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Iquique Naval Combat

Iquique Naval Combat

The Battle of Iquique took place on May 21, 1879 during the War of the Pacific between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru. This is one of the battles of the Sea Campaign.

Context

During the first year of the war, Chilean war efforts were focused on destroying the Peruvian Navy. This, in order to clear the seas for the Chilean Navy, whose duty would be to help the army to conquer Bolivian and Peruvian territories with troop landings and port blockades. During May 1879, the main ships of the Chilean Navy were sent towards the Peruvian port of Callao in order to destroy its navy, while two old, wooden ships -the corvette Esmeralda and the schooner Covadonga, commanded by Capt. Arturo Prat and Capt. Carlos Condell respectively - were left blockading the Peruvian port of Iquique. However, as the Chilean Navy steamed north towards Callao, two ironclad ships of the Peruvian Navy steamed south from Callao, unseen. These ships were the monitor Huáscar and the armoured frigate Independencia, commanded by Admiral Miguel Grau and Capt. Juan Moore.

The Battle of Iquique

On the morning of May 21, 1879, the watchtower of Esmeralda spotted two ships coming from the north. These were the Peruvian Independencia and Huáscar. Rumours had circulated in Iquique of stationary torpedoes (tethered mines) being deployed around the blockading Chilean ships. Outgunned, Captain Prat may have wanted to take advantage of this by acting the part, staying close to the port itself and stationary. Having received these reports from the port authorities, Captain Grau was faced with the difficult prospect of firing into the Chilean ships, possibly inflicting casualties and damage among Peruvian population and infrastructure right behind, or waiting while fired at by the Chileans. He decided to wait. Coastal guns at Iquique solved the standoff by firing on the Chilean vessels. Attempting to escape, Covadonga headed south but Esmeralda experienced engine problems. By this time, the battle was inevitable: while Huáscar engaged Esmeralda, Independencia pursued Covadonga south. It was now clear that no mines were in the water, so ironclad Huáscar maneuvered to ram wooden Esmeralda several times with its armoured bow. Esmeralda's captain saw this as an opportunity to board the Peruvian ship and overpower its crew in hand-to-hand combat -the plan not without merit as his ship was definitely no match for the monitor otherwise. The opportunity came with the first hit, but the plan did not work. Captain Prat's yell "Al abordaje muchachos!" ("Let's board, boys!") was answered by a single sailor; both were killed by gunfire on the enemy ship's deck. The second collision saw a better organized attempt with about 11 sailors led by 1st. Lt. Ignacio Serrano, which suffered a similar fate. Battered by heavy fire and Huáscar's ram, Esmeralda sank in Iquique Bay after the third collision. 135 Chilean sailors perished, and 62 were rescued on order of the Huáscar's captain; 1 Peruvian sailor was killed and 7 wounded. Meanwhile, Covadonga tried to escape from Independencia.

The Battle of Punta Gruesa

This may be labelled as the second part of Battle of Iquique, although it is described in many sources as a separate battle. Heading shouth, Capt. Condell of Covadonga realized that the quicker but heavier Independencia could not clear shallow water as well as his own schooner would. He kept close to the coast with Independencia in pursuit, while both ships traded fire. Independencia's lack of trained gunners, and Covadonga's accurate sniper fire on gunners and helmsmen, prolonged the chase for over three hours wihtout resolution. Capt. Moore of Independencia decided to take a riskier approach and ram the Chilean ship. Constantly sounding for depth, this was attempted two times, only to call the attack off when approaching the shallows. Close to Punta Gruesa, Covadonga scraped, but barely cleared an underwater reef. Independencia, attempting to ram for a third time, struck the obstacle, immediately took water and settled listing to starboard. Covadonga then turned around and opened fire, while Independencia's crew fired back and tried to set her free. As Capt. Moore realized his ship was lost he ordered its destruction, but the magazine was already flooded and it could not be blown up. Covadonga kept firing but retreated as Huáscar was seen coming from the north. Huáscar's commander checked on Independencia and decided to pursue after seeing she was immobilized, but this cost precious time and Covadonaga steamed south as fast as possible. Capt. Grau realized that Huáscar would not catch up on the 10 mile head start before dusk, gave up the chase and returned to assist Independencia and salvage her guns; the crew (those aboard and on the beach) was rescued and the ship set on fire. Peru had 18 crew killed and 5 wounded; 4 Chilean crewmembers were killed and 3 wounded. The twin battles of Iquique and Punta Gruesa were a Peruvian tactical victory: the blockade on Iquique was lifted and Chile left the area. However, this proved to be strategically costly: the biggest, fastest and one of the most powerful warships in the Peruvian Navy was lost, while Chile lost one of its oldest wooden ships. This left Huáscar alone to fight the Chilean Navy.

References

# Farcau, Bruce W. (Sep 30, 2000). p.74. Google Print. ISBN 0275969258 (accessed September 1, 2005). Also available in print from Praeger/Greenwood. # Sondhaus, Lawrence (May 4, 2004). p.159. Google Print. ISBN 1861892020 (accessed September 1, 2005). Also available in print from Reaktion Books.

May 21

May 21 is the 141st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (142nd in leap years). There are 224 days remaining.

