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Ionic Order

Ionic order

The Ionic order forms one of the three orders or organizational systems of classical architecture, the other two canonic orders being the Doric and the Corinthian. (There are two lesser orders, the stocky Tuscan order and the rich variant of Corinthian, the Composite order, added by 16th century Italian architectural theory and practice.) The Ionic order originated in the mid-6th century BC in Ionia, the southwestern coastland and islands of Asia Minor settled by Ionian Greeks, where an Ionian dialect was spoken. The Ionic order was being practised in mainland Greece in the 5th century BC. The first of the great Ionic temples, though it stood for only a decade before an earthquake levelled it, was the Temple of Hera on Samos, built about 570 BC - 560 BC by the architect Rhoikos. It was in the great sanctuary of the goddess: it could scarcely have been in a more prominent location for its brief lifetime. A longer-lasting 6th century Ionic temple was the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Seven Wonders of the World Unlike the Greek Doric order, Ionic columns normally stand on a base (but see illustration, left) which separates the shaft of the column from the stylobate or platform. The capital of the Ionic column has characteristic paired scrolling volutes that are laid on the molded cap ("echinus") of the column, or spring from within it. The cap is usually enriched with egg-and-dart. Originally the volutes lay in a single plane (illustration at right); then it was seen that they could be angled out on the corners. This feature of the Ionic order made it more pliant and satisfactory than the Doric to critical eyes in the 4th century BC: angling the volutes on the corner columns, ensured that they "read" equally when seen from either front or side facade. The 16th-century Renaissance architect and theorist Vincenzo Scamozzi designed a version of such a perfectly four-sided Ionic capital, which became so much the standard, that when a Greek Ionic order was eventually reintroduced, in the later 18th century Greek Revival, it conveyed an air of archaic freshness and primitive, perhaps even republican, vitality. Below the volutes, the Ionic column may have a wide collar or banding separating the capital from the fluted shaft. Or a swag of fruit and flowers may swing from the clefts of the volutes, or from their "eyes". After a little early experimentation, the number of hollow flutes in the shaft settled at 24. This standardization kept the fluting in a familiar proportion to the diameter of the column at any scale, even when the height of the column was exaggerated. Roman fluting leaves a little of the column surface between each hollow; Greek fluting runs out to a knife edge that was easily scarred. Greek Revival The Ionic column is always more slender than the Doric: Ionic columns are eight and nine column-diameters tall, and even more in the Antebellum colonnades of late American Greek revival plantation houses. Ionic columns are most often fluted: Inigo Jones introduced a note of sobriety with plain Ionic columns on his Banqueting House at Whitehall Palace, London, and when Beaux-Arts architect John Russell Pope wanted to convey the manly stamina combined with intellect of Theodore Roosevelt, he left colossal Ionic columns unfluted on the Roosevelt memorial at the American Museum of Natural History, New York, for an unusual impression of strength and stature. The major feature of the Ionic order are the volutes of its capital, which have been the subject of much theoretical and practical discourse, based on a brief and obscure passage in Vitruvius [http://www.nexusjournal.com/AndGal.html]. The only tools required were a straightedge, a right angle, string (to establish half-lengths) and a compass. Vitruvius-407 BC. The shaft everts gracefully at the base to meet the torus (enriched with interlaced guilloche) it stands upon.]] The entablature resting on the columns has three parts: a plain architrave divided into two, or more generally three, bands, with a frieze resting on it that may be richly sculptural, and a cornice bult up with dentils (like the closely-spaced ends of joists), with a corona ("crown") and cyma ("ogee") molding to support the projecting roof. Pictorial often narrative bas-relief frieze carving provides a characteristic feature of the Ionic order, in the area where the Doric order is articulated with triglyphs. Roman and Renaissance practice condensed the height of the entablature by reducing the proportions of the architrave, which made the frieze more prominent. Vitruvius, a practicing architect who worked in the time of Augustus, reports (De Architectura, iv) that the Doric has a basis of sturdy male body proportions while Ionic depends on "more graceful" female body proportions. Though he does not name his source for such a self-conscious and "literary" approach, it must be in traditions passed on from Hellenistic architects, such as Hermogenes of Priene, the architect of a famed temple of Artemis at Magnesia on the Meander in Lydia (now Turkey). Renaissance architectural theorists took his hints, to interpret the Ionic Order as matronly in comparison to the Doric Order, though not as wholly feminine as the Corinthian order. The Ionic is a natural order for post-Renaissance libraries and courts of justice, learned and civilized. Because no treatises on classical architecture survive earlier than that of Vitruvius, identification of such meaning in architectural elements in the 5th and 4th centuries BC remains tenuous, though in the Renaissance it became part of the conventional "speech' of classicism.. The Parthenon, although it conforms mainly to the Doric order, also has some Ionic elements. A more purely Ionic mode on the Athenian Acropolis is exemplified in the Erechtheum. From the 17th century onwards, a much admired and copied version of Ionic was that which could be seen in the temple called that of "Fortuna Virilis" in Rome, first clearly presented in a detailed engraving in Antoine Desgodetz, Les edifices antiques de Rome (Paris 1682).

External links


- [http://ah.bfn.org/a/DCTNRY/i/ionicord.html Ionic order expemplified in architecture of Buffalo, New York]
- [http://itsa.ucsf.edu/~snlrc/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/ionic.html Ionic order, after Vitruvius]
- [http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/default.asp?Document=1.C.1.1.2 "Understanding buildings" website:] Ionic order
- [http://www.nexusjournal.com/AndGal.html Denis Andrey and Mirko Galli, "Geometric methods of the 1500s for laying out the ionic volute"] Category:Architecture Category:Ancient Greek architecture Category:Ancient Rome

Classical order

A classical order is one of the ancient styles of building design distinguished by their proportions and their characteristic [http://www.grandtradition.net/wiki/index.php?title=Basic_Mouldings profiles] and details, but most quickly recognizable by the type of column and capital employed. Each style also has its proper entablature, consisting of architrave, frieze and cornice. From the 16th century onwards, theorists recognized five orders. Ranged in the engraving (illustration, right), from the stockiest and most primitive to the richest and most slender, they are: Tuscan (Roman) and Doric (Greek and Roman, illustrated here in its Roman version); Ionic (Greek version) and Ionic (Roman version); Corinthian (Greek and Roman) and composite (Roman). The ancient and origonal orders of architecture are no more than three, the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, which were invented by the Greeks. To these the Romans added two, the Tuscan, which they made plainer than the Doric, and the Composite, which was more ornamental, if not more beautiful, than the Corinthian. The first three orders alone, however, show invention and particular character, and essentially differ from each other; the two others have nothing but that which is borrowed, and differing only accidentally. The Tuscan is the Doric in its earliest state, and the Composite is the Corinthian, enriched with the Ionic. To the Greeks, therefore, and not to the Romans, we are indebted for what is great, judicious, and dictinct in architecture. From the first formation of society, order may be traced. When the rigor of seasons first obliged men to contrive shelter from the inclemency of the weather, we learn that they first planted trees on end, and then laid others across to support a covering. The bands which connected those trees at top and bottom are said to have given rise to the idea of the base and capital of pillars; and from this simple hint origonally proceeded the more improved art of architecure. The order of a classical building is like the mode or key of classical music. It is established by certain modules like the intervals of music, and it raises certain expectations in an audiences attuned to its language. The orders are like the grammar or rhetoric of a written composition.

