remember as it first aired on television without the distraction of new sound effects. Also, the extent of the new footage is said to be limited to sequences that did not require newly recorded dialogue. Finally in 2005, ADV announced yet another re-release of a "Protoculture MegaSet" containing all the remastered episodes and extras discs in one big box. Detractors criticize these DVD re-releases as part of industry trend to entice buyers to double-dip.
- Manga Entertainment started to release Robotech on DVD as 2 disc sets in the UK in late 2005. These sets are pretty much the same as the Robotech:Remastered release from the US, but in different packaging.
- The original Macross series was released on DVD in 2002 by anime specialty company AnimEigo, subtitled and unedited in its pre-Robotech form. Several Macross sequels are also available on DVD from various manufacturers. The original Southern Cross and Genesis Climber Mospeada series were both released on DVD in 2003 by ADV Films. At Anime Expo 2005, ADV Films announced that they are considering creating an uncut dub for Macross.

Unfinished Sequels

Robotech: The Movie

Also called Robotech: The Untold Story, this theatrical film was the first new Robotech adventure created after the premiere of the original series. It used footage from the direct-to-video Megazone 23 spliced with Southern Cross, and had only a tenuous link to the television series. It disappeared after a failed test run in Texas. Harmony Gold relinquished their license to Megazone 23 after director Carl Macek washed his hands of the project, so any home video release is unlikely except for a few VHS tapes that had been in limited circulation in Europe. Some animatics and other supplemental material were released as extras with ADV Films' Robotech DVD release. Academy released a comic adaptation of the movie in 1995 that bore scant resemblance to the actual movie. Additionally, elements from the movie were used in the plot of the novel The Masters Gambit.

Robotech II: The Sentinels

This aborted series would have followed the continuing adventures of Rick & Lisa Hunter and the rest of the Robotech Expedition during the events of The Robotech Masters and The New Generation. The feature-length pilot is comprised of the first three (and only) episodes that were produced for the series. It introduces the SDF-3 along with its crew and gives an overview of their new mission. The most significant event is the wedding of Admiral Rick Hunter to Admiral Lisa Hayes. Being a sequel/spinoff to the combined series, The Sentinels featured characters from all three Robotech sagas, including the Hunters and the Sterlings from The Macross Saga, Dana Sterling and Bowie Grant from The Robotech Masters, and Jonathan Wolfe of The New Generation. Among the newly created characters were young cadet rivals Jack Baker and Karen Penn, whose early love-hate relationship mirrored Rick and Lisa's; Vince Grant, brother of Claudia and father of Bowie Grant; and the Regent, the villainous leader of the Invid. Dr. Emil Lang, a supporting character in the Macross Saga, would return as a main character. This series would notably feature a human villain in the form of T.R. Edwards who was introduced in Comico's Robotech: The Graphic Novel. According to director Carl Macek in Robotech Art 3, the proposed series was canceled after the crash of the Dollar/Yen exchange rate and lack of support by toy partner Matchbox. Subsequent efforts to petition the completion of this series have gone nowhere, but the pilot was released on VHS by Robotech RPG publisher Palladium. The Sentinels is currently available as part of one of the Robotech DVD releases from ADV Films. Author Jack McKinney completed a novelized version of the Sentinels storyline in paperback.

Robotech: The Odyssey

Producer Carl Macek revealed ideas for another proposed series, Robotech: The Odyssey, which would have created a circular storyline that would end where the original Robotech began in a giant 260-episode cycle to fill up all the weekdays in a year. After the failure of Sentinels, Odyssey never went into development, though its ideas were worked into the McKinney book The End of the Circle.

Robotech 3000

Carl Macek attempted another sequel with the development of Robotech 3000. Again, the idea was abandoned midway into production after negative reception within the company and later fan reception at FanimeCon 2000. It now exists only in trailer form on the official Robotech website.

Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles

In 2002, Tommy Yune announced development on a new sequel which was not named until 2004 as Robotech: Shadow Force. The storyline is supposedly a direct continuation of the unresolved ending of the original series. The overall title of the story arc was soon changed to Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles. From late 2004, Harmony Gold representatives have held panels at anime conventions, showing production art and CG animatic previews. The first trailers with finished animation were finally shown at Anime Expo and Comic-Con 2005. Though NewType USA has reported that progress has reached the post-production phase for completion in 2005, the 20th anniversary of Robotech, no specific release date or distribution channel has been set.

Comic books

A little known Robotech:Defenders limited comic book series was first published by DC Comics in 1984. Based on the Revell line of plastic models, this series of models actually combines mecha designs from Macross, Orguss and Dougram. It bears no relation to the Harmony Gold series and actually predates the animated series by about a year. Five other companies have published Robotech related comics:

Comico (1984-1989)

Comico's Robotech comics consisted almost entirely of adaptations of the Robotech TV episodes. Rather then releasing them sequentially, they released the three series at once. Of the 85 TV episodes, only Dana's Story was not directly adapted; it was later re-published in an expanded graphic novel. The main reason for this was not to provide spoilers for the outcome of the Macross Saga. The Robotech Graphic Novel was not based on any TV episodes, but instead provided a "back-story" for some elements of the TV series. The events of the Graphic Novel also were depicted in the first Robotech Novel.
- Macross Saga
- Masters Special (lengthened adaptation of Dana's Story)
- Masters
- New Generation
- Graphic Novel (prequel)

Eternity (1988-1994)

Eternity initially started with direct adaptations of the Sentinels novels into comic format. However, they also began writing additional stories that expanded the canon beyond the initial 85 animated episodes and Sentinels. Also, as the series progressed, the writers began deviating from the Sentinels novels, adding new story elements and new characters. For the entirety of the Eternity run, the artwork Sentinels adaptation was handled by Jason and John Waltrip. When Malibu Comics were purchased by Marvel Comics, Eternity (a Malibu imprint) was closed. The Robotech comics licence was acquired by Academy comics, an independent publisher.
- Robotech II: The Sentinels
- Legend of Zor
- Malcontent Uprisings
- Cyberpirates
- Invid War
- Invid War: Aftermath
- Return to Macross

Academy (1994-1996)

Academy comics acquired the Robotech licence from Malibu, as well as Jason and John Waltrip and long-time Robotech comics writer Bill Spangler. Academy initially re-launched all of Eternity's then current comic series, as well as several new lines. The Sentinels comic picked up directly from where Eternity had left of, with the Waltrips taking over the writing as well as the artwork. While the Academy Sentinels comics were well-received, the other comics suffered from often inconsistent writing and artwork. Both Aftermath and Clone were cancelled prematurely after their writer/artists left the company. Despite these problems, the Academy Robotech comics were often well received by fans. in 1996, Harmony Gold abruptly revoked Academy's Robotech licence, handing it to Antarctic Press. No reason was ever given, however the most likely explanation is that Antarctic simply offered more money. Academy folded shortly thereafter.
- Robotech II: The Sentinels (continued)
- Return to Macross (continued)
- Invid War: Aftermath (continued)
- Robotech: Clone (retitled to Robotech: Mordecai)
- Robotech: Warriors
- Worlds of Robotech
- Robotech: Destroid (retitled to Macross Missions)
- Robotech Academy
- Robotech: Mechangel
- Robotech The Movie (Adapatation)