Events

- 996 - Sixteen-year-old Otto III is crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
- 1502 - The island of Saint Helena is discovered by the Portuguese navigator João da Nova.
- 1674 - John Sobieski is elected by the nobility to be the King of Poland.
- 1725 - The Order of Alexander Nevsky was instituted in Russia by an empress Catherine I.
- 1758 - Mary Campbell is abducted from her home in Pennsylvania by Lenape during the French and Indian War.
- 1856 - Lawrence, Kansas is captured and burned by pro-slavery forces.
- 1863 - American Civil War: Siege of Port Hudson – Union forces begin to lay siege to the Confederate-controlled Port Hudson, Louisiana.
- 1871 - French Government troops invade the Paris Commune and engage its residents in street fighting. By the close of "Bloody Week" some 20,000 communards have been killed and 38,000 arrested.
- 1879 - War of the Pacific: Two Chilean ships blocking the harbor of Iquique, Chile, battle two Peruvian vessels in the Battle of Iquique.
- 1881 - The American Red Cross is established by Clara Barton.
- 1894 - The Manchester Ship Canal in England is officially opened by Queen Victoria, who knights its designer Sir Edward Leader Williams.
- 1894 - 22-year-old French Anarchist Emile Henry is executed by guillotine.
- 1904 - Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) founded in Paris.
- 1924 - University of Chicago students Richard Loeb and Nathan Leopold, Jr. murder 14-year-old Bobby Franks in a "thrill killing."
- 1927 - Charles Lindbergh touchs down at Le Bourget Field in Paris, completing the world's first solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean.
- 1932 - Amelia Earhart, because of bad weather, lands in a pasture in Derry, Northern Ireland, becoming the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean.
- 1934 - Oskaloosa, Iowa, becomes the first municipality in the United States to fingerprint each of its citizens.
- 1936 - Sada Abe is arrested after wandering the streets of Tokyo for days with her dead lover's severed genitals in her hand. Her story soon became one of Japan's most notorious scandals.
- 1941 - World War II: 950 miles off the coast of Brazil, the freighter SS Robin Moor becomes the first United States ship sunk by a German U-boat.
- 1945 - American screen legend Humphrey Bogart marries actress Lauren Bacall.
- 1956 - Nuclear testing: In the Pacific Ocean, Bikini Atoll is nearly obliterated by the first airborne explosion of a hydrogen bomb.
- 1958 - United Kingdom Postmaster General Ernest Marples announces that from December, Subscriber Trunk Dialling will be introduced in the Bristol area.
- 1961 - American civil rights movement: Alabama Governor John Patterson declares martial law in an attempt to restore order after race riots break out.
- 1966 - Cassius Clay beat Henry Cooper in the sixth round at Arsenal Stadium, Highbury, north London.
- 1979 - White Night riots in San Francisco following the manslaughter conviction of Dan White for the assassinations of George Moscone and Harvey Milk.
- 1980 - Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back opens in theaters.
- 1981 - Pierre Mauroy becomes Prime Minister of France.
- 1991 - Former Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi is assassinated by a female suicide bomber near Madras.
- 1998 - At Thurston High School in Springfield, Oregon, Kipland Kinkel, suspended for bringing a gun to school, shoots a semi-automatic rifle into a room filled with students, killing 2 wounding 25 others after killing his parents at home.
- 1998 - Reproductive rights: In Miami, Florida, five abortion clinics are hit by a butyric acid attacker.
- 2000 - A chartered British Aerospace Jetstream 31 crashes near Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, killing 19.
- 2003 - An earthquake hits northern Algeria, killing more than 2,000 people.
- 2004 - Sherpa Pemba Dorje climbs Mount Everest in 8 hours 10 minutes, breaking his rival Sherpa Lakpa Gelu's record from the previous year.
- 2004 - Stanislav Petrov is awarded the World Citizen Award for averting a potential World War III in 1983
- 2005 - In Kiev, Ukraine, Greece wins the fiftieth Eurovision Song Contest with "My Number One" performed by Elena Paparizou.