Parts of a column

A column is divided into a shaft, its base and its capital. In classical buildings the horizontal structure that is supported on the columns like a beam is called an entablature. The entablature is commonly divided into the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. To distinguish between the different Classical orders, the capital is used as the most distinct characteristics. A complete column and entablature consist of a number of distinct parts. The stylobate is the flat pavement on which the columns are placed. Standing upon the stylobate is the plinth, a square block – sometimes circular – which forms the lowest part of the base. Further up comes the remainder of the base: one or many circular moldings with profiles. Common examples are the convex torus and the concave scotia, separated by fillets or bands. On top of the base, the shaft is placed vertically. The shaft is cylindrical in shape and both long and narrow. The shaft is sometimes decorated with vertical hollows of fluting. The shaft is wider at the bottom than at the top, because its entasis, beginning a third of the way up, imperceptibly makes the column slightly more slender at the top. The capital rests on the shaft. It has a load-bearing function, which concentrates the weight of the entablature, but it primarily serves an aesthetic purpose. The simplest form of the capital is the Doric, consisting of three parts. The necking is the continuation of the shaft, but is visually separated by one or many grooves. The echinus lies atop the necking. It is a circular block that bulges outwards towards the top in order to support the abacus, which is a square or shaped block that in turn supports the entablature. The entablature consists of three horizontal layers, all of which are visually separated from each other using [http://www.grandtradition.net/wiki/index.php?title=Moldings moldings] or bands. The three layers of the entablature have distinct names: the architrave comes at the bottom, the frieze is in the middle and the molded cornice lies on the top. In Roman and post-Renaissance work, the entablature may be curved into an arch that springs from the column that bears its weight.

Measurement

Columns are measured in a ratio. The ratio is the diameter of the shaft at its base compared to the height of the column. As a result, a Doric column can be described as seven diameters high, an Ionic column is eight diameters high and a Corinthian column nine diameters high. Sometimes this is given as seven lower diameters high, in order to make sure which part of the shaft has been measured.

Greek orders

There are two distinct orders in ancient Greek architecture: Doric and Ionic. These two were adopted by the Romans, as was the Corinthian order. The Corinthian capital, however, was modified by the Romans. The adaption of the Greek orders took place in the 1st century BC. The three ancient Greek orders have since been used in classical Western architecture, both ancient and modern. Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earlier order, but there is no evidence to support this. Rather, the orders seem to have appeared at around the same time, the Ionic order in eastern Greece and the Doric order in the west and mainland. Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order later spread across Greece and into Sicily where it was the chief order for monumental architecture for 800 years.

Doric order

:Main article: Doric order. The Doric order originated on the mainland and western Greece. It is the simplest of the orders, characterized by short, faceted, heavy columns with plain, round capitals (tops) and no base. With only four to eight diameters in height, the columns are the most squat of all orders. The shaft of the Doric order is channeled with 20 flutes. The capital consists of a necking which is of a simple form. The echinus is convex and the abacus is square. Above the capital is a square abacus connecting the capital to the entablature. The Entablature is divided into two horizontal registers, the lower part of which is either smooth or divided by horizontal lines. The upper half is distinctive for the Doric order. The frieze of the Doric entablature is divided into triglyphs and metopes. A triglyph is a unit consisting of three vertical bands which are separated by grooves. Metopes are plain or carved reliefs. The Greek forms of the Doric order come without an individual base. The instead are placed directly on the stylobate. Later forms, however, came with the conventional base consisting of a plinth and a torus. The Roman versions of the Doric order have smaller proportions. As a result they appear lighter than the Greek orders. Image:Korintisk1.png

Ionic order

:Main article: Ionic order. The Ionic order came from eastern Greece, where its origins are entwined with the similar but little known Aeolic order. It is distinguished by slender, fluted pillars with a large base and two opposed volutes (also called scrolls) in the echinus of the capital. The echnius itself is decorated with an egg- and- dart motif. The Ionic shaft comes with four more flutes than the Doric counterpart (totalling 24). The Ionic base has two convex moldings called tori which are separated by a scotia. The Ionic order is also marked by a entasis, a little bulge in the columns. A column of the ionic order is nine lower diameters. The shaft itself is eight diameters high. The architrave of the entablature commonly consists of three stepped bands (fasciae). The frieze comes without the Doric triglyph and metope. The frieze sometimes comes with a continuous ornament such as carved figures. It is also noteworthy to contemplate the use of the compass in the design of this order. Image:Jonisk1.png

Corinthian order

:Main article: Corinthian order. The Corinthian order is the most ornate of the Greek orders, characterized by a slender fluted column having an ornate capital decorated with acanthus leaves. It is commonly regarded as the most elegant of the five orders. The most distinct characteristics is the striking capital. The capital of the Corinthian order is carved with two rows of leaves and four scrolls. The shaft of the Corinthian order has 24 lutes which are sharp-edged. The column is commonly ten diameters high. Designed by Callimachus, a Greek sculptor of the 5th century BC. The oldest known building to be built according to the Corinthian order is the monument of Lysicrates in Athens. It was built in 335 to 334 BC. The Corinthian order was raised to rank by the writings of the Roman writer Vitruvius in the 1st century BC.

Roman orders

The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, basically modification of Greek orders. The Romans also invented the superimposed order. A superimposed order is when successive stories of a building have different orders. The heaviest orders were at the bottom, whilst the lightest came at the top. This means that the Doric order was the order of the ground floor, the Ionic order was used for the middle storey, while the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the top storey. The Colossal order was invented by architects in the Renaissance. The Colossal order is characterized by columns that extend the height of two or more stories.

Tuscan order

:Main article: Tuscan order The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a simplified adaption of the Doric order by the Romans. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid.

Composite order

:Main article: Composite order The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high. Image:Komposita1.png

Original writings

The handbook De Architectura of Vitruvius is the only architectural writing that survived from Antiquity. After it was rediscovered in the 15th century, Vitruvius was instantly hailed as the authority on classical orders and architecture in general. Architects of the Renaissance and the Baroque period in Italy based their rules on Vitruvius' writings. What was added was rules for superimposing the classical orders and the exact proportions of the orders down to the most minute detail.

Modernist approaches

Later the rules of the Renaissance and the Baroque period were disregarded and the original use of the orders was revived, often hailed as the 'correct' use of the orders. Many architects, however, used the Classical orders at their freedom. In America, [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0486222365/qid=1107242311/sr=8-1/ref=sr_8_xs_ap_i1_xgl14/102-9708592-3407309?v=glance&s=books&n=507846 "The American Builder's Companion"], written in the early 1800s by the architect Asher Benjamin, influenced many builders in the eastern states, particularly those who developed what become known as the Federalist style. The Dover edition is based on the 1827 6th edition of the work, and contains 70 plates with many details of columns, capitals, pilasters, plinths, bases, mouldings, architraves, and so on, with numerous instructions regarding proportion as well. In 20th century modernist architecture the orders have often become ornaments and regarded as superfluous. Instead columns of steel and reinforced concrete are used. In late 20th century postmodernist architecture, however, elements of the traditional orders have sometimes been reintroduced. See also: Temple (Roman), Temple (Greek)

Further reading


- Curl, James Stevens, Classical Architecture: An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms 2003. ISBN 0393731197
- Summerson, Sir John, The Classical Language of Architecture MIT Press, 1966. ISBN 0262690128 (developed from a set of BBC radio talks).
- Tzonis, Alexander, Classical Architecture: The Poetics of Order 1986 ISBN 026270031X Category:Ancient Roman architecture