Antarctic Press (1997-1998)

These stories consisted chiefly of stand alone side stories and spinoffs featuring mostly the original Macross saga characters. Most of the stories were strongly revisionist in nature and sometimes involved established characters acting out of character, even occasionally to the point of camp. Because of Antarctic's decision not to enlist the talents of John and Jason Waltrip to finish The Sentinels (which by the end of its Academy run was 80% complete storywise), many fans are highly critical of Antarctic press' Robotech comics. (An uncofirmed story attributes the decision to a personal disagreement between the Waltrips and Ben Dunn while they worked for Malibu.) Most notably criticised was Sentinels Rubicon, which theoretically picks up many years after the Sentinels story would have concluded. Those two issues bore no resemblance to any previous (or subsequent) Robotech material, and featured art that was virtually incomprehensible. Rubicon ended abruptly two issues into a proposed seven-issue series, with many fans applauding the decision. In general, Antarctic press Robotech comics are widely considered the least popular Robotech comics. Antartcic's Robotech licence was abruptly revoked in 1998, with no explanation offered. Most fans, given the choice between more of their Robotech comics or none at all were happy with the latter.
- Robotech: Megastorm
- Robotech: Rolling Thunder
- Robotech: Prototype (initially a back-up story, re-titled as Variants)
- Vermillion
- Wings of Gibraltar
- Special Operations
- Class Reunion
- Sentinels: Rubicon

Wildstorm (DC) (2002-present)

- Robotech: From The Stars Covers the early years of Roy Fokker and the VF-1 development program before the launch of the SDF-1. Also features young Rick Hunter at the flying circus, the battle against the Anti-Unification League, and Roy's early dealings with Claudia, Jan Morris, and Colonel Edwards. Based on Robotech TV series continuity and unrelated to Macross Zero. This comic series notably diverges from the events previously described in the McKinney novels with a new account of the discovery and adaptation of the SDF-1 (Gloval is introduced as a Russian submarine captain), Robotechnology, and a redesigned version of Lt. Col. T.R. Edwards.
- Robotech: Love & War Follows the relationship of Max & Miriya from a more backstory angle, including Max's early friendship with Ben on Macross Island before the launch of the SDF-1. Includes the companion story Little White Dragon about Minmei's first movie.
- Robotech: Invasion Details Lancer's early adventures under the 10th Mars Division and expands his relationship with Carla. Not really an adaptation of the video game, but covers the first REF attempt to liberation the Earth and ends with the arrival of Scott Bernard and the 21st Mars Division. The side story Mars Base 1 expands on the adventures of Lisa Hayes' first love Karl Riber. Features a couple alternate covers by original Mospeada character designer Yoshitaka Amano.
- Robotech: Prelude to the Shadow Chronicles Written by Jason and John Waltrip, this series picks up with many elements from secondary sources such as the Sentinels novels and comics, but it is not an exact continuation of the Waltrips' previous comics. Rather, it retcons it to fit with the new "official" continuity and provide a prelude to the forthcoming Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles series.

Del Rey novelizations

Robotech was adapted into novel form by "Jack McKinney", a pseudonym for the team of James Luceno and the late Brian Daley, who fleshed out the chronology in greater detail along with the use of fictitious quotes in the style of Dune. Many Robotech fans consider the McKinney novels to be an unofficial canon of its own, despite notable divergences in the writing from Harmony Gold's current official animation-based canon. For example, the novels introduce the concept of the "Shapings of the Protoculture," which were never mentioned in the TV series. The following are the list of novels released by Del Rey in publishing order, Omnibus Editions and a Chronological Reading order, should you wish to read the books in the order of events:

Individual Editions	Omnibus Collected Editions	Chronological Reading Order
#Genesis #Battle Cry #Homecoming #Battle Hymn #Force of Arms #Doomsday #Southern Cross #Metal Fire #The Final Nightmare #Invid Invasion #Metamorphosis #Symphony of Light #The Devil's Hand #Dark Powers #Death Dance #World Killers #Rubicon #End of the Circle #Zentraedi Rebellion #The Masters Gambit #Before the Invid Storm	- The Macross Saga: Battlecry (#1-3) - The Macross Saga: Doomsday (#4-6) - Southern Cross 3-in-1 (#7-9) - The Sentinels 3-in-1 (#13-15)	- 01 - Genesis - 02 - Battle Cry - 03 - Homecoming - 04 - Battle Hymn - 05 - Force of Arms - 06 - Doomsday - 19 - Zentraedi Rebellion - 20 - The Masters Gambit - 07 - Southern Cross - 08 - Metal Fire - 09 - The Final Nightmare - 21 - Before the Invid Storm - 10 - Invid Invasion - 11 - Metamorphosis - 12 - Symphony of Light - 13 - The Devil's Hand - 14 - Dark Powers - 15 - Death Dance - 16 - World Killers - 17 - Rubicon - 18 - End of the Circle

Despite no longer being considred canon, the novels have been recently re-issued by Harmony Gold.

Video games

Robotech spawned four video game licenses, of which only three were released:
- Robotech: Crystal Dreams for the Nintendo 64 game system. This was cancelled before release. The game would have taken place during the period between the SDF-1's destruction and the launch of the SDF-3. A continuity nightmare, the game had a Zentraedi invasion during what was scripted in the series as a period of peace.
- Robotech: Battlecry (2002) for the Microsoft Xbox, PlayStation 2, and GameCube. The gameplay takes place in the Macross era and parallels the events in the Animation for that Era. Multiplayer support is limited to one-on-one.
- Robotech: The Macross Saga (2002) for the Game Boy Advance, a side-scrolling shooter.
- Robotech: Invasion (2004) for the Microsoft Xbox and the Sony PlayStation 2. First person shooter. The gameplay covers the New Generation part of the story with support for single player missions and multiplayer online matches. Features cyclones which are the transformable body armor/motorcycles.