Births

- 427 BC - Plato, Greek philosopher (d. 347 BC)
- AD 1471 - Albrecht Dürer, German painter and graphic artist (d. 1528)
- 1526 - King Philip II of Spain (d. 1598)
- 1664 - Giulio Alberoni, Italian cardinal and statesman (d. 1754)
- 1688 - Alexander Pope, English poet (d. 1744)
- 1763 - Joseph Fouché, French statesman (d. 1820)
- 1780 - Elizabeth Fry, British social reformer and philanthropist (d. 1845)
- 1843 - Charles Albert Gobat, Swiss politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1914)
- 1844 - Henri Rousseau, French artist (d. 1910)
- 1850 - Giuseppe Mercalli, Italian volcanologist (d. 1914)
- 1851 - Léon Bourgeois, French statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1925)
- 1853 - Jacques Marie Eugène Godefroy Cavaignac, French politician (d. 1905)
- 1860 - Willem Einthoven, Dutch inventor, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1927)
- 1863 - Eugen, Archduke of Austria, Austrian field marshal (d. 1954)
- 1873 - Hans Berger, German neuroscientist (d. 1941)
- 1898 - Armand Hammer, American physician, entrepreneur, oil magnate, and art collector (d. 1990)
- 1901 - Horace Heidt, American band leader (d. 1986)
- 1901 - Sam Jaffe, American film producer (d. 2000)
- 1902 - Earl Averill, baseball player (d. 1983)
- 1902 - Marcel Lajos Breuer, Hungarian-born architect (d. 1981)
- 1903 - Manly Wade Wellman, American author (d. 1986)
- 1904 - Robert Montgomery, American actor (d. 1981)
- 1904 - Fats Waller, American pianist (d. 1943)
- 1912 - Monty Stratton, baseball player (d. 1982)
- 1916 - Tinus Osendarp, Dutch runner (d. 2002)
- 1916 - Harold Robbins, American novelist (d. 1997)
- 1917 - Raymond Burr, American actor (d. 1993)
- 1921 - Andrei Sakharov, Russian physicist and activist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (declined) (d. 1989)
- 1923 - Armand Borel, Swiss mathematician (d. 2003)
- 1923 - Ara Parseghian, American football coach
- 1929 - Heinz Holliger, Swiss oboist
- 1930 - Malcolm Fraser, 22nd Prime Minister of Australia
- 1933 - Maurice André, French trumpeter
- 1934 - Bengt I. Samuelsson, Swedish biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1936 - Günter Blobel, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1939 - Heinz Holliger, Swiss oboist and composer
- 1941 - Martin Carthy, English singer and guitarist
- 1944 - Mary Robinson, President of Ireland
- 1945 - Ernst Messerschmid, German physicist and astronaut
- 1948 - Leo Sayer, English pop singer & musician
- 1951 - Al Franken, American comedian and author
- 1952 - Mr. T, American actor
- 1955 - Paul Barber, British field hockey player
- 1956 - Judge Reinhold, American actor
- 1957 - Renée Soutendijk, Dutch actress
- 1967 - Chris Benoit, Canadian professional wrestler
- 1967 - Lisa Edelstein, American actress
- 1972 - The Notorious B.I.G., American musician (d. 1997)
- 1972 - Alesha Oreskovich, American model
- 1977 - Quinton Fortune, South African footballer
- 1977 - Ricky Williams, American football player
- 1978 - Briana Banks, German-American actress
- 1980 - Raab Himself, American actor
- 1981 - Belladonna, American actress
- 1981 - Max, German singer
- 1987 - Ashlie Brillault, American actress

Deaths

- 987 - King Louis V of France
- 1254 - Conrad IV of Germany (b. 1228)
- 1481 - King Christian I of Denmark, Norway and Sweden (b. 1426)
- 1512 - Pandolfo Petrucci, ruler of Siena
- 1524 - Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk, English soldier and statesman
- 1542 - Hernando de Soto, Spanish explorer
- 1607 - John Rainolds, English scholar and Bible translator (b. 1549)
- 1639 - Tommaso Campanella, Italian theologian, philosopher, and poet (b. 1568)
- 1647 - Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, Dutch poet and historian (b. 1581)
- 1650 - James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, Scottish royalist (b. 1612)
- 1664 - Elizabeth Poole, Puritan businesswoman
- 1670 - Niccolo Zucchi, Italian astronomer and physicist (b. 1586)
- 1690 - John Eliot, English Puritan missionary (b. 1604)
- 1724 - Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, English statesman (b. 1661)
- 1742 - Lars Roberg, Swedish physician (b. 1664)
- 1771 - Christopher Smart, English poet (b. 1722)
- 1786 - Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Swedish chemist (b. 1742)
- 1790 - Thomas Warton, English poet (b. 1728)
- 1844 - Giuseppe Baini, Italian composer (b. 1775)
- 1894 - Emile Henry, French anarchist (b. 1872)
- 1894 - August Kundt, German physicist (b. 1839)
- 1895 - Franz von Suppé, Austrian composer (b. 1819)
- 1897 - Arturo Prat, Chilean naval officer (b. 1898)
- 1911 - Williamina Fleming, Scottish-born astronomer (b. 1857)
- 1929 - Archibald Primrose, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1847)
- 1935 - Jane Addams, American social worker, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1860)
- 1952 - John Garfield, American actor (b. 1913)
- 1964 - James Franck, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1882)
- 1965 - Geoffrey de Havilland, British aircraft designer (b. 1882)
- 1970 - E. L. Grant Watson, Australian author and biologist (b. 1885)
- 1988 - Sammy Davis, Sr., American dancer (b. 1900)
- 1991 - Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister of India (b. 1944)
- 1996 - Lash LaRue, American actor (b. 1917)
- 1999 - Karnail Pitts, also known as Bugz, rapper for D12 (b. 1979)
- 2000 - Barbara Cartland, English author (b. 1901)
- 2000 - Sir John Gielgud, British actor (b. 1904)
- 2002 - Niki de Saint Phalle, French artist (b. 1930)
- 2003 - Frank D. White, Governor of Arkansas (b. 1933)

Holidays and observances

- Feast day of the following saints in the Roman Catholic Church:
- Thibaut
- Gisela
- Godric of Finchale
- Hospitus
- Maurelius
- Namibia - Casinga Day
- Navy Day in Chile
- Armed Forces Day in the United States (2005), third Saturday in May
- Astrology: First day of sun sign Gemini in New World
- Astrology: Last day of sun sign Taurus in Old World

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/21 BBC: On This Day] ---- May 20 - May 22 - April 21 - June 21 – listing of all days ko:5월 21일 ms:21 Mei ja:5月21日 simple:May 21 th:21 พฤษภาคม