Doric order

–420 BC]] The Doric order was one of the three orders or organizational systems of Ancient Greek or classical architecture; the other two orders were the Ionic and the Corinthian. The Greek Doric order was the earliest of these, known from the 7th century BC and reaching its mature form in the 5th century BC. In their original Greek version, Doric columns stood directly on the flat pavement (the stylobate) of a temple without a base; their vertical shafts were fluted with parallel concave grooves; and they were topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at the intersection with the horizontal beam ("entablature") that they carried. entablature; 19th century pen-and-wash restoration]] A pronounced feature of both Greek and Roman versions of the Doric order are the triglyphs and metopes. The triglyphs are decoratively grooved and represent the original wooden end-beams, which rest on the plain frieze that occupies the lower half of the entablature. Under each triglyph are peglike guttae that appear as if they were hammered in from below to stabilize the post-and-beam ("trabeated") construction. A triglyph is centered above every column, with another (or sometimes two) between columns, though the Greeks felt that the corner triglyph should form the corner of the entablature, creating an inharmonious mismatch with the supporting column. The spaces between the triglyphs are the metopes. They may be left plain, or they may be carved in low relief. Because the metopes are somewhat flexible in their proportions, the modular space between columns ("intercolumniation") can be adjusted by the architect. Often the last two columns were set slightly closer together, to give a subtle visual strengthening to the corners. trabeated] Early examples of the Doric order include the temples at Paestum, in southern Italy, a region called Magna Graecia, which was settled by Greek colonists and retained a strongly Hellenic culture. The Temple of the Delians is a "peripteral" Doric temple, the largest of three dedicated to Apollo on the island of Delos. It was begun in 478 BC and never completely finished. During their period of independence from Athens, the Delians reassigned the temple to the island of Poros. It is "hexastyle", with six columns across the pedimented end and thirteen along each long face. All the columns are centered under a triglyph in the frieze, except for the corner columns. The plain, unfluted shafts on the columns stand directly on the platform (the stylobate), without bases. The recessed "necking" at the top of the shafts and the wide cushionlike echinus are a slightly self-conscious archaizing features, for Delos is Apollo's ancient birthplace. 478 BC A classic statement of the Greek Doric order is the Temple of Hephaestus in Athens, built about 449 BC. (See the Wikipedia entry for photographs that show its details.) The contemporary Parthenon, the largest temple in classical Athens, is also in the Doric order, although the sculptural enrichment is more familiar in the Ionic order: the Greeks were never as doctrinaire in the use of the Classical vocabulary as Renaissance theorists or neoclassical architects. The detail (illustration, left), part of the basic vocabulary of trained architects from the later 18th century onwards, shows how the width of the metopes was flexible: here they bear the famous bas-relief sculptures of the battle of Lapiths and Centaurs. In the Roman Doric version (illustration, right), the height of the entablature has been reduced. The endmost triglyph is centered over the column rather than occupying the corner of the architrave. The columns are slightly less robust in their proportions. Below their caps, an astragal molding encircles the column like a ring. Crown moldings soften transitions between frieze and cornice and emphasize the upper edge of the abacus. Roman Doric columns also have moldings at their bases and stand on low square pads or are even raised on plinths. In the Roman Doric mode, columns are not invariably fluted. plinth The Roman architect Vitruvius, following contemporary practice, outlined in his treatise the procedure for laying out constructions based on a module, which he took to be one half a column's diameter, taken at the base. An illustration of Andrea Palladio's Doric order, as it was laid out, with modules identified, by Isaac Ware, in The Four Books of Palladio's Architecture (London, 1738) is illustrated at Vitruvian module. When Greek Revival architecture was introduced at the beginning of the 19th century, the Greek Doric order had not previously been widely used. The first engraved illustrations of the Greek Doric order dated to the mid-18th century. Its appearance in the new phase of Classicism brought with it new connotations of high-minded primitive simplicity, seriousness of purpose, noble sobriety, and— in the United States— Republican virtues. In a customs house, Greek Doric suggested incorruptibility; in a Protestant church a Greek Doric porch promised a return to an untainted early church; it was equally appropriate for a library, a bank or a trustworthy public utility (illustration, left).

External link


- [http://www.hellenism.net/cgi-bin/display_article.html?a=21&s=22 Labeled Doric Column] Category:Architecture Category:Ancient Greek architecture Category:Ancient Rome

Tuscan order

Among the classical orders of architecture, the Tuscan order is the newcomer, a stocky simplified variant of the Doric order that was introduced into the canon of classical architecture by Italian architectural theorists of the 16th century. The five orders including a "Tuscan order" were meticulously described by the Italian Sebastiano Serlio in his treatise on architecture (1537 – 51). In the Tuscan order as Serlio envisaged it, the column had a simpler base and was unfluted, while both capital and entablature were without adornments. A plain astragal ringed the column beneath its plain cap. This primitive and sturdy order was considered most appropriate in military architecture and in docks and warehouses when they were dignified by architectural treatment. Because the Tuscan mode is easily worked up by a carpenter with a few planing tools, it became part of the vernacular Georgian style that has lingered in places like New England and Ohio deep into the 19th century. In gardening, "carpenter's Doric" which is Tuscan, provides gate posts and fences in many traditional garden contexts.

See also


- Tuscany

External link


- [http://ah.bfn.org/a/DCTNRY/t/tuscan.html "Buffalo as an Architectural Museum"]: Tuscan Category:Architecture

Composite order

] The composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order with the leaves of the Corinthian order. The composite volutes are larger, however, and the composite order also has echinus with egg-and-dart ornamentation between the volutes. The column of the composite order is ten diameters high. Until the Renaissance, the composite was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The Arch of Titus, in the forum in Rome was built in 82 and is considered the first example of a Composite order. Category:Architecture

Ionia

:This article is about the region of western Anatolia. For the group of islands west of Greece, see Ionian Islands. Ionian Islands Ionia (Greek Ιωνία; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was an ancient region of southwestern coastal Anatolia (now in Turkey) on the Aegean Sea. It comprised a narrow coastal strip from Phocaea in the north near the mouth of the river Hermus (now the Gediz), to Miletus in the south near the mouth of the river Maeander, and included the islands of Chios and Samos. It was bounded by Aeolia to the north, Lydia to the east and Caria to the south. According to the universal Greek tradition, the cities of Ionia were founded by migrants from the other side of the Aegean and their settlement was connected with the legendary history of the Ionic race in Attica, by the statement that the colonists were led by Neleus and Androclus, sons of Codrus, the last king of Athens. In accordance with this view the "Ionic migration", as it was called by later chronologers, was dated by them one hundred and forty years after the Trojan war, or sixty years after the return of the Heraclidae into the Peloponnese. Without assigning any definite date, we may say that recent research [as of 1910] has tended to support the popular Greek idea that Ionia received its main Greek element rather late - after the descent of the Dorians, and, therefore, after any part of the Aegean period. The only Aegean objects yet found (1910) in or near Ionia are some shards of the very late Minoan age at Miletus. It is improbable that all the Greek colonists were of the not numerous Ionian race. Herodotus tells us that the settlers were from many different tribes and cities of Greece (a fact indicated also by the local traditions of the cities), and that they intermarried with the native races. In Asia, Greeks were named with derivations of "Ionian", such as Yona in Pali. Josephus relates the Ionians to the biblical character Javan son of Japheth: "but from Javan, Ionia, and all the Grecians, are derived" (Antiquities of the Jews I:6). In Greek mythology, Ion, regarded as the founder of the Ionian tribe, was the son of Creusa (daughter of Erechtheus); his father was either Creusa's husband Xuthus (according to Hesiod's Eoiae) or Apollo (according to Euripides).