Impact

While anime shows were brought to the US as early as the 1960s, such as Astro Boy, Speed Racer, and Kimba the White Lion, most were heavily bowdlerized for American audiences, with violence, deaths of major characters, sexual references, etc., completely edited out for what was assumed to be an audience of young children. Robotech broke with this tradition by leaving in some of those elements, and is thought by many to be the show that kicked off American interest in Japanese animation, leading to a boom in North American consumption of anime that is still growing as of this writing. Robotech was frequently among the top ten anime lists of American anime magazines such as Anime Insider, Animerica, Newtype USA, and others. Robotech had a similar impact in other places of the world, including Canada, Argentina, Chile, and China, where in the summer of 2004, it was awarded "Best Robot-theme Anime of all time" at the Cartoon Channel of China Education Television. It is highly likely that if you grew up in any of those countries during the 1980s, you watched at least some of its episodes. (Robotech did not start its broadcast in China until 1991.) As in the US, it helped begin a slow but continuous rise in the consumption of anime where also was honored with an award for its contribution to the science fiction genre by The North American Science Fiction Convention (Cascadia Con) and The Science Fiction Museum Hall of Fame . That said, Robotech is also extremely polarizing among anime fans. Some critics consider the show to be an abomination that runs rough-shod over its original sources by westernizing character names, making some censor-appeasing edits, and changing the stories of three wholly unrelated series to pass them off as a cohesive whole. (Some compare it to Woody Allen's camp Japanese movie re-dub What's Up Tiger Lily?). In an effort to combine the storylines of three different Japanese series, certain characters underwent drastic role changes with little explicit character development or plot exposition. Notably Rick Hunter (one of the main characters of the Macross segment) was changed—by a line of dialogue—from an ordinary yet pivotal fighter unit commander into an unseen admiral who is said to have ordered the destruction of Earth under the controversial rationale of saving it from the enemy. The line by an unnamed commander on the SDF-4 in the episode "Dark Finale" was, "I've been ordered by Admiral Hunter himself to obliterate the planet completely." In addition, the 65-episode minimum guideline cited as the reason to combine the episodes applied specifically to weekday syndication. Contemporary series such as Star Blazers and The Transformers series were initially syndicated weekly before reaching the 65 episode mark. The guideline also did not necessitate a combined storyline. Adaptations like Voltron adapted two unrelated Japanese series without initially combining the storylines until a crossover special years later. Defenders counter that such changes were critical for getting the show onto American television, given the cultural and economic environment of 1985. In the current climate of broadcast and cable television, such conditions do not exist. Robotech has been the subject of two parodies by the fandub group Seishun Shitemasu: Robotech 3: Not Necessarily the Sentinels and Robotech 4: Khyron's Counterattack (using footage from, respectively, Gunbuster and Mobile Suit Gundam: Char's Counterattack).

External links

Official Sites:
- [http://www.robotech.com/ ROBOTECH.COM] - Harmony Gold's official Robotech website.
- [http://www.robotech.com/infopedia/bibliography/ ROBOTECH Bibliography] - Comprehensive listings of books in and out of print.
- [http://preludeto.theshadowchronicles.com/ ROBOTECH: Prelude to the Shadow Chronicles] - Official site of the new comic series.
- [http://www.advfilms.com/ ADV Films] - The current distributor of Robotech DVDs.
- [http://www.herofactorygames.com/ Hero Factory Games] - Maker of the upcoming Robotech collectible card game (CCG).
- [http://www.manga.co.uk/robotechpage/robotech.htm Manga Entertainment UKs Robotech section] Fan Sites: (English)
- [http://sdf5x.blogspot.com/ Roboblog III: The Odyssey] - Detailed blog covering the Shadow Chronicles DVD and comic prequel
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Robotech_ShadowChronicles/ Robotech Shadow Chronicles Group] - New group for the upcoming sequel, Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles
- [http://www.robotechnews.blogspot.com/ The Unofficial Robotech Reporter] - 100% Unauthorized. 65% Cynical.
- [http://www.robotechmuseum.com/ Robotech Museum] - A historical archive of Robotech collectibles.
- [http://www.robotechcompanion.com/ The Robotech Companion] - Extensive Robotech episode and background information.
- [http://www.artemisgames.com/robotech/ Robotech Reference Guide] - Unofficial Encyclopedia of Robotech.
- [http://www.robotechresearch.com/ Robotech Research] - Extensive Robotech Role-Playing (RPG) site.
- [http://www.seedwiki.com/wiki/chronology_central/robotech.cfm?wpid=183542 Chronology Central's Robotech page] - Chronologically integrated listing of the cartoon and comic storylines.
- [http://www.uegroup.scherdan.com/ U.E.Group] - Dedicated to Robotech 3D fan film projects. Fan Sites: (International)
- [http://www.rtucn.com/ Robotech Union @ China] - Chinese language fansite dedicated to Robotech.
- [http://www.robotechespanol.com/ Robotech Espanol] - Spanish language fansite with the latest news and rumors
- [http://www.robotech.org.ar/ Herederos de Zor Argentina] - Spanish language fan club seen on Latin American TV.
- [http://macross.anime.ru/robotech/ РОБОТЕК] - All about Robotech in Russian.
- [http://www.macross-city.net/ Macross-City Russia] - Russian language fansite with the latest news and external subtitles.
- [http://www.geocities.co.jp/yuiyuasa/ Robotech Mordecai Youth Inertia] - Japanese language fan site of the Robotech Clone comics. Category:Robotech Category:Comico Comics titles Category:Wildstorm Comics titles Category:Space opera Category:Science fiction television series Category:1980s TV shows in the United States Category:Syndicated shows ja:ロボテック

Slug

:For other meanings, see Slug (disambiguation) Slugs are gastropods without shells or with very small shells (often which are internal), in contrast with snails from which they share a common ancestor, which have a prominent shell. Although they undergo torsion (180 degree twisting of internal organs) during development, their bodies are streamlined and worm-like, and so show little external evidence of it. This same basic design developed independently in several different groups, the largest being the sea slugs or nudibranchs. Other slugs are found on land, but their soft, slimy bodies are prone to desiccation, so they are confined to moist environments. Among the various species are the grey field slug, Deroceras reticulatus; the garden slug, Arion hortensis; the leopard slug, Limax maximus; and the banana slug, Ariolimax columbianus. Like snails, slugs have two pairs of 'feelers' or tentacles on their head. The upper pair--optical tentacles--are light sensors; the lower pair provides the sense of smell. Both pairs are retractable and can be regrown if lost. On top of the slug, behind the head, is the saddle-shaped mantle, and under this are the genital opening and anus. The mantle also has a hole, the pneumostome, for respiration. The slug moves by rythmic muscular action of its foot. Most slugs eat leaves, fungus, and decaying vegetable material, but some are predators and most also eat carrion including dead of their own kind. Slugs eat using a radula, a rough, tongue-like organ with many tiny tooth-like denticles. Parts of a slug

Mucus

Slugs produce two types of mucus: one which is thin and watery, and another which is thick and sticky. Both are hygroscopic. The thin mucus is spread out from the centre of the foot to the edges. The thick mucus spreads out from front to back. Mucus is very important to slugs as it helps them move around, and contains fibres which prevent the slug from sliding down vertical surfaces. Mucus also provides protection against predators and helps retain moisture. Some species use slime cords to lower themselves on to the ground, or suspend from them during copulation.

Reproduction and life cycle

Slugs are hermaphroditic: having both female and male reproductive organs. Once a slug has located a mate they encircle each other and sperm is exchanged through their protruding genitalia. A few days later hundreds of eggs are laid in holes in the ground. Although some species hibernate over the winter in temperate climates, in most species the adults die in the autumn. A commonly seen practice among many slugs is apophallation, when one or both of the slugs chew off the other's penis. The penis of these species is curled like a cork-screw and often becomes entangled in their mate's genitalia in the process of exchanging sperm. Apophallation allows the slugs to separate themselves. It is possible that the damaged genitalia regenerate, much like the "optical tentacles." Various species of slug can also reproduce via tiny "darts" of sperm which they fling in the direction of their mate's genitalia. Slug genitalia are also some of the most prodigious in the world. Ariolimax dolichophallus, a species of banana slug (dolichophallus meaning "long penis" in Latin) has the largest penis-to-body length ratio of any animal. The record-holding specimen had a body length of 6 inches, with a phallus length of 32.5 inches, well over five times the body length.