1879

1879 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

January-March

- January - The current constitution of The State of California, US was ratified.
- January 2 - Fred Spofforth claims the first Hat-trick in test cricket.
- January 11 - Anglo-Zulu War begins.
- January 22 - Zulu troops massacre British troops at the Battle of Isandlwana. At Rorke's Drift, outnumbered British soldiers drive the attackers away after hours of fighting.
- February 12 - At New York City's Madison Square Garden the first artificial ice rink in North America opens.
- February 14 - At Antofagasta, Chile: Chilean troops disembark in this port, then Bolivian. This is the beginning of the War of the Pacific between Chile and the joint forces of Peru and Bolivia.
- February 15 - Women's rights: American President Rutherford B. Hayes signs a bill allowing female attorneys to argue cases before the Supreme Court of the United States.
- February 22 - In Utica, New York, Frank Woolworth opens the first of many of 5 and 10-cent Woolworth stores.
- March 3 - The United States Geological Survey is created
- March 13 - Marriage of The Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, third son of Queen Victoria, to Princess Louise Marguerite of Prussia.
- March 14 - Albert Einstein: German-born physicist who would go on to revolutionize modern Physics.
- March 29 - Anglo-Zulu War: Battle of Kambula: British forces defeat 20,000 Zulus.

May-December

- May 26 - Russia and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Gandamak establishing an Afghan state.
- May 30 - New York City's Gilmores Garden is renamed Madison Square Garden by William Henry Vanderbilt and is opened to the public at 26th Street and Madison Avenue.
- May 30 - A F4 tornado struck Irving, Kansas, killing 18 people and injuring 60.
- July 4 - Taughannock Giant unearthed on the shore of Cayuga Lake in Ithaca, New York (later proven to be a hoax).
- July 19 - Doc Holliday kills for the first time after a man shoots-up Holliday's New Mexico saloon.
- August 21 - Virgin Mary, along with St. Joseph and St. John the Evangelist appeared in Knock to local people.
- October 7 - Dual Alliance formed by Germany and Austria-Hungary
- October 21 - Using a filament of carbonized thread, Thomas Edison tests the first practical electric light bulb (it lasted 13 1/2 hours before burning out).
- December 28 - The central part of the Tay Rail Bridge in Dundee, Scotland collapses as a train passed over it, killing 75.
- December 30 - The Pirates of Penzance is first performed (Paignton, Devon, England).
- December 31 - Thomas Edison demonstrates incandescent lighting to the public for the first time (Menlo Park, New Jersey).

Unknown dates

- Hall effect discovered by Dr. Edwin Hall.
- Somerville College founded.
- Stefan-Boltzmann law discovered by Jožef Stefan.
- Football first played in Shepshed.
- Irish Lang League convinces tenants of Charles Boycott and neighboring townsfolk to isolate him by noncooperation - first boycott
- Ferdinand Cheval begins to build his Palais Idéal in France

Births

January-April

- January 1 - E. M. Forster, English writer (d. 1970)
- January 3 - Grace Coolidge, First Lady of the United States (d. 1957)
- January 12 - Ray Harroun, American race car driver (d. 1968)
- January 13 - Melvin Jones, American founder of Lions Clubs International (d. 1961)
- January 28 - Francis Picabia, French painter and poet (d. 1953)
- February 22 - J. N. Brønsted, Danish chemist (d. 1947)
- February 26 - Frank Bridge, English composer (d. 1941)
- March 8 - Otto Hahn, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968)
- March 14 - Albert Einstein, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)
- March 26 - Othmar Ammann, Swiss-born engineer (d. 1965)
- March 30 - Coen de Koning, Dutch speed skater (d. 1954)
- April 20 - Paul Poiret, French couturier (d. 1944)
- April 26 - Owen Willans Richardson, British physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)
- April 29 - Sir Thomas Beecham, English conductor (d. 1961)

May-December

- May 6 - Bedřich Hrzony´, Czech orientalist and linguist (d. 1952)
- May 17 - Simon Petlyura, Ukrainian independence fighter (d. 1926)
- May 19 - Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor, American-born politician (d. 1964)
- May 19 - Viscount Waldorf Astor, British businessman and politician (d. 1952)
- May 22 - Alla Nazimova, Ukrainian-born stage and film actress (d. 1945)
- May 23 - Dezső Lauber, Hungarian sportsman (d. 1966)
- May 25 - Max Aitken, Canadian-born statesman and newspaper baron (d. 1964)
- July 1 - Léon Jouhaux, French labor leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1954)
- July 5 - Wanda Landowska, Polish harpsichordist (d. 1959)
- August 13 - John Ireland, English composer (d. 1962)
- August 31 - Emperor Yoshihito, 123rd Emperor of Japan (d. 1926)
- September 2 - An Jung-geun, assassin of the Japanese politician Ito Hirobumi (d. 1910)
- September 14 - Margaret Sanger, American birth control advocate (d. 1966)
- September 15 - Joseph Lyons, tenth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1939)
- September 20 - Victor Sjöström, Swedish film actor and director (d. 1960)
- October 2 - Wallace Stevens, American poet (d. 1955)
- October 3 - Warner Oland, Swedish-born actor (d. 1938)
- October 5 - Francis Peyton Rous, American pathologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1970)
- October 9 - Max von Laue, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1960)
- October 21 - Joseph Canteloube, French composer and singer (d. 1957)
- October 29 - Leon Trotsky, Russian revolutionary (d. 1940)
- November 10 - Patrick Pearse Irish patriot (d. 1916)
- November 26 - Charles W. Goddard, playwright and screenwriter (d. 1951)
- December 3 - Nagai Kafu, Japanese writer (d. 1959)
- December 10 - Jouett Shouse, American politician.
- December 18 - Paul Klee, Swiss artist (d. 1940)
- December 28 - Billy Mitchell, U.S. general and military aviation pioneer (d. 1936)