Geography

The cities called Ionian in historical times were twelve in number, an arrangement copied as it was supposed from the constitution of the Ionian cities in Greece which had originally occupied the territory in the north of the Peloponnese subsequently held by the Achaeans. These were (from south to north) Miletus, Myus, Priene, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedus, Teos, Erythrae, Clazomenae and Phocaea, together with Samos and Chios. Smyrna, originally an Aeolic colony, was afterwards occupied by Ionians from Colophon, and became an Ionian city — an event which had taken place before the time of Herodotus. But at what period it was admitted as a member of the league is unknown. The Ionian cities formed a religious and cultural (as opposed to a political or military) confederacy (see Ionian League), of which participation in the Panionic festival (Panionia) was a distinguishing characteristic. This festival took place on the north slope of Mt. Mycale in a shrine called the Panionium. In addition to the Panionic festival at Mycale, which was celebrated mainly by the Asian Ionians, both European and Asian coast Ionians convened on Delos Island each summer to worship at the temple of the Delian Apollo. But like the Amphictyonic league in Greece, the Ionic was rather of a sacred than a political character; every city enjoyed absolute autonomy, and, though common interests often united them for a common political object, they never formed a real confederacy like that of the Achaeans or Boeotians. The advice of Thales of Miletus to combine in a political union was rejected. Ionia was of small extent, not exceeding 90 geographical miles in length from north to south, with a breadth varying from 20 to 30 miles, but to this must be added the peninsula of Mimas, together with the two large islands. So intricate is the coastline that the voyage along its shores was estimated at nearly four times the direct distance. A great part of this area was, moreover, occupied by mountains. Of these the most lofty and striking were Mimas and Corycus, in the peninsula which stands out to the west, facing the island of Chios; Sipylus, to the north of Smyrna; Corax, extending to the south-west from the Gulf of Smyrna, and descending to the sea between Lebedus and Teos; and the strongly marked range of Mycale, a continuation of Messogis in the interior, which forms the bold headland of Trogilium or Mycale, opposite Samos. None of these mountains attains a height of more than 4000 feet The district comprised three extremely fertile valleys formed by the outflow of three rivers, among the most considerable in Asia Minor: the Hermus in the north, flowing into the Gulf of Smyrna, though at some distance from the city of that name; the Caster, which flowed under the walls of Ephesus; and the Maeander, which in ancient times discharged its waters into the deep gulf that once bathed the walls of Miletus, but which has been gradually filled up by this river's deposits. With the advantage of a peculiarly fine climate, for which this part of Asia Minor has been famous in all ages, Ionia enjoyed the reputation in ancient times of being the most fertile of all the rich provinces of Asia Minor; and even in modern times, though very imperfectly cultivated, it produces abundance of fruit of all kinds, and the raisins and figs of Smyrna supply almost all the markets of Europe. The colonies naturally became prosperous. Miletus especially was at an early period one of the most important commercial cities of Greece; and in its turn became the parent of numerous other colonies, which extended all around the shores of the Euxine Sea and the Propontis from Abydus and Cyzicus to Trapezus and Panticapaeum. Phocaea was one of the first Greek cities whose mariners explored the shores of the western Mediterranean. Ephesus, though it did not send out any colonies of importance, from an early period became a flourishing city and attained to a position corresponding in some measure to that of Smyrna at the present day.

History

The first event in the history of Ionia of which we have any trustworthy account is the inroad of the Cimmerii, who ravaged a great part of Asia Minor, including Lydia, and sacked Magnesia on the Maeander, but were foiled in their attack upon Ephesus. This event may be referred to the middle of the 7th century BC. About 700 BC Gyges, first Mermnad king of Lydia, invaded the territories of Smyrna and Miletus, and is said to have taken Colophon as his son Ardys did Priene. But it was not till the reign of Croesus (560–545 BC) that the cities of Ionia successively fell under Lydian rule. The defeat of Croesus by Cyrus was followed by the conquest of all the Ionian cities. These became subject to the Persian monarchy with the other Greek cities of Asia. In this position they enjoyed a considerable amount of autonomy, but were for the most part subject to local despots, most of whom were creatures of the Persian king. It was at the instigation of one of these despots, Histiaeus of Miletus, that in about 500 BC the principal cities ignited the Ionian Revolt against Persia. They were at first assisted by the Athenians, with whose aid they penetrated into the interior and burnt Sardis, an event which ultimately led to the Persian invasion of Greece. But the fleet of the Ionians was defeated off the island of Lade, and the destruction of Miletus after a protracted siege was followed by the reconquest of all the Asiatic Greeks, insular as well as continental. The victories of the Greeks during the great Persian war had the effect of enfranchizing their kinsmen on the other side of the Aegean; and the battle of Mycale (479 BC), in which the defeat of the Persians was in great measure owing to the Ionians, secured their emancipation. They henceforth became the dependent allies of Athens (see Delian League), though still retaining their autonomy, which they preserved until the peace of Antalcidas in 387 BC once more placed them as well as the other Greek cities in Asia under the nominal dominion of Persia. They appear, however, to have retained a considerable amount of freedom until the invasion of Asia Minor by Alexander the Great. After the battle of the Granicus most of the Ionian cities submitted to the conqueror. Miletus, which alone held out, was reduced after a long siege (334 BC). From this time they passed under the dominion of the successive Macedonian rulers of Asia, but continued, with the exception of Miletus, to enjoy great prosperity both under these Greek dynasties and after they became part of the Roman province of Asia.

Legacy

Ionia has laid the world under its debt not only by giving birth to a long roll of distinguished men of letters and science (see Ionian School of Philosophy), but also by originating the distinct school of art which prepared the way for the brilliant artistic development of Athens in the 5th century BC. This school flourished between 700 and 500 BC, and is distinguished by the fineness of workmanship and minuteness of detail with which it treated subjects, inspired always to some extent by non-Greek models. Naturalism is progressively obvious in its treatment, e.g. of the human figure, but to the end it is still subservient to convention. It has been thought that the Ionian migration from Greece carried with it some part of a population which retained the artistic traditions of the Mycenaean civilization, and so caused the birth of the Ionic school; but whether this was so or not, it is certain that from the 8th century BC onwards we find the true spirit of Hellenic art, stimulated by commercial intercourse with eastern civilizations, working out its development chiefly in Ionia and its neighbouring isles. The great names of this school are Theodorus and Rhoecus of Samos; Bathycles of Magnesia on the Maeander; Glaucus, Melas, Micciades, Archermus, Bupalus and Athenis of Chios. Notable works of the school still extant are the famous archaic female statues found on the Athenian Acropolis in 1885–1887, the seated statues of Branchidae, the Nike of Archermus found at Delos, and the objects in ivory and electrum found by D.G. Hogarth in the lower strata of the Artemision at Ephesus. The Arabic, Turkish & Persian name for Greece is Younan (یونان), a corruption of "Ionia." The same is true for the Hebrew word, "Yavan" (יוון). The Ionians were the first Greek-speaking people that Semitic and Persian language speakers encountered, and the name spread throughout the Near East and Central Asia. This entry was originally from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. Category:Anatolia Category:Ancient Greece

See also


- Ionians

Asia Minor

Anatolia

5th century BC

(2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) ----

Overview

The 5th and 6th centuries BC are a period of philosophical brilliance among advanced civilizations. Ancient Greek philosophy develops during the 5th century BC, setting the foundation for Western ideology.

Events


- Demotic becomes the dominant script of ancient Egypt
- Persians invade Greece twice (Persian Wars)
- Battle of Marathon (490)
- 486 BCE First Buddist Council at Rejgaha, under the patronage of King Ajatasattu. Oral tradition established for the first time.

Significant persons


- Pythagoras of Samos, Greek mathematician. See Pythagorean theorem. (582 - 496 BC).
- Gautama Buddha, founding figure of Buddhism (ca. 563 - 483 BC).
- Confucius, founding figure of Confucianism (551 - 479 BC).
- Aeschylus of Athens, playwright (525 - 456 BC).
- Darius I, King of Persia (reigned 521 - 485 BC).
- Sophocles of Athens, playwright (496 - 406 BC).
- Pericles of Athens, politician (ca. 495 - 429 BC).
- Herodotus of Halicarnassus, historian (ca. 485 BC).
- Euripides of Athens, playwright (ca. 480 - 406 BC).
- Socrates of Athens, philosopher (470 - 399 BC).
- Aristophanes of Athens, playwright (ca. 446 - 385 BC).
- Darius II, king of Persia (reigned 423-404 BC)
- Ezra and Nehemiah active in Judea.
- Tollund Man, Human sacrifice victim on the Jutland Peninsula in Denmark, possibly the earliest known evidence for worship of Odin.
- Empedocles

Inventions, discoveries, introductions


- Cast iron is first used in Wu.

Decades and years

Category:5th century BC ko:기원전 5세기 ja:紀元前5世紀

570 BC

Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 620s BC 610s BC 600s BC 590s BC 580s BC - 570s BC - 560s BC 550s BC 540s BC 530s BC 520s BC ----

Events and trends


- 579 BC - Servius Tullius succeeds the assassinated Lucius Tarquinius Priscus as king of Rome. (traditional date)
- 573 BC - Nemean Games founded at Nemea. (traditional date)
- 572 BC - Death of Zhou jian wang, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 571 BC - Zhou ling wang becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China.
- 570 BC - Amasis II succeeds Apries as king of Egypt.