Predation, defense and pest control

Frogs, toads, hedgehogs, and some birds and beetles are natural slug predators. Slugs, when attacked, can contract their body, making themselves harder and more compact and thus more difficult for many animals to get a hold. The unpleasant taste of the mucus is also a deterrent. Some slugs are notable garden pests and there are various methods of controlling them (see Pest control of slugs), such as slug pellets, beer traps, salt, physical barriers and biological pest controls. Unlike snails, slugs are not edible by humans. In certain cases humans have contracted meningitis from eating slugs [http://abc.net.au/science/news/health/HealthRepublish_969551.htm].

External links

- [http://www.arnobrosi.com/slugbio.html Slug biology]
- [http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/2000/2010.html Ohio State University slug fact sheet]
- [http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/StratfordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/leopard_slug.htm Leopard Slug Info] Category:Molluscs
- ja:ナメクジ

Narcotic

The term narcotic, derived from the Greek word narkotikos, meaning "benumbing or deadening", originally referred to a variety of substances that induced sleep (such state is narcosis). In the U.S. legal context, narcotic refers to opium, opium derivatives, and their semisynthetic or totally synthetic substitutes. Cocaine and coca leaves, which are classified as "narcotics" in the U.S. Controlled Substances Act (CSA), are chemically not narcotics. Because the term is often used broadly, inaccurately and/or pejoratively outside medical contexts, most medical professionals prefer the more precise term opioid for all natural, semi-synthetic and synthetic substances that behave pharmacologically like morphine, the primary constituent of natural opium.

Administration

Narcotics can be administered in a variety of ways. Some are taken orally, transdermally (skin patches) or injected. They are also available in suppositories. As recreational drugs, they are often smoked, snorted, or self-administered by the more direct routes of subcutaneous ("skin popping") and intravenous ("mainlining") injection.

Effects

Drug effects depend heavily on the dose, route of administration, previous exposure to the drug, and the expectation of the user. Aside from their clinical use in the treatment of pain, cough suppression and acute diarrhea, narcotics produce a general sense of well-being known as euphoria by reducing tension, anxiety, and aggression. These effects are helpful in a therapeutic setting and contribute to their popularity as recreational drugs, as well as helping to produce dependency. Narcotic use is associated with a variety of effects including drowsiness, itching, sleeplessness, inability to concentrate, apathy, lessened physical activity, constriction of the pupils, dilation of the subcutaneous blood vessels causing flushing of the face and neck, constipation, nausea and vomiting and, most significantly, respiratory depression. As the dose is increased, the subjective, analgesic, and toxic effects become more pronounced. Except in cases of acute intoxication, there is no loss of motor coordination or slurred speech as occurs with many depressants.

Hazards

Among the hazards of careless or excessive drug use are the increasing risk of infection, disease and overdose. Medical complications common among recreational narcotic users arise primarily from the non-sterile practices of injecting. Skin, lung and brain abscesses, endocarditis, hepatitis and AIDS are commonly found among persons with narcotic dependencies. There has been much exaggeration of the dangers related to the adulterants found in street drugs- such as heroin- where rumours abound (e.g. ground glass, talcum powder, rat poison, domestic cleaning powders) about what is used to 'cut' street drugs. Recent evidence however shows that this kind of 'dangerous adulteration' is largely mythical and that far less cutting of drugs than is normally assumed actually takes place. However, since there is no simple way to determine the purity of a drug that is sold on the street, the effects of using street narcotics are unpredictable. It remains the case however that the greatest risk presented by most illicit drugs relates to the drugs themselves and how they are used e.g. in conjunction with other drugs (alcohol is a particularly risky drug to use whilst also using other street drugs); in excess (most recreational and non-excessive drug use does not result in harm), and how a drug is administered e.g. poor injecting practices. Most of these hazards are secondary to illegality and impurities, rather than being inherent to the chemicals themselves. This is one of the arguments used for legalization of narcotics (drug legalization): not that heroin isn't harmful, but that addicts would be at less risk if they could go to a pharmacy and get heroin of known purity, with no dangerous contaminants, and clean syringes. As we have seen however this particular danger has been overstated and has been used by both legalisers and prohibitionists to support their own arguments: prohibitionists argue that 'dirty' street drugs are yet another reason as to why we should have a no-tolerance approach to both drugs and drug dealers. One suggestion is to make narcotics prescription-only, in order to discourage casual use and experimentation. During the 1990s, clean syringes became more readily available, despite opponents who feared that this would meant that society "condoned drug use". HIV and hepatitis infection rates dropped among opiate injectors who had access to clean syringes.

Tolerance and dependence

With repeated use of narcotics, tolerance and dependence develop. The development of tolerance is characterized by a shortened duration and a decreased intensity of analgesia, euphoria and sedation, which creates the need to administer progressively larger doses to attain the desired effect. Tolerance does not develop uniformly for all actions of these drugs, giving rise to a number of toxic effects. Although the lethal dose is increased significantly in tolerant users, there is always a dose at which death can occur from respiratory depression. It is clear however that tolerance and dependence - both part of the conventional idea of addiction is insufficient to explain away all of what addiction is. Addiction proper is a broader behavioural phenomena that also encapsulates non-substance based activity that has many of the same characteristics that substance based dependency displays: e.g. excessive and compulsive gambling, excessive and compulsive eating, and a range of other excessive and compulsive behaviours. Moreover it isn't always the case that those with a physical dependency to e.g. opiates find it too difficult to get over their 'addiction' because e.g. so-called medical addicts (those that become physically dependent on opiates given for pain relief after treatment) only have to 'give-up' the physical symptoms - they don't also have the all important psychological and life-style attachment to the drug which goes to make up the all-encompassing 'addiction'. Physical dependence refers to an alteration of normal body functions that necessitates the continued presence of a drug in order to prevent the withdrawal or abstinence syndrome. The intensity and character of the physical symptoms experienced during withdrawal are directly related to the particular drug in use, the total daily dose, the interval between doses, the duration of use and the health and personality of the user. In general, narcotics with shorter durations of action tend to produce shorter, more intense withdrawal symptoms, while drugs that produce longer narcotic effects have prolonged symptoms that tend to be less severe. The withdrawal symptoms experienced from heroin- or morphine-like addiction are usually experienced shortly before the time of the next scheduled dose. Early symptoms include watery eyes, runny nose, yawning and sweating. Restlessness, irritability, loss of appetite, tremors and severe sneezing appear as the syndrome progresses. Severe depression and vomiting are not uncommon. The heart rate and blood pressure are elevated. Chills alternating with flushing and excessive sweating are also characteristic symptoms. Pains in the bones and muscles of the back and extremities occur as do muscle spasms and kicking movements, which may be the source of the expression "kicking the habit." At any point during this process, a suitable narcotic can be administered that will dramatically reverse the withdrawal symptoms. Without intervention, the syndrome will run its course and most of the overt physical symptoms will disappear within 7 to 10 days. The psychological dependence that is associated with narcotic addiction is complex and protracted. Long after the physical need for the drug has passed, the addict may continue to think and talk about the use of drugs. There is a high probability that relapse will occur after narcotic withdrawal when neither the physical environment nor the behavioral motivators that contributed to the abuse have been altered. There are two major patterns of narcotic dependence seen in the United States. One involves individuals whose drug use was initiated within the context of medical treatment who escalate their dose through "doctor shopping" or branch out to illicit drugs. A very small percentage of addicts are in this group. The other more common pattern of non-medical use is initiated outside the therapeutic setting with experimental or recreational use of narcotics. The majority of individuals in this category may use narcotics sporadically for months or even years. These occasional users are called "chippers." Although they are neither tolerant of nor dependent on narcotics, the social, medical and legal consequences of their behavior can be very serious. Some experimental users will escalate their narcotic use and will eventually become dependent, both physically and psychologically. The earlier drug use begins, the more likely it is to progress to dependence. Heroin use among males in inner cities is generally initiated in adolescence, and dependence often develops in about 1 or 2 years. Signs and symptoms of narcotic/opoids overdose include the following: Euphoria, Arousable somnolence ("nodding"), Nausea, Pinpoint pupils (except with Pethidine/Meperidine [Demerol], hypoxia, or in combination with other types of drugs), Coma, and Seizures. In scuba diving, nitrogen narcosis is a condition that results from overexposure to high-pressure nitrogen.
External links