Deaths

- February 11 - Honoré Daumier, French caricaturist and painter (b. 1808)
- February 25 - Charles Peace, British criminal (executed) (b. 1832)
- March 1 - Joachim Heer, Swiss politician (b. 1825)
- March 30 - Thomas Couture, French painter and teacher (b. 1815)
- April 30 - Sarah Josepha Hale, American author (b. 1788)
- June 1 - Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial, son of French Emperor Napoleon III (b. 1856)
- August 30 - John Bell Hood, America Confederate general (b. 1831)
- November 5 - James Clark Maxwell, Scottish physicist (b. 1831) Category:1879 ko:1879년 ms:1879 simple:1879 th:พ.ศ. 2422

War of the Pacific

The War of the Pacific was fought between Chile and the joint forces of Bolivia and Peru, from 1879 to 1884. Chile gained substantial mineral-rich territory in the conflict, leaving Bolivia a land-locked country, annexing the Peruvian province of Tarapacá and the Bolivian province of Litoral.

Origins

The War of the Pacific grew out of a dispute between Chile and Bolivia over control of a part of the Atacama desert that lies between the 23rd and 26th parallels on the Pacific coast. The territory contained valuable mineral resources which were exploited by Chilean companies and British interests; a tax increase on these quickly escalated into a commercial dispute, diplomatic crisis and war.

Control of natural resources

The dry climate of the area had permitted the accumulation and preservation of huge quantities of high-quality nitrate deposits –guano and saltpeter– over thousands of years. The discovery during the 1840s of their use as fertilizer and as a key ingredient in explosives made the area strategically valuable; Bolivia, Chile and Peru had suddenly found themselves sitting on the largest reserves of a resource that the world needed for economic and military expansion. Not long after this discovery, world powers were directly or indirectly vying for control of the area's resources. The USA had passed legislation in 1856 enabling its citizens to take posession of islands containing guano. Spain had seized Peruvian territory, but was repulsed by Peru and Chile fighting as allies during the Chincha Islands War. Heavy British capital investment drove development thorough the area, although Peru later nationalized guano exploitation during the 1870s. In any case, an unresolved border issue would come to the forefront in the next few decades.

Border dispute

Bolivian and Chilean historians disagree on whether the territory of Charcas, originally part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, later of the Viceroyalty of La Plata and ultimately of Bolivia, included access to the sea. Supporting their claims with different documents, Bolivians claim that it did while Chileans disagree. When Simón Bolívar established Bolivia, he claimed access to the sea, although most economic exploitation of the coastal region was being conducted by Chilean companies and British interests, under the aegis of Chile's more robust economy and more stable institutions. National borders in the region had not been clearly agreed until 1866; the two countries had negotiated a treaty that established the 24th parallel as their boundary, and entitled Bolivia and Chile to share in tax revenue on mineral exports out of the territory between the 23rd and 25th parallels. A second treaty in 1874 superseded this, entitling Bolivia to collect full tax revenue between the 23rd and 24th parallels, but fixed tax rates on Chilean companies for 25 years. Bolivia subsequently became dissatisfied at the arrangement, as Chilean interests backed by British capital quickly expanded and controlled the mining industry, and feared Chilean encroachment on its coastal region.

Crisis and war

In 1878 the Bolivian government of President Hilarión Daza, decreed a tax increase on Chilean companies, over protests by the Chilean government of President Aníbal Pinto that the border treaty did not allow such increase. When the Antofagasta Nitrate & Railway Company refused to pay, the Bolivian government threatened to confiscate its property. Chile responded by sending a warship to the area in December 1878. Bolivia announced the seizure and auction of the company for February 14 1879. Chile in turn threatened that such action would render the border treaty null and void. On the day of the auction, 200 Chilean troops arrived, disembarked and occupied the port city of Antofagasta without a fight. Now facing a territorial issue, Bolivia declared war on March 1 1879 and invoked its secret alliance with Peru: the Defensive Treaty of 1873. The Peruvian government was determined to honor its alliance with Bolivia to contain what they perceived as Chile's expansionist ambitions in the region, but was concerned that Allied forces were not in shape to face the Chilean Army; a peaceful resolution was preferred. Peru attempted to mediate by sending a top diplomat to negotiate with the Chilean government. Chile requested neutrality and Peru declined, citing the now public treaty with Bolivia. Chile responded by breaking diplomatic contact and formally declaring war on both Allies on April 5 1879. Peru thus found itself drawn into the war in spite of not being a party to the original dispute. Argentina was invited to join the Alliance. Since it had a territorial dispute with Chile regarding the region of Patagonia, and was also wary of Chilean expansion, its entry in the war seemed possible and would have provided an advantage to the Allies. Argentina, however, decided to pursue a peaceful settlement to its own separate dispute and did not join the war.