Significant people


- 576 BC - Cyrus the Great, later King of Anshan and Persia (approximate date) Category:570s BC

Temple of Artemis

The Temple of Artemis (Greek: Artemision; Latin: Artemisium) was a Greek temple dedicated to Artemis completed around 550 BCE at Ephesus (in present-day Turkey) under the Achaemenid dynasty of the Persian Empire. Nothing remains of the original temple, which was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The temple was a 120-year project started by Croesus of Lydia. It was described by Antipater of Sidon, who compiled a list of the Seven Wonders: :I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge labour of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, 'Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught (anything) so grand." (Antipater, Greek Anthology [IX.58]) The temple was also described by Philon of Byzantium: :I have seen the walls and Hanging Gardens of ancient Babylon, the statue of Olympian Zeus, the Colossus of Rhodes, the mighty work of the high Pyramids and the tomb of Mausolus. But when I saw the temple at Ephesus rising to the clouds, all these other wonders were put in the shade.

Location

The Temple of Artemis was located in the ancient city of Ephesus, about 50 km south from the modern port city of Izmir, in Turkey. Like the other wonders, Antipater chose the temple for his list not because of its beauty or size, but rather because it rested near the border of the Greek world. This inspired a sense of mystery and awe for the Greeks, and emphasized Alexander the Great's vast empire. Alexander the Great

Ephesian Artemis

Artemis was the Greek goddess, the virginal huntress and twin of Apollo, who supplanted the Titan Selene as Goddess of the Moon. Of the Olympian goddesses who inherited aspects of the Great Goddess of Crete, Athene was more honored than Artemis at Athens. At Ephesus, a goddess whom the Greeks associated with Artemis was passionately venerated in an archaic, certainly pre-Hellenic icon (illustration, left). The original—of which many copies and reductions circulated in Antiquity— was carved of wood, with many breasts denoting her fertility (rather than the virginity that Hellene Artemis assumed). Most similar to Near-Eastern and Egyptian deities, and least like Greek ones, her body and legs are enclosed within a tapering pillar-like term, from which her feet protrude. On the coins minted at Ephesus, the many-breasted Goddess wears a mural crown (like a city's walls), an attribute of Cybele (see polos). On the coins she rests either arm on a staff formed of entwined serpents or of a stack of ouroboroi, the eternal serpent with its tail in its mouth. Like Cybele, the goddess at Ephesus was served by hierodules called megabyzae, and by (korai). A votive inscription mentioned by Bennett (see link), which dates probably from about the 3rd century BCE, associates Ephesian Artemis with Crete: "To the Healer of diseases, to Apollo, Giver of Light to mortals, Eutyches has set up in votive offering (a statue of) the Cretan Lady of Ephesus, the Light-Bearer." The Greek habits of syncretism assimilated all foreign gods under some form of the Olympian pantheon familiar to them, and it is clear that at Ephesus, the identification that the Ionian settlers made of the "Lady of Ephesus" with Artemis was slender. syncretism in Florence and other Italian quattrocento churches of the previous generation.]]

History

The sacred site at Ephesus was far older than the Artemisium. Pausanias understood the shrine of Artemis there to be very ancient. He states with certainty that it antedated the Ionic immigration by many years, being older even than the oracular shrine of Apollo at Didymi. He said that the pre-Ionic inhabitants of the city were Leleges and Lydians. The Temple was designed and constructed around 550 BC by the Cretan architect Chersiphron and his son Metagenes. This early construction was built at the expense of Croesus, the wealthy king of Lydia. Marshy ground was selected for the building site as a precaution against future earthquakes, according to Pliny the Elder. The temple became a tourist attraction, visited by merchants, kings, and sightseers, many of whom paid homage to Artemis in the form of jewelry and various goods. Its splendor also attracted many worshippers, many of whom formed the cult of Artemis. The temple was a widely respected place of refuge, a tradition that was linked in myth with the Amazons who took refuge there, both from Heracles and from Dionysus. The temple of Artemis at Ephesus was destroyed on July 21, 356 BC in an act of arson committed by Herostratus. According to the story, his motivation was fame at any cost, thus the term herostratic fame. :"A man was found to plan the burning of the temple of Ephesian Diana so that through the destruction of this most beautiful building his name might be spread through the whole world." ::Source: [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Valerius_Maximus/8
- .html#14.ext.5 Valerius Maximus, VIII.14.ext.5] The Ephesians, outraged, announced that Herostratus' name never be recorded. Strabo later noted the name, which is how we know today. That very same night, Alexander the Great was born. Plutarch remarked that Artemis was too preoccupied with Alexander's delivery to save her burning temple. Alexander later offered to pay for the Temple's rebuilding, but the Ephesians refused. Eventually, the temple was restored after Alexander's death, in 323 BC. This reconstruction was itself destroyed during a raid by the Goths in 262, in the time of emperor Gallienus: "Respa, Veduc and Thuruar, leaders of the Goths, took ship and sailed across the strait of the Hellespont to Asia. There they laid waste many populous cities and set fire to the renowned temple of Diana at Ephesus", reported Jordanes in Getica (xx.107). Over the next two centuries, the majority of Ephesians converted to Christianity, and the Temple of Artemis lost its religious appeal. Christians tore down the remenants of the temple, and the stones were used in construction of other buildings. The main primary sources for the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus are in Pliny the Elder's Natural History [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/36
- .html#95 XXXVI.xxi.95], Pomponius Mela [http://ourworld-top.cs.com/latintexts/m117.htm i:17], and Plutarch's Life of Alexander [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander
- /3.html#3.5 III.5] (referencing the burning of the Artemisium). The site of the temple was rediscovered in 1869 by an expedition sponsored by the British Museum, and while several artifacts and sculptures from the reconstructed temple can be seen there today, as for the original site, only a single column remains from the temple itself.

Architecture and art

Most of the physical description and art within the Temple of Artemis comes from Pliny, though there are different accounts and the actual size varies. Pliny describes the temple as 377 feet (115 meters) long and 180 feet (55 meters) wide, made almost entirely of marble. The Temple consists of 127 Ionic-styled columns, each 60 feet (18 meters) in height. The Temple of Artemis housed many fine artworks. Sculptures by renowned Greek sculptors Polyclitus, Pheidias, Cresilas, and Phradmon adorned the temple, as well as paintings and gilded columns of gold and silver. The sculptors often competed at creating the finest sculpture. Many of these sculptures were of Amazons, who are said to have founded the city of Ephesus. Pliny tells us that Scopas, who also worked on the Mausoleum of Mausollos, worked carved reliefs into the temple's columns.

Cult and influence

The Temple of Artemis was located at an economically robust region, seeing merchants and travellers from all over Asia Minor. The temple was influenced by many beliefs, and can be seen as a symbol of faith for many different peoples. The Ephesians worshipped Cybele, and incorporated many of their beliefs into the worship of Artemis. Artemisian Cybele became quite contrasted from her Roman counterpart, Diana. The cult of Artemis attracted thousands of worshippers from far-off lands. They would all gather at the site and worship her.

External links


- British Museum's [http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/hixclient.exe?_IXDB_=compass&_IXFIRST_=1&_IXMAXHITS_=1&_IXSPFX_=graphical/full/&%24+with+all_unique_id_index+is+%24=ENC111861&submit-button=summary Temple of Artemis] (Ephesos) objects
- UnMuseum's [http://unmuseum.mus.pa.us/ephesus.htm The Temple of Artemis]
- Seven Wonders' [http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/artemis.html Temple of Artemis]
- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/wmn/rca/rca04.htm Florence Mary Bennett, Religious Cults Associated with the Amazons: (1912)]: Chapter III: Ephesian Artemis (text)
- [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/greece/paganism/artemis.html James Grout: Temple of Artemis, part of the Encyclopædia Romana] Category:Ancient Greek structures Category:Greek religion Category:Destroyed landmarks