- [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia]
- [http://www.pharmer.org/imprints/narcotics Pharmer.org] A non-profit site providing detailed descriptions of most narcotic analgesics.
- [http://www.geopium.org/Photos/Maroc_Rif2005/Maroc_Rif2005.htm Photos of cannabis cultivation in Morocco (Rif) on www.geopium.org]
See also

- drug
- addiction
- Narcotics Anonymous
- narcoterrorism
- Narcissus ja:麻薬 Category:Opioids

Energy development

Energy development is the ongoing effort to provide abundant and accessible energy resources through knowledge, skills, and constructions. When harnessing energy from primary energy sources and converting them into ever more convenient secondary energy forms, such as electrical energy and cleaner fuels, both quantity (harnessing more energy) and quality (more efficient use) are important.

Dependence on external energy sources

All biological life needs a supply of external energy. Most plants are capable of photosynthesis, some bacteria employ natural sources of chemical energy. Many other organisms thrive on energy passed along in food chains. Beyond the biological needs of humanity, energy sources are used to enable advanced activities such as heating, cooking, transport, communication, warfare and social and leisure activities. This allows us, in general, to live under diverse climatic conditions, in great numbers and often in comfort. Level of dependence of human societies on external energy sources differs, as does the climate, comfort and output of each society. Increased levels of human comfort require increased dependence on external energy sources. Energy development therefore embodies the idea of increasing human comfort and freedom by researching and implementing increasingly effective and responsible energy harvesting and utilisation schemes.

Limitations to energy development

Use of any given energy source in human societies encounters limits to quantitative expansion. At the beginning of the 21st century some issues have achieved global dimension. Principal fossil energy sources, such as oil and natural gas are approaching exhaustion that may occur within the span of a generation (see Hubbert peak hypothesis). Closely linked to energy development are concerns about the environmental effects of energy use, such as climate changes. Energy development issues are part of the much debated sustainable development problem.

Energy sources

Energy sources are substances or processes with concentrations of energy at a high enough potential to be feasibly encouraged to convert to lower energy forms under human control for human benefit. Except for nuclear fuels, tidal energy and geothermal energy, all terrestrial energy sources are solar. And ultimately, solar energy itself is nuclear.

Fossil Fuels

:Main article: Fossil fuel Fossil fuels, in terms of energy, involve the burning of coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. This combustion heats water to create steam, which turns a turbine, which, in turn, generates electricity. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

Pros

- Because it is based on the simple process of combustion, the burning of fossil fuels can generate very large amounts of electricity with a small amount of fuel. Gas-fired power plant are efficient, and coal power plants have improved over the past few years.
- Fossil fuels are readily available and are currently plentiful. If more energy is required, the only step required is to obtain more fuel. Fossil fuels are easy to obtain by extraction. The transport of these fuels is also straightforward, especially if the plant is located close to the fuel source.
- Fossil fuels are cheap compared to other types of energy. Because there are large deposits of fossil fuels in the world, the per-unit cost is relatively low. Furthermore, the technology already exists for the use of fossil fuels, meaning consumers do not have to spend money switching to other technologies.

Cons

- They are considered non-renewable resources, which will eventually run out. Fossil fuels are actually produced continuously, but we are using them up at a rate 100,000 times faster than they are formed.
- Extracting fossil fuels will become more difficult as we consume the most accessible fuel deposits. Extraction of fossil fuels is expected to become more expensive and more dangerous as mines get deeper and oil rigs go further out to sea.
- The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of pollution into the atmosphere. Some of these by-products, such as carbon dioxide, are heat-trapping gases, which some scientists believe enhance the “greenhouse effect” leading to global warming. Other pollutants, including sulfur dioxide, are present in acid precipitation, and the drilling and transport of petroleum cause areas, which are susceptible to oil spills.

Wind Power

:Main article: Wind power This type of energy harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on wind farms.

Pros

- Wind power produces no water or air pollution that can contaminate the environment. Because there are no chemical processes involved in wind power generation, there are no by-products, such as carbon dioxide, left over.
- Wind generation is a renewable source of energy, which means that we will never run out of it.
- Wind towers can be beneficial for people living permanently, or temporarily, in remote areas. It may be difficult to transport electricity through wires from a power plant to a far-away location and thus, wind towers can be set up at the remote setting.
- None of the environmental costs are left to future generations.

Cons

- Wind power is not reliable, because consistent wind is needed to ensure continuous power generation. When the wind speed decreases, the turbine lingers and less electricity is generated. Thus, the production at any time is unpredictable.
- One wind turbine does not generate very much electricity, when compared to the energy generated by one fossil fuel power plant. In fact, an entire field of wind towers, called a wind farm, is required, taking up a lot of land.
- Installing wind farms in an area may destroy its natural beauty. Wind farms can have a significant visual impact on the horizon and may obstruct natural or man made landforms that may interest the viewer.
- The effect of large scale wind farms on the climate is unknown. Energy is removed from prevailing winds and could affect weather or climate in ways not currently understood.

Biomass

:Main article: Biomass Biomass production involves using garbage or renewable resources, especially vegetation, like maize, to generate electricity. When garbage decomposes the methane produced is captured in pipes and later burned to produce electricity. Vegetation and wood can be burned directly, like fossil fuels, to generate energy, or processed to form alcohols.