The War

Bolivia, after several short-lived governments, stood unprepared to face the Chilean Army by itself. From the beginning of the war it became clear that, in a difficult desert war, control of the sea would provide the deciding factor. Bolivia had no navy and Peru faced an economic collapse that left its navy and army without proper training or budget. Most of its warships were old and unable to face battle, leaving only the ironclads Huáscar and Independencia ready. In contrast, Chile had well-prepared armed forces: a modern navy supplemented a well-trained and equipped army. The Battle of Topater, on 23 March 1879 was the first of the war. On their way to occupy Calama, 554 Chilean troops and cavalry were opposed by 135 Bolivian soldiers and civilian residents led by Dr. Ladislao Cabrera, dug in at two destroyed bridges; calls to surrender were rejected before and during the battle. Outnumbered and low of ammunition, most of the Bolivian force whitdrew, except for a small group of civilians led by Mr. Eduardo Avaroa, that fought to the end. Further ground battles would not take place until the war at sea was resolved.

Naval Campaign

Under the direction of Rear Admiral Juan Williams, the Chilean Navy and its powerful battleships –Almirante Cochrane and Blanco Encalada– started to operate on the Bolivian and Peruvian coast. The port of Iquique was blockaded, while Huanillos, Mollendo, Pica and Pisagua were bombarded and port facilities burned. Rear Admiral Williams hoped that, by disrupting commerce and especially saltpeter exports or weapons imports, the Allies' war effort would be weakened and the Peruvian Navy would be forced into a decisive showdown. The smaller but effective Peruvian Navy did not oblige. Under the command of Captain Miguel Grau aboard Huáscar, Peru staged a series of blockade runs and harassment raids deep into Chilean waters. The plan was to disrupt Chilean operations, draw the enemy fleet back to the South while avoiding at all costs a fight against superior forces; as a consequence the Chilean invasion would be delayed, the Allies would be free to supply and reinforce its troops along the coast, and weapons would still flow into Peru from the North. The Battle of Chipana, the first of the war at sea, took place off Huanillos on 12 April 1879, as Peruvian corvettes Unión and Pilcomayo found Chilean corvette Magallanes on its way to Iquique. After a two-hour running artillery duel, Unión suffered engine problems; the pursuit was called off and Magallanes escaped with minor damage. 1879 In the Naval Battle of Iquique of 21 May 1879, Peruvian ships Huáscar and Independencia lifted the blockade of Iquique by Esmeralda and Covadonga, two of Chile's oldest wooden vessels. Huáscar sank Esmeralda, while Covadonga forced the larger Independencia to run aground at Punta Gruesa (some historians consider this a different engagement and call it the Battle of Punta Gruesa). The Chilean Navy lost a wooden corvette and elevated Captain Arturo Prat of Esmeralda as a martyr to their cause: he led a handful of sailors in boarding the ironclad. The Peruvian Navy lost a powerful ironclad frigate and saw Captain Miguel Grau's renown grow among friend and foe as a result of his actions: he rescued the survivors of Esmeralda after the battle and wrote condolences to the widow of Captain Prat. Significantly, Huáscar remained the only Peruvian vessel capable of holding off the invasion. For six months, the Huáscar roamed the seas and effectively cut off the Chilean supply lines. In an impressive display of naval mastery, Captain Grau was able to hold off the entire Chilean Navy, recover captured Peruvian vessels and severely damage many ports used by the Chilean Navy. These actions are known as the "Correrías del Huáscar" (Huáscar's Exploits) and as a result Grau was promoted to the rank of Rear Admiral. A brief listing of these actions include:
- Damaged ports of Cobija, Tocopilla, Platillos and Mejillones, Huanillos, Punta de Lobo, Chanaral, Huasco, Caldera, Coquimbo & Tatal
- Sank 16 Chilean vessels
- Damaged Chilean vessels Blanco Encalada, Abtao, Magallanes, and Matías Cousiño
- Captured Chilean vessels Emilia, Adelaida Rojas, E. Saucy Jack, Adriana Lucía, Rimac, and Coquimbo
- Recovered Peruvian vessels Clorinda and Caquetá
- Destroyed artillery batteries of Antofagasta
- Destroyed Antofagasta-Valparaiso communications cable It took the Chilean Navy a full day of sailing with six ships in order to corner the Húascar, and then, nearly two hours of bloody combat with their vessels Blanco Encalada, Covadonga and Cochrane to cause her to founder with 76 artillery hits in the Naval Battle of Angamos on 8 October 1879. The dead included Admiral Grau. With the capture of Huáscar, the naval campaign was over. With the exception of local skirmishes, Chile would control the sea for the duration of the war.