Shaft

A shaft can be
- an aggressive remark directed at a person like a missile and intended to have a telling effect; "his parting shot was `drop dead'"; "she threw shafts of sarcasm"; "she takes a dig at me every chance she gets"
- slang, meaning to receive unfair treatment; "Bill got shafted"
- a hole in the earth typically used for mineral extraction, such as mining. Mineshafts will normally be vertical, man-made structures. (See also pitch (vertical space)).
- a long cylindrical piece of metal, typically found in motors, machines etc.; axles or driveshafts, for example.
- the long cylindrical section of an architectural column between the base and the capital.
- a vertical space inside a building used to conduct pipes, conduits, or cables between floors. Elevators also travel in shafts; see Elevator shaft. See also Shafting.
- a modern vulgarism meaning penis.
- a weapon in the Quake video game series.
- a term that refers to the height of a boot.
- Shaft can also refer to
- a 1971 film; see Shaft
  - and its 2000 remake, Shaft
- a superhero character in Youngblood comics created by Rob Liefeld
- an anime production company; see SHAFT

Capital (architecture)

] In Western architecture, the capital (from the Latin caput, 'head') forms the crowning member of the column, which projects on each side as it rises, in order to support the abacus and unite the square form of the latter with the circular shaft. The bulk of the capital may either be convex, as in the Doric order; concave, as in the bell of the Corinthian order; or scrolling out, as in the Ionic order. These form the three principal types on which all capitals are based. The Composite order (illustration, right) established in the 16th century on a hint from the Arch of Titus, adds Ionic volutes to Corinthian acanthus leaves. From the prominent position it occupies in all monumental buildings, the capital has always been the favourite feature selected for ornamentation, and consequently it has become the clearest indicator of any style.

Ancient capitals

acanthus The two earliest Egyptian capitals of importance are those which are based on the lotus and papyrus plants respectively, and these, with the palm tree capital, were the chief types employed by the Egyptians, until under the Ptolemies in the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE, various other river plants were also employed, and the conventional lotus capital went through various modifications. Some kind of volute capital is shown in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, but no Assyrian capital has ever been found; the enriched bases exhibited in the British Museum were initially taken for capitals. The Achaemenid Persian capital belongs to the third, bracketed class above mentioned; the brackets are carved with the lion or the griffin projecting right and left to support the architrave, and on their backs carrying other brackets at right angles to support the cross timbers. The profuse decoration underneath the bracket capital in the palace of Xerxes at Susa and elsewhere, serves no structural function, but gives some variety to the extenuated shaft. The earliest Aegean capital is that shown in the frescoes at Knossus in Crete (1600 BCE); it was of the convex type, probably moulded in stucco. Capitals of the second, concave type, include the richly carved examples of the columns flanking the Tomb of Agamemnon in Mycenae (c. 1100 BCE): they are carved with a chevron device, and with a concave apophyge on which the buds of some flowers are sculpted.

Classical capitals

The Doric capital is the simplest of the five Classical orders: it consists of the abacus above an ovolo molding, with an astragal collar set below. In the Temple of Apollo, Syracuse (c. 700 BCE), the echinus moulding has become a more definite form: this in the Parthenon reaches its culmination, where the convexity is at the top and bottom with a delicate uniting curve. The sloping side of the echinus becomes flatter in the later examples, and in the Colosseum at Rome forms a quarter round.
- See the more complete discussion at Doric order. Doric order, Priene, Ionia, in a 19th-century engraving]] In the Ionic capital (illustration, left) spirally coiled volutes are inserted between the abacus and the ovolo. In the Ionic capitals of the archaic Temple of Artemis at Ephesus (560 BCE) the width of the abacus is twice that of its depth, consequently the earliest Ionic capital known was virtually a bracket capital. A century later, in the temple on the Ilissus, the abacus has become square.
- See the more complete discussion at Ionic order. Ionic order's Four books... (London 1738. Plate 70)]] It has been suggested that the foliage of the Greek Corinthian capital was based on the Acanthus spinosus, that of the Roman on the Acanthus mollis. Not all architectural foliage is as realistic as Isaac Ware's (illustration, right) however. The leaves are generally carved in two ranks or bands, like one leafy cup set within another. One of the most beautiful Corinthian capitals is that from the Tholos of Epidaurus (400 BCE); it illustrates the transition between the earlier Greek capital, as at Bassae, and the Roman version that Renaissance and modern architects inherited and refined.
- See the more complete discussion at Corinthian order. In Roman architectural practice, capitals are briefly treated in their proper context among the detailing proper to each of the 'Orders', in the only complete architectural textbook to have survived from classical times, the Ten Books On Architecture, by Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, better known just as Vitruvius, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. The various orders are discussed in Vitruvius' books iii and iv. Vitruvius describes Roman practice in a practical fashion. He gives some tales about the invention of each of the Orders, but he does not give a hard-and-fast set of canonical rules for the execution of capitals. Two further, specifically Roman orders of architecture have their characteristic capitals, the sturdy and primitive Tuscan capitals, typically used in military buildings, similar to Greek Doric, but with fewer small moldings in its profile, and the invented Composite capitals not even mentioned by Vitruvius, which combined Ionic volutes and Corinthian acanthus capitals, in an order that was otherwise quite similar in proportions to the Corinthian, itself an order that Romans employed much more often than Greeks. The increasing adoption of Composite capitals signalled a trend towards freer, more inventive (and often coarser) capitals in Late Antiquity.

Byzantine and Gothic capitals

Late Antiquity]] Byzantine capitals are of endless variety; the Roman composite capital would seem to have been the favourite type they followed at first: subsequently, the block of stone was left rough as it came from the quarry, and the sculptor, set to carve it, evolved new types of design to his own fancy, so that one rarely meets with many repetitions of the same design. One of the most remarkable is the capital in which the leaves are carved as if blown by the wind; the finest example being in Santa Sophia, Thessalonica; those in the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice specially attracted Ruskin's fancy. Others appear in St Apollinare-in-Classe, Ravenna. The capital in San Vitale, Ravenna shows above it the dosseret required to carry the arch, the springing of which was much wider than the abacus of the capital. arch The Romanesque and Gothic capitals throughout Europe present as much variety as in the Byzantine and for the same reason, that the artist evolved his conception of the design trom the block he was carving, but in these styles it goes further on account of the clustering of columns and piers. The earliest type of capital in Lombardy and Germany is that which is known as the cushion-cap, in which the lower portion of the cube block has been cut away to meet the circular shaft. These early types were generally painted at first with various geometrical designs, afterwards carved. In Byzantine capitals, the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally. In England and France, the figures introduced into the capitals are sometimes full of character. These capitals, however, are not equal to those of the Early English school,in which the foliage is conventionally treated as if it had been copied from metalwork, and is of infinite variety, being found in small village churches as well as in cathedrals.

Renaissance and post-Renaissance capitals

In the Renaissance period the feature became of the greatest importance and its variety almost as great as in the Byzantine and Gothic styles. The flat pilaster, which was employed so extensively in the Renaissance, called for a planar rendition of the capital, executed in high relief. This affected the designs of capitals. A traditional 15th century Early Renaissance variant of the Composite capital turns the volutes inwards above stiffened leaf carving. In new Renaissance combinations in capital designs, most of the ornament can be traced to Roman sources. The Renaissance was as much a reinterpretation as a revival of Classical norms. The volutes of Greek and Roman Ionic capitals lie in the same plane as the architrave above them. This may create an awkward transition at the corner, where, for example, the designer of the Temple of Athene Nike on the Acropolis, brought the outside volute of the end capitals forward at a 45-degree angle. The problem was more satisfactorily solved by the 16th century Renaissance architect Sebastiano Serlio, who angled outwards all the volutes of his Ionic capitals. Since then, the use of antique Ionic capitals, instead of the Serlian version, has tended to lend an archaic air to the entire context, as in Greek Revival. Within the bounds of decorum, a certain amount of inventive play has always been acceptable within the classical tradition. When Benjamin Latrobe redesigned the Senate Vestibule in the United States Capitol in 1807, he introduced six columns that he 'Americanized' with ears of corn (maize) substituting for the European acanthus leaves. As Latrobe reported to Thomas Jefferson in August 1809, :"These capitals during the summer session obtained me more applause from members of Congress than all the works of magnitude or difficulty that surround them. They christened them the 'corncob capitals'." Text formerly based on the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911. Category:Architectural elements