Pros

- Biomass production can be used to burn organic waste products resulting from agriculture. This type of recycling encourages the philosophy that nothing on this Earth should be wasted. The result is less demand on the Earth's resources, and a higher carrying capacity for Earth because non-renewable fossil fuels are not consumed.
- Biomass is abundant on Earth and is generally renewable. In theory, we will never run out of organic waste products as fuel, because we are continuously producing them. In addition, biomass is found throughout the world, a fact that should alleviate energy pressures in third world nations.
- When methods of biomass production other than direct combustion of plant mass, such as fermentation and pyrolysis, are used, there is little effect on the environment. Alcohols and other fuels produced by these alternative methods biomass are clean burning and are feasible replacements to fossil fuels.

Cons

- The direct combustion leads to air pollution. It produces also carbon dioxide, but unlike fossil fuels, such release is not responsible for a surplus of accumulating CO₂: it is part of a cycle where plants consume it to produce new biomass.
- This type of energy production is not currently cost effective, because the production of biomass and its subsequent conversion to alcohols is particularly expensive.
- If implemented on a small scale, biomass production most likely results in a net loss of energy because the energy required to grow the plant mass is greater than the electricity gained from it. Thus, large-scale generation is ideal.

Hydrogen Fuel

:Main article: Hydrogen economy Unlike the other energy sources in this article, hydrogen fuel cannot be collected or harnessed on earth. Hydrogen fuel must be manufactured with a net loss of energy. As such, it represents chemical energy storage like in other batteries, but it is not a primary energy source. In order to use hydrogen fuel as an energy source, either a) a fuel cell battery is needed to convert the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the process, produce electricity, or b) hydrogen can be burned (less efficiently than in a fuel cell) in an internal combustion engine (e.g. Mazda RX-8 rotary engine).

Pros

- Hydrogen is colourless, odourless and entirely non-polluting, the only product of combusting oxygen and hydrogen is pure water. This eliminates the direct production of exhaust gases that lead to smog, and carbon dioxide emissions that enhance the effect of global warming.
- Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element and has the best energy-to-weight ratio of any fuel. Because of this, hydrogen can be economically competitive with gasoline or diesel as a transportation fuel.
- Hydrogen can be produced anywhere, insinuating that it can be produced domestically from the decomposition the most abundant chemical on earth: water. Consequently, countries do not have to rely on OPEC countries for fossil fuels. Hydrogen can be produced from domestic sources and the price can be established within the country.

Cons

- It is currently very difficult to obtain hydrogen gas without expending energy in the process. Because it is an extremely reactive element, hydrogen never exists in its pure form in the environment. Furthermore, the process of splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen using electrolysis consumes large amounts of energy. It has been calculated that it takes 1.4 joules of electricity to produce 1 joule of hydrogen (Pimentel, 2002). If oil or gases are used to provide this energy, fossil fuels are consumed, forming pollution and nullifying the value of using a fuel cell. It would be more efficient to use fossil fuel directly.
- There is currently a lack of infrastructure and distribution network required to support the widespread use of hydrogen as a fuel. It would cost a lot of money and energy to build hydrogen plants and to replace every car and bus with a hydrogen engine and fuel tank.
- Hydrogen is complicated to handle, store, and transport. It requires heavy, cumbersome tanks when stored as a gas, and complex insulating bottles if stored as a cryogenic liquid. If it is needed at a moderate temperature and pressure, a metal hydride absorber may be needed. Transport is also a problem, because hydrogen leaks effortlessly from containers, reducing the efficiency of the fuel. These hassles make hydrogen power very expensive.
- Current efficient fuel cell designs are expensive since they need Platinum as a catalyst.

Tidal power

:Main article: Tidal power Tidal energy involves building a dam across the opening to a tidal basin, called an estuary. The dam, called a barrage, is composed of turbines, located within tunnels in the dam that rotate when a tide comes in, generating electricity.

Pros

- Tidal power is free once the dam is built. This is because tidal power harnesses the natural power of tides and does not consume fuel. In addition, the maintenance costs associated with running a tidal station are relatively inexpensive.
- Tides are very reliable because it is easy to predict when high and low tides will occur. The tide goes in and out twice a day usually at the predicted times. This makes tidal energy easy to maintain, and positive and negative spikes in energy can be managed.
- Tidal energy is renewable, because nothing is consumed in the rising of tides. Tidal power relies on the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which pull the sea backwards and forwards, generating tides.

Cons

- Tidal power is not currently economically feasible, because the initial costs of building a dam are tremendous. Furthermore, the efficiency of the tide is reduced because it only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is moving in or out of the basin.
- The barrage construction can affect the transportation system in water. Boats may not be able to cross the barrage, and commercial ships, used for transport or fishery, need to find alternative routes or costly systems to go through the barrage.
- The erection of a barrage may destroy the aquatic ecosystems surrounding it. The environment affected by the dam is very wide, altering areas numerous miles upstream and downstream. For example, many birds rely on low tides to unearth mud flats, which are used as feeding areas.

Solar power

:Main article: Solar power Solar power involves using solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity, or using sunlight hitting a parabolic mirror to heat water, producing steam.

Pros

- Solar power is a renewable resource. As long as the Sun exists, its energy will reach Earth.
- Solar power generation releases no water or air pollution, because there is no combustion of fuels.
- In sunny countries, solar power can be used in remote locations, like a wind turbine. This way, isolated places can receive electricity, when there is no way to connect to the power lines from a plant.

Cons

- Solar power is not very reliable because it depends on the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth at any given time. This makes a solar cell ineffectual during the night when sunlight does not reach the part of the Earth in which the cell is located. It is also limited by the amount of cloud cover that blocks sunlight.
- Solar power is not currently cost effective. A solar power station is expensive to build, and the energy payback time - the time necessary for producing the same amount of energy than needed for building the power device - for photovoltaic cells is large, of the order of five to six years.
- In order to use solar power effectively throughout the day, storage and back up are necessary to accumulate the energy generated at times of sunlight.

Geothermal Energy

:Main article: Geothermal power Geothermal energy harnesses the heat energy present underneath the Earth. The hot rocks heat water to produce steam. When holes are drilled in the region, the steam that shoots up is purified and is used to drive turbines, which power electric generators.

Pros

- Geothermal energy produces no air or water pollution because the steam released is not heated by the burning of a fuel, but rather, by the core of the Earth.
- Once a geothermal power station is implemented, the energy produced from the station is practically free. A small amount of energy is required in order to run a pump, although this pump can be powered by excess energy generated at the plant.
- Geothermal powers stations are relatively small, and have a lesser impact on the environment than tidal or hydroelectric plants. Because geothermal technology does not rely on large bodies of water, but rather, small, but powerful jets of water, like geysers, large generating stations can be avoided without losing functionality.