Ground Campaign

8 October Having gained control of the sea, the Chilean Army started the invasion of Peru. Bolivia, unable to recover the Litoral province, joined the Peruvian defence of Tarapacá and Tacna. On 2 November 1879, naval bombardment and amphibious assaults were carried out at the small port of Pisagua and the Junín Cove –some 500 Km North of Antofagasta. At Pisagua, several landing waves totalling 2,100 troops attacked beach defenses held by 1,160 Allies and took the town; the landing at Junín was smaller and almost unsuccessful. By the end of the day, General Erasmo Escala and a Chilean army of 10,000 were ashore and moving inland, isolating the province of Tarapacá from the rest of Peru and cutting off General Juan Buendía's 1st Southern Army from reinforcements. Marching south towards the city of Iquique with 6,000 troops, the Chilean Army held off a sudden 7,400-strong Allied counterattack at the Battle of San Francisco on 19 November, with high casualties to both sides. The Bolivian force withdrew during the battle, forcing the Peruvian Army to retreat to the city of Tarapacá. Four days later, the Chilean Army captured Iquique with little resistance. Escala sent a detachment of 3,600 soldiers, cavalry and artillery to wipe out the rest of the Peruvian Army, estimated at fewer than 2,000 poorly trained and demoralized men. The Battle of Tarapacá, on 27 November, took place as the Chilean attack found the Peruvian force in better morale and at almost double the number expected. Led by Colonel Andrés Cáceres, the Peruvian Army routed the Chilean expedition, which left behind significant quantities of supplies and ammunition. The Peruvian victory at Tarapacá would have little impact on the war. General Buendía's army, down to 4,000, retreated further north to Arica by 18 December. A new Chilean expedition left Pisagua and on 24 February 1880 disembarked nearly 12,000 soldiers at Pacocha Bay. Commanded by General Manuel Baquedano, this force isolated the provinces of Tacna and Arica destroying any practical hope for reinforcements from Peru. On 7 June some 7,000 Chilean forces backed by the Navy successfully attacked a Peruvian garrison in Arica, which was under the command of Colonel Francisco Bolognesi. Chilean forces, directed by Colonel Pedro Lagos, had to run up the Morro de Arica (a steep and tall seaside hill) facing 2,000 Peruvian troops commanded by Colonel Bolognesi. The assault became known as the Battle of Arica, which turned out to be one of the most tragic and at the same time the most emblematic event of the war: Chile suffered 474 mortal casualties, while almost 1,000 Peruvians lost their lives, including Colonel Bolognesi himself who resisted heroically to the bitter end. Other high ranking Peruvian officers who also perished were Colonel Alfonso Ugarte (who purportedly jumped off the cliff on his horse to mislead persecuting Chilean troops down into the underlying Pacific ocean), and Colonel Mariano Bustamante, his Chief of Detail. These three Peruvian officers belonged to the group that on the eve of the battle had gallantly rejected an offer to surrender the garrison to the Chilean army, and prompted Colonel Bolognesi to vow to the Chilean emissary that he was to defend the garrison to the last shot. Mariano Bustamante Since the Morro de Arica was the last bulwark of defence for the allied troops standing in the city, its occupation by Chile has been of utmost historical relevance for both countries. A fact that underlines the importance of this battle in the collective memories of Peru and Chile, is that both countries chose the date June 7th to commemorate their Day of the Army. In October 1880, the United States unsuccessfully mediated in the conflict aboard USS Lackawanna at Arica Bay, attempting to end the war with diplomacy. Representatives from the Chile, Peru, and Bolivia met to discuss the territorial disputes, yet both Peru and Bolivia rejected the loss of their territories to Chile and abandoned the conference. By January 1881, the Chilean Army marched towards the Peruvian capital, Lima. Regular Peruvian army and poorly armed citizens set up to defend Lima. However, Peruvian forces were defeated in the battles of San Juan and Miraflores, and the city of Lima fell in January 1881 to the forces of General Baquedano. The southern suburbs of Lima, including the upscale beach area of Chorrillos, were sacked and burned to the ground. The outlying haciendas were burned down by Chinese coolies who had been brought in from South China since the early 1850's for cheap labor at the haciendas. (Chilean historians claim that the Chilean troops entered Lima to prevent looting and destruction after the collapse of authority there; historical records show that those same Chilean forces were responsible for the looting and destruction.)

Occupation of Peru

coolies With little effective Peruvian central government remaining, Chile pursued a brutal campaign throughout Peru, especially on the coast and the central Sierra, penetrating as far north as Cajamarca. Remarkably, even in these circumstances, Chile was not able to completely subjugate Peru. As war booty, Chile confiscated the contents of the Peruvian National Library from Lima and transported thousands of books (including many centuries-old original Spanish, Peruvian and Colonial volumes) to Santiago de Chile, along with much capital stock. Peruvian resistance continued for three more years, with apparent U.S. encouragement. The leader of the resistance was General Andrés Cáceres (nicknamed the Warlock of the Andes), who would later to be elected president of Peru. The remnants of the Peruvian Army led by Cáceres defeated Chilean Army units on several occasions, but after the Battle of Huamachuco, there was little further resistance. Finally, on 20 October 1883, Peru and Chile signed the Treaty of Ancón, by which Tarapacá province was forcefully ceded to the victor.

Aftermath

Peace terms

Under the terms of the Treaty of Ancón, Chile was to occupy the provinces of Tacna and Arica for 10 years, after which a plebiscite was to be held to determine their nationality. The two countries failed for decades to agree on the terms of the plebiscite. Finally in 1929, through the mediation of the United States under President Herbert Hoover, an accord was reached by which Chile kept Arica; Peru reacquired Tacna and received $6 million indemnity and other concessions. In 1884, Bolivia signed a truce that gave control to Chile of the entire Bolivian coast, the province of Antofagasta, and its valuable nitrate, copper and other mineral deposits. A treaty in 1904 made this arrangement permanent. In return Chile agreed to build a railroad connecting the Bolivian capital of La Paz with the port of Arica and guaranteed freedom of transit for Bolivian commerce through Chilean ports and territory.