4th century BC

(2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) ----

Overview

Events


- Invasion of the Celts into Ireland
- Battle of the Allia and subsequent Gaulish sack of Rome
- 383 BCE Second Buddhist Councel at Vesali. 100 years after the Parimirvana.
- 312 BCE Seleucus I Nicator established himself in Babylon. Begins the Seleucid Empire.
- 323 BCE Alexander the Great conqueres the Persian Empire.
- Kingdom of Macedon conquers Persian empire
- The Scythians are beginning to be absorbed into the Sarmatian people.
- The Romans conquer the Abruzzi region, decline of the Etruscan civilization

Significant persons


- Marcus Furius Camillus, Roman dictator (c.446–365 BC).
- Plato, philosopher (c.427–347 BC).
- Tollund Man, Human sacrifice victim on the Jutland Peninsula in Denmark, possibly the earliest known evidence for worship of Odin.
- Aristotle, philosopher and scientist (384–322 BC).
- Philip II of Macedon (born 382, reigned 359–336 BC).
- Darius III of Persia, last King of the Achaemenid dynasty (born 380, reigned 359–330 BC).
- Mencius, Chinese philosopher and sage (371–289 BC).
- Ptolemy I Soter, founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty (c.367–283 BC).
- Shang Yang, Prime Minister of Qin, his reform helped Qin to become the strongest country and later unified China (term 361–338 BC).
- Seleucus I Nicator, founder of the Seleucid Empire (c.358–281 BC).
- Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, invades Asia Minor, Persia and reaches India (born 356, reigned 336–323 BC).
- Brennus, Gaulish chieftain

Inventions, discoveries, introductions


- Oldest Brahmi script dates from this period (Brahmi is the ancestor of Indic scripts)
- Romans build first aqueduct
- Chinese use bellows

Decades and years

Category:4th century BC ko:기원전 4세기 ja:紀元前4世紀

Vincenzo Scamozzi

Vincenzo Scamozzi (September 2, 1548 - August 7, 1616) born in Vicenza, Italy, was an architect and a writer on architecture, active mainly in Vicenza and Venice area in the second half of the 16th century. He was perhaps the most important figure there between Andrea Palladio and Baldassarre Longhena, his one pupil. His father was the surveyor and building contractor Gian Domenico Scamozzi. He visited Rome, 1579-1580, and then moved to Venice in 1581. Scamozzi's influence spread far beyond his Italian commissions through his treatise, the last of the Renaissance works on the theory of architecture,L'Idea della Architettura Universale ("The Universal Idea of Architecture"), published with woodcut illustrations at Venice in 1615. Scamozzi also discussed practical building practices. Such treatises were becoming a vehicle for self-promotion, and Scamozzi included many of his own plans and elevations, as built, as they should have been built, and as idealized projects. Scamozzi knew the value of publicity distributed through the established channels of the book trade. His first book had been a quickly cobbled together illustrated commentary on the ruins of Rome,assembled in "the space of a few of days," according to his preface, and the woodcut images were stock productions that already existed. Over half were copied from a volume by Hieronymus Cock that appeared in the 1550s. His major book came out too late to influence his own success; he died the following year.

Chronology of Works

(All in Italy)
- 1568-1575: Villa of Girolamo Ferramosca, Barbano di Grisignano di Zocco (Province of Vicenza) (with Gian Domenico Scamozzi)
- 1569: Palazzo Godi, Vicenza (project, altered during later execution)
- 1572-1593: Palazzo Thiene-Bonin, Vicenza
- 1574-1615: Villa of Leonardo Verlato, Villaverla (Vicenza)
- 1575: Palazzo Caldogno, Vicenza
- 1575-1578: Rocca Pisani (Vettor Pisani Villa), Lonigo (Vicenza)
- 1576-1579: Trissino-Trento (Pierfranceso Trissino Palace), Vicenza (with Gian Domenico Scamozzi)
- 1580: Villa of Francesco Priuli, Treville di Castelfranco Veneto (Province of Treviso) (north wing)
- 1580-1584: Villa Nani Mocenigo, Canda (Province of Rovigo)
- 1580-1592: Villa Capra la Rotonda, Vicenza (completed construction of Andrea Palladio's structure, and added stables)
- 1581-1586: San Gaetano Thiene (church), Padua
- 1581-1599: Procuratie Nuove, Piazza San Marco, Venice (continued with a different interior design by Francesco Smeraldi and completed in 1663 by Baldassare Longhena)
- 1582: Palazzo Cividale, Vicenza [attributed]
- 1582-1591: Library of St. Mark's Venice (completion of Jacopo Sansovino's design)
- 1584-1585: Teatro Olimpico, Vicenza (remodeling of structure designed by Andrea Palladio, wooden scene)
- 1587-1596: Library of St. Mark's, Venice (antisala)
- 1588: Villa Cornaro, Poisolo, Treville di Castelfranco Veneto (Treviso) (reconstruction)
- 1588-1590: Theater (for Duke Vespasiano Gonzaga), Sabbioneta (Province of Mantova)
- 1590: Villa of Girolamo Contarini, Loreggia (Padua) (revised in construction)
- 1590-1595: San Nicolò da Tolentino (Tolentini Church), Venice
- 1591-1593: Statuary of Venice Republic (museum), Venice
- 1591-1594: San Gaetano Thiene, Padua (monastery)
- 1591-1595: Villa of Girolamo Cornaro, Piombino Dese (Province of Padua) (completion) [attributed]
- 1591-1597: Villa Duodo and Chapel of San Giorgio, Monselice (Padua)
- 1592-1616: Palace of Galeazzo Trissino al Corso, Vicenza
- 1594-1600: Villa of Valerio Bardellini, Monfumo
- 1596: Villa of Girolamo Ferretti on the River Brenta, Sambruson del Dolo (Venice)
- 1596-1597: Villa of Girolamo Cornaro, Piombino Dese (Padova) (stable)
- 1597: Villa of Nicolo Molin, Mandria, Padova
- 1597: Villa Priuli, Carrara (Padua)
- 1597-1598: Villa Godi, Sarmego di Grumolo delle Abbadesse (Vicenza)
- 1601: Palazzo del Bò, Padua (university facade)
- 1601-1606: San Giacomo di Rialto, Venice (altar of Scuola degli Orefici; with Girolamo Campagna)
- 1601-1636: San Lazzaro dei Mendicanti Church and Hospital, Venice
- 1604-1612: Cathedral of Sts. Rupert and Virgil, Salzburg, Austria (completed in 1614-28 by Santino Solari)
- 1605: Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice (sacristy door; with Alessandro Vittoria)
- 1605-1616: Villa Duodo, Monselice (Padua) (six chapels for Via Romana)
- 1607-1611: San Giorgio Maggiore (church), Venice (completion of Palladio's facade)
- 1607-1616: Villa Cornaro al Paradiso, Venice (twin pavilions)
- 1609: Domenico Trevisan Villa, San Donà di Piave
- 1609-1616: Palazzo Contarini degli Scrigni, San Trovaso on the Canal Grande, Venice
- 1614: Palazzo Loredan Vendramin Calergi, Venice (east wing; demolished in 1659 and rebuilt in 1660)

Bibliography


- [http://www.cisapalladio.org/annali/pdf/a14_09_davis.pdf Charles Davis, Architecture and Light: Vincenzo Scamozzi’s Statuary Installation in the Chiesetta of the Palazzo Ducale in Venice] in Annali di architettura n° 14, Vicenza 2002
- [http://www.cisapalladio.org/annali/pdf/a14_10_mitrovic.pdf Branko Mitrovic´ and Vittoria Senes, Vincenzo Scamozzi’s Annotations to Daniele Barbaro’s Commentary on Vitruvius’ De Architectura] in Annali di architettura n° 14, Vicenza 2002 Scamozzi Scamozzi Scamozzi Scamozzi

Greek revival

Greek Revival was a style of classical architecture which became fashionable in Europe in the 18th century, and in the United Kingdom and United States in the early 19th century. It rebelled against the fussy Palladian style (after Andrea Palladio), which was based upon classical Italian styles and instead relied for its beauty on the form and proportions of ancient Greek temples. It is considered the first National style of the United States. In the late 18th century there was a rise in the interest in classical architecture in both Europe and the United States. With public buildings based on the Roman style of architecture, by the 1820's, America shifted more towards the Greek style. This was caused by many factors: The War of 1812 caused Americans to feel contempt towards anything British, including architecture. The Roman, or Federal style, was no longer favored. Greece was now looked at the true home of Democracy, and the Mother of Rome. Also, Greece had begun her war of independence against the Ottoman Empire in 1821, invoking much sympathy from the newly independent United States. The Greek Revival style would eventually be known as the National style.