Cons

- Geothermal energy is only sufficient as source of power in certain areas of the world. These regions require the presence of hot rocks near the surface to warm the water. The depth of these rocks must be enough so that one can drill down to them. The type of rock also plays a role because it must be easy to drill through.
- A geothermal site is prone to running out of steam, meaning that the water is not heated at a high enough temperature to generate enough steam pressure. This makes the site useless, in terms of energy production, for decades.
- Drilling holes underground may release hazardous gases and minerals from deep inside the Earth. It can be problematical to dispose of these subsidiary products in a safe manner.

Hydroelectric energy

:Main article: Hydroelectricity In hydro energy, the gravitational descent of a river is compressed from a long run to a single location with a dam or a flume. This creates a location where concentrated pressure and flow can be used to turn turbines or water wheels, which drive a mechanical mill or an electric generator. An electric generator, when there is excess energy available, can be run backwards as a motor to pump water back up for later use.

Pros

- Hydroelectric power stations can promptly increase to full capacity, unlike other types of power stations. This is because water can be accumulated above the dam and released to coincide with peaks in demand.
- Electricity can be generated constantly, because there are no outside forces, which affect the availability of water. This is in contrast to wind, solar or tidal power, all of which are far less reliable.
- Hydroelectric power produces no waste or pollution, and does not contribute to global warming.

Cons

- The construction of a dam can have a serious environmental impact on the surrounding areas. The amount and the quality of water downstream can be affected, which affects plant life both aquatic, and land-based. Because a river valley is being flooded, the delicate local habitat of many species is destroyed, while people living nearby may have to relocate their homes.
- Dams are expensive to build, making the start-up costs of a hydroelectric power station very high.
- Hydro electricity can only be used in areas where there is a large supply of water.

Nuclear Energy

:Main article: Nuclear energy Nuclear power stations work similar to fossil fuel power plants, except for the fact that the heat is produced by the reaction of uranium inside a nuclear reactor. The reactor uses uranium rods, which are split in the process of fission, releasing a large amount of energy. The process continues as a chain reaction with other nuclei takes place. The heat released heats water to create steam, which spins a turbine, producing electricity.

Pros

- The process of nuclear fission allows for the production of tremendous amounts of energy from a small amount of fuel, a rod of uranium.
- The cost of making nuclear power is about the same as coal, which is considered very inexpensive.
- Nuclear power plants are heavily guarded with the nuclear reactor inside a reinforced containment building, and thus are relatively impervious to terrorist attack or adverse weather conditions.
- Nuclear power does not produce any air pollution or release carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Therefore, it does not contribute to global warming or acid rain.

Cons

- The waste produced from the nuclear fission of uranium is poisonous, and extremely radioactive, requiring constant and costly maintenance and monitoring at the storage sites. Moreover, the long-term disposal of the long-lived nuclear waste causes serious problems, since (unless the spent fuel is reprocessed) it takes from one to three thousand years for the spent fuel to come back to the natural radioactivity of the uranium ore body that was mined to produce it.
- The operation of an uncontained nuclear reactor near human settlements can be catastrophic, as shown by the Chernobyl accident in the former Ukraine, where large areas of land were affected by nuclear fallout. Members of the public are hesitant about the safety of nuclear power.
- Building a nuclear power plant requires a huge investment, and the costs of safe disassembling after it becomes obsolete (called decommissioning) must be included into the budget.
- There can be connections between nuclear power and nuclear weapon proliferation, since both require large-scale uranium enrichment facilities.

Energy transportation

While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new technology, distribution technology continually evolves. The use of fuel cells in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology. This section presents some of the more common delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in some way on the energy sources listed in the previous section.
- Fuels :Shipping is a flexible delivery technology that is used in the whole range of energy development regimes from primitive to highly advanced. Currently, coal,petroleum and their derivatives are delivered by shipping via boat, rail, or road. Petroleum and natural gas may also be delivered via pipeline. Refined hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and LPG may also be delivered via aircraft.
- Electric grids aircraft :Electricity grids are the networks used to transmit and distribute power from production source to end user, when the two may be hundreds of kilometres away. Sources include electrical generation plants such as a nuclear reactor, coal burning power plant, etc. A combination of sub-stations, transformers, towers, cables, and piping are used to maintain a constant flow of electricity. :Grids may suffer from transient blackouts and brownouts, often due to weather damage. During certain extreme space weather events solar wind can interfere with transmissions. :Grids also have a predefined carrying capacity or load that cannot safely be exceeded. When power requirements exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent problems, power is then rationed. :Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. :In the week of 3 August 2003, the US set an all-time national record for electricity use of 90,000 gigawatts. [http://currentenergy.lbl.gov/ CurrentEnergy] provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of Queensland, Australia. This network's service provision and its administration is an ongoing issues for that states politicians.

Energy storage

:Main article: Energy storage While most fuels can be stored, electricity in itself cannot. For that reason, many methods of energy storage have been developed, which transform electrical energy into other forms of energy. A method of energy storage may be chosen based on stability, ease of transport, ease of energy release, or ease of converting free energy from the natural form to the stable form.
- Chemical :Some natural forms of energy are found in stable chemical compounds such as fossil fuels. Most systems of chemical energy storage result from biological activity, which store energy in chemical bonds. Man-made forms of chemical energy storage include hydrogen fuel, batteries and explosives such as cordite and dynamite.
- Gravitational :Dams can be used to store energy, by using excess energy to pump water into the reservoir. When electrical energy is required, the process is reversed. The water then turns a turbine, generating electricity. Hydroelectric power is currently an important part of the world's energy supply, generating one-fifth of the world's electricity. :[http://www.worldenergy.org/wec-geis/publications/reports/ser/overview.asp]. :Another example of gravitational energy storage is the counter-weight on elevators.
- Electrical capacitance :Electrical energy may be stored in capacitors. These are often used to produce high intensity releases of energy (such as a camera's flash)
- Mechanical :
- Pressure: ::Energy may also be stored pressurised gases or alternatively in a vacuum. Compressed air, for example, may be used to operate vehicles and power tools. Large scale compressed air energy storage facilities are used to smooth out demands on electricity generation by providing energy during peak hours and storing energy during off-peak hours. Such systems save on expensive generating capacity since it only needs to meet average consumption rather than peak consumption. :
- Flywheels and springs ::Energy can also be stored in mechanical systems such as springs or flywheels. Flywheel energy storage is currently being used for uninterruptible power supplies. uninterruptible power supplies uninterruptible power supplies

Historic energy development schemes

Human societies have relied and currently rely on various energy development schemes. Schemes that are most powerful are considered in the energy development field to be more advanced in that they contribute better to human comfort and freedom. As humans and societies move from more primitive energy development schemes to more advanced ones, it is typically said from an energy development point of view that they are advancing because the energy limits on comfort and freedom are shrinking. Sources and technologies in this section are presented in order of increasing energy development.

Future energy development

:Main article: Future energy development Extrapolations from current knowledge to future energy development offer a choice of energy futures. Some predictions parallel the Malthusian catastrophe hypothesis. Numerous are complex models based scenarios as pioneered by Limits to Growth. Modelling approaches offer ways to analyse diverse strategies, and hopefully find a road to rapid and sustainable development of humanity. Short term energy crises are also a concern of energy development. Existing technologies for new energy sources, such as new renewable energy technologies, nuclear fission and fusion are promising, but need sustained research and development, including consideration of possible harmful side effects.