Greek revival architects

National
- Asher Benjamin
- Alexander Jackson Davis
- Minard Lafever
- Benjamin Latrobe
- Alexander Parris
- William Strickland
- Ithiel Town
- Thomas U. Walter
- Amni B. Young

See also


- Neo-Grec
- Egyptian Revival Category:Architectural styles Category:House styles

Antebellum

Antebellum is a Latin word meaning "before the war". In United States history and historiography, the term "Antebellum" is often used (especially in U.S. South) to refer to the period of increasing sectionalism leading to the American Civil War, instead of the term "pre–Civil War." In that context, the Antebellum can begin with the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, or be set as early as 1812.

Popular images of the period

The Antebellum Period in the US South is viewed by some with a kind of sentimental nostalgia as an idealized agrarian and chivalric society. Although this prosperous and easy lifestyle was only possible through the labors of slaves, slavery itself is generally glossed over or justified in this view of the period. This nostalgic view is in part due to the cultural memory of the great prosperity of that time, and in part due to the widespread destruction of Southern infrastructure and society by the Union Army and by former Confederate Army soldiers who harbored resentment toward Union forces. The destruction of the South is considered by many to have been excessive. Another reason for the nostalgic view is that the architecture and fashion of the period were better documented in this region of the United States than in other parts of the country, and in spite of the slave trade on which great Southern mansions were built, they and their mystique of opulence and prosperity remain a romanticized aspect of American history.

The Antebellum Period romanticized

There was a land of Cavaliers and Cotton Fields called the Old South. Here in this pretty world, Gallantry took its last bow. Here was the last ever to be seen of Knights and their Ladies Fair, of Master and of Slave. Look for it only in books, for it is no more than a dream remembered, a Civilization gone with the wind...
:— From the opening of the film Gone with the Wind (1939) In this romanticized view, the process of the Industrial Revolution is mythically substituted for by the widespread destruction of Sherman's March from Atlanta to the Sea and by the military occupation of the defeated Confederacy by Union forces during the period termed Reconstruction (1865 - 1877). While the South was largely ruined after the Civil War, this had as much or more to do with the failed domestic polices of the Confederacy, notably its impressment of food supplies, and thousands of uprooted civilians, than it did with the scorched earth policy of Sherman. Sherman's March was exclusively limited to Georgia and South Carolina and scorched earth policies were not implemented in Florida, Tennessee, or the Trans-Mississippi states. More than any other single American artifact, Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel, Gone with the Wind and the subsequent 1939 film, have permanently fixed a slanted popularized image of pre-Civil War American history and are good examples of the romanticized view. In the romanticized view, the Antebellum Period is often looked back on with sentimental nostalgia by some whites in the U.S. South, as an idealized pre-industrial highly-structured genteel and stable agrarian society, in contrast to the anxiety and struggle of modern life. The issue of slavery is largely ignored. Because of slavery, and the many human rights abuses it spawned, most African Americans find the romanticization of this era to be offensive, and often see a coded approving reference to the racism of the period in the term "Old South."

Antebellum architecture

The term "antebellum" is also used to describe the architecture styles of the pre-war South.

See also


- History of the United States (1789-1849)
- History of the United States (1849-1865)
- Origins of the American Civil War

External links


- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2956.html Antebellum Slavery (PBS)]
- [http://www.connerprairie.org/historyonline/xmas.html Aspects of the Antebellum Christmas]
- [http://docsouth.unc.edu Documenting the American South (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]
- [http://web.uccs.edu/history/ushistory/antebellum.htm Antibellum American History, 1814-1864] University of Colorado. Category:Eras of United States history

Banqueting House at Whitehall

In Tudor and Early Stuart English architecture a banqueting house is a separate building reached through pleasure gardens from the main residence, whose use is purely for entertaining. It may be raised, for additional air or a vista, and it may be richly decorated, but it contains no bedrooms or kitchens. Its contemporary Italian equivalent was a casina. The Banqueting House at Whitehall, the grandest and most familiar survival of the genre, is a famous London building that was formerly part of the Palace of Whitehall. It was designed by Inigo Jones in 1619 and completed in 1622 with assistance from John Webb. It is located close to the Houses of Parliament. In 1649 King Charles I of England was executed on a scaffold in front of the building. Inside the building there is a single two-story double-cube room which is decorated with paintings by Sir Peter Paul Rubens that were commissioned by Charles I in 1635 to fill the panelling of the ceiling. The Banqueting House introduced a refined Italianate Renaissance style that was unparalleled in Jacobean England, where Renaissance motives were still filtered through the engravings of Flemish Mannerist designers. The roof is all but flat and the roofline is a balustrade. On the street facade all the elements of two orders of engaged columns, Corinthian over Ionic, above a high rusticated basement, are locked together in a harmonious whole. The Banqueting House was planned as part of a grand new Palace of Whitehall, but the tensions that eventually led to the Civil War intervened. Later, in the fires that destroyed the old Whitehall Palace; the isolated position of the Banqueting Hall preserved it from the flames. In 1685 the Banqueting House became the first building ever to use crown glass in its windows.

See also


- Palace of Whitehall

External links


- [http://www.hrp.org.uk/webcode/banquet_home.asp Historic Royal Palaces -- Banqueting House]
- [http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Banqueting_House.html Great Buildings website]

References


- Category:History of London Category:Royal buildings in London

Theodore Roosevelt

Theodore Roosevelt (October 27, 1858 – January 6, 1919) was the 26th (1901–09) President of the United States. He had been the 25th Vice President before becoming President upon the assassination of President William McKinley. At the age of 42, Roosevelt was the youngest President. Thanks to his amazingly energetic personality, Roosevelt is considered one of the ablest presidents; surveys of scholars put him at the top of the second tier. Roosevelt was remarkable for his diverse interests, particularly in leading what he called the "strenuous life". During his tenure in the White House, he boxed voraciously, even practiced judo with a visiting Japanese team, and took friends and colleagues on long hikes. These simple activities, when characterized as the "strenuous life" are testamount to the modern understanding that a man born to privilege in the late nineteenth century has a different understanding of strain than any person who had to "make their own way". Roosevelt was decisive in building the Panama Canal. As the first American to win a Nobel Prize in any category, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for his mediation of the Russo-Japanese War. Roosevelt was the fifth cousin of the later President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the uncle of Eleanor Roosevelt.

Childhood and education

Roosevelt was born at 28 East 20th Street in the modern-day Gramercy section of New York City on October 27, 1858, as the second of four children of Theodore Roosevelt, Sr. (1831–78) and Martha Bulloch (1834–84). Theodore was younger than his sister Anna but older than his brother Elliott and his sister Corinne. His father was a New York City philanthropist, merchant, and partner in the glass-importing firm Roosevelt and Son. Martha Bulloch was a Southern belle from Georgia and had Confederate sympathies. His uncle was a leading Confederate admiral. Sickly and asthmatic as a youngster, Roosevelt had to sleep propped up in bed or slouching in a chair during much of his early childhood, and had frequent ailments. Despite his illnesses, he was a hyperactive and oftentimes mischievous young man. His lifelong interest in zoology was first formed at age seven upon seeing a dead seal at a local market. After obtaining the seal's head, the young Roosevelt and two of his cousins formed what they called the "Roosevelt Museum of Natural History". Roosevelt filled his makeshift museum with many animals that he caught, studied, and prepared for display. At age nine he codified his observation of insects with a paper titled "The Natural History of Insects." To combat his poor physical condition, his father compelled the young Roosevelt to take up exercise. To deal with bullies Roosevelt started boxing lessons. Two trips abroa