References

- Bilgen, S. and K. Kaygusuz, Renewable Energy for a Clean and Sustainable Future, Energy Sources 26, 1119 (2004).
- Energy analysis of Power Systems, UIC Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 57 (2004).

Agriculture

working the land in the traditional way, with horse and plough]] Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed, fiber and other desired products by the cultivation of certain plants and the raising of domesticated animals (livestock). The practice of agriculture is also known as "farming", while scientists, inventors and others devoted to improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture. More people in the world are involved in agriculture as their primary economic activity than in any other, yet it only accounts for four percent of the world's GDP.

Overview

GDP, Indonesia]] Agriculture can refer to subsistence agriculture, the production of enough food to meet just the needs of the farmer/agriculturalist and his/her family. It may also refer to industrial agriculture, (often referred to as factory farming) long prevalent in "developed" nations and increasingly so elsewhere, which consists of obtaining financial income from the cultivation of land to yield produce, the commercial raising of animals (animal husbandry), or both. Agriculture is also short for the study of the practice of agriculture—more formally known as agricultural science. Agricultural students are known (sometimes derisively) as "Aggies". Increasingly, in addition to food for humans and animal feeds, agriculture produces goods such as cut flowers, ornamental and nursery plants, timber or lumber, fertilizers, animal hides, leather, industrial chemicals (starch, sugar, ethanol, alcohols and plastics), fibers (cotton, wool, hemp, and flax), fuels (methane from biomass, biodiesel) and both legal and illegal drugs (biopharmaceuticals, tobacco, marijuana, opium, cocaine). Genetically engineered plants and animals produce specialty drugs. In the Western world, the use of gene manipulation, better management of soil nutrients, and improved weed control have greatly increased yields per unit area. At the same time, the use of mechanization has decreased labour requirements. The developing world generally produces lower yields, having less of the latest science, capital, and technology base. Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. Irrigation, drainage, conservation and sanitary engineering, each of which is important in successful farming, are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers. Agricultural chemistry deals with other vital farming concerns, such as the application of fertilizer, insecticides (see Pest control), and fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.Plant breeding and genetics contribute additionally to farm productivity. Advanced seed engineering has allowed strains of seed to become perfect in every farming situation. Seeds can now germinate faster and adapt to shorter growing seasons in different climates. Present-day seed can resist the spraying of pesticides that kill all green-leaf plants. Hydroponics, a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions, may help meet the need for greater food production as the world's population increases. The packing, processing, and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science. Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for farm products (see Food preservation; Meat packing industry). Mechanization, the outstanding characteristic of late 19th and 20th century agricultural evolution, has eased much of the backbreaking toil of the farmer. More significantly, mechanization has enormously increased farm efficiency and productivity (see Agricultural machinery). Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs; however, are still used to cultivate fields, harvest crops and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world. Airplanes, helicopters, trucks and tractors are used in agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and disease control, Aerial topdressing, transporting perishable products, and fighting forest fires. Radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers. Computers have become an essential tool for farm management. Aerial topdressing] According to the National Academy of Engineering in the US, agricultural mechanization is one of the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. Early in the century, it took one American farmer to produce food for 2.5 people, where today, due to engineering technology (also, plant breeding and agrichemicals), a single farmer can feed over 130 people [http://www.greatachievements.org/greatachievements/ga_7_2.html]. This comes at a cost, however, of large amounts of energy input, from unsustainable, mostly fossil fuel, sources. Animal husbandry means breeding and raising animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis. In recent years some aspects of industrial intensive agriculture have been the subject of increasing discussion. The widening sphere of influence held by large seed and chemical companies, meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. There has been increased activity of some people against some farming practices, raising chickens for food being one example. Another issue is the type of feedgiven to some animals that can cause Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy in cattle. There has also been concern because of the disastrous effect that intensive agriculture has on the environment. In the US, for example, fertilizer has been running off into the Mississippi for years and has caused a dead spot in the Gulf of Mexico, where the Mississippi empties. Intensive agriculture also depletes the fertility of the land over time and the end effect is that which happened in the Middle East, were some of the most fertile farmland in the world was turned into a desert by intensive agriculture. The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using genetic engineering has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of. Some argue these companies are guilty of biopiracy. Soil conservation and nutrient management have been important concerns since the 1950s, with the best farmers taking a stewardship role with the land they operate. However, increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are of concern in many countries. Increasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of community-supported agriculture, local food movement, slow food, and commercial organic farming, though these yet remain fledgling industries.

History

organic farming Archaeobotanists have traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics, such as a semi-tough rachis and larger seeds, to just after the Younger Dryas (about 9,500 BC) in the early Holocene in the Levant region of the Fertile Crescent. Limited anthropological and archaeological evidence both indicate a grain-grinding culture farming along the Nile in the 10th millennium BC using the world's earliest known type of sickle blades. There is even earlier evidence for conscious cultivation and seasonal harvest: grains of rye with domestic traits have been recovered from Epi-Palaeolithic (10,000+ BC) contexts at Abu Hureyra in Syria, but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication. It is not until ca. 8,500 BC, in middle-Eastern cultures referred to as Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), where there is the first definite evidence for the emergence of a widespread subsistence economy that was dependent on domesticated plants and animals. In these contexts lie the origins of the eight so-called founder crops of agriculture: firstly emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, then hulled barley, pea, lentil, bitter vetch, chick pea and flax. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on PPNB sites in this region, although the consensus is that wheat was the first to be sown and harvested on a significant scale. There are many sites that date to between ca. 8,500 BC and 7,500 BC where the systematic farming of these crops contributed the major part of the inhabitants' diet. From the Fertile Crescent agriculture spread eastwards to Central Asia and westwards into Cyprus, Anatolia and, by 7,000 BC, Greece. Farming, principally of emmer and einkorn, reached northwestern Europe via southeastern and central Europe by ca. 4,800 BC (see, among others, Price, D. [ed.] 2000. Europe's First Farmers. Cambridge University Press; Harris, D. [ed.] 1996 The Origins and Spread of Agriculture in Eurasia. UCL Press). Europeing an alfalfa field]] The reasons for the earliest introduction of farming may have included climate change, but possibly there were also social reasons (e.g. accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift-giving). Most certainly there was a gradual transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural economies after a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered from the wild. Although localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the Levant, the fact that farming was 'invented' at least three times, possibly more, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. In addition to emergence of farming in the Fertile Crescent, agriculture appeared by at least 6,800 BC in East Asia (rice) and, later, in Central and South America (maize, squash). Small scale agriculture also likely arose independently in early Neolithic contexts in India (rice) and Southeast Asia (taro). Southeast Asia. Baked clay. Field Museum]] Full dependency on domestic crops and animals (i.e. when wild resources contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the diet) was not until the Bronze Age