Long term consequences

The War of the Pacific left traumatic scars on Bolivian and Peruvian society. For Bolivians, the loss of the territory which they refer to as the litoral (Spanish for "littoral" - the coast) remains a deeply emotional issue and a practical one, as was particularly evident during the internal natural gas riots of 2004. Popular belief attributes much of the country's problems to its landlocked condition; conversely, recovering the seacoast is seen as the solution to most of these. In 1932, this was a contributing factor to the Chaco War with Paraguay, over territory controlling access to the Atlantic Ocean through the Paraguay River. In recent decades, all Bolivian Presidents have made it their policy to pressure Chile for sovereign acess to the sea. Diplomatic relations with Chile have been severed since 1976, in spite of considerable commercial ties. Currently, leading Bolivian newspaper "El Diario" [http://www.eldiario.net] still features at least a weekly editorial on the subject. Peruvians developed a cult for the heroic defenders of the patria (nation, literally fatherland), such as Admiral Miguel Grau, Colonel Francisco Bolognesi who were killed in the war, and General Andrés Cáceres who went on to become a leading political figure and symbol of resistance to the occupying Chilean Army. The defeat engendered a deep inferiority complex among the ruling classes, which also led to a skewed view of the role of the armed forces, which dominated society throughout the 20th century. Chile fared better, gaining a lucrative territory with major sources of income, including nitrates, saltpeter and copper. Victory was, however, a mixed blessing. During the war Chile waived most of its claim over Patagonia in 1881 to ensure Argentina's neutrality; Chilean popular belief sees this as a territorial loss. British involvement and control of the nitrate industry rose significantly after the war, leading them to meddle in Chilean politics and ultimately to back an overthrow of the Chilean President in 1891. High nitrate profits lasted for only a few decades and fell sharply once synthetic nitrates were developed during World War I. Currently, the region is still a major source of copper and its ports move trade between nearby countries and the Pacific Ocean.

Characteristics of the War

Strategic control of the sea

The war theatre between 1879 and 1881 was a large expanse of desert, sparsely populated and far removed from major cities or resource centers; it is, however, close to the Pacific Ocean. It was clear from the beginning that control of the sea would be the key to an inevitably difficult desert war: supply by sea, including water, food, ammunition, horses, fodder and reinforcements, was quicker and easier than marching supplies through the desert or the Bolivian high plateau. While the Chilean Navy started an economic and military blockade of the Allies' ports, Peru took the initiative and utilized its smaller but effective navy as a raiding force. Chile was forced to delay the ground invasion for six months, and to shift its its fleet from blockading to hunting Huáscar until she was captured. With the advantage of naval supremacy, Chilean ground strategy focused on mobility: landing ground forces into enemy territory to raid Allied ground assets; landing in strength to split and drive out defenders; leaving garrisons to guard territory as the war moved north. Peru and Bolivia fought a defensive war: maneuvering along long overland distances; relying where possible on land or coastal fortifications with gun batteries and minefields; coastal railways were available to Peru, and telegraph lines provided a direct line to the government in Lima. When retreating, Allied forces made sure that little if any assets remained to be used by the enemy. Sea mobile forces proved to be, in the end, an advantage for desert warfare on a long coastline. Defenders found themselves hundreds of kilometers away from home; invading forces were usually a few kilometers away from the sea.

Occupation, resistance and attrition

The occupation of Peru between 1881 and 1884 was a different story altogether. The war theatre was the Peruvian Sierra, where Peruvian resistance had easy access to population, resource and supply centers further away from the sea; it could carry out a war of attrition indefinitely. The Chilean Army, turned occupation force, was split into small garrisons across the theatre and could devote only part of its strength to hunting down rebels without a central authority. After a costly occupation and prolonged anti-insurgency campaign, Chile sought to achieve a political exit strategy. Rifts within Peruvian society provided such an opportunity after the Battle of Huamachuco, and resulted in the peace treaty that ended the occupation and the war.

Technology

The war saw the use by both sides of new, or recently introduced military technology such as breech-loading rifles, remote-controlled land mines, armour-piercing shells, torpedoes, torpedo boats and purpose-built landing craft. Second-generation ironclads (i.e. designed after the Battle of Hampton Roads) were faced in battle for the first time. This was significant for a conflict where a major power was not directly involved, and drew the attention of British, French and U.S. observers of the time.

Peruvian submarine

Some Peruvian naval analysts believe that if the secret service had been efficient at the time, this conflict could have seen the successful introduction of a prototype for a submarine by the Peruvian side. In 1864, an overseas German civil engineer[http://www.marina.mil.pe/comandancias/submarinos/comand_sub.htm] Federico Blume Othon (1831-1901), developed the design of the first submarine for the Peruvian Navy. Blume who participated in the construction of railroads in Peru, presented his idea after the Spanish Pacific squadron occupied the Chincha Islands during the Chincha Islands War. His purpose was to create a device that could confront, with minimum risk, the powerful enemy fleet. The result was the Toro Submarino (Submarine Bull). It was a revolutionary design for the ships of those days. She floated and could dive by opening the seacock and filling the ballast tanks. It could also renew the air being submerged using the principle of the snorkel. The war with Spain however came to an end in 1866 and the submarine was not built, but during the war with Chile, Blume once again offered his services to the Peruvian Navy, presenting an improved version of his 1864 submarine. The engineer started to work on his machine in June 1879, only two months after the declaration of war, financing the project with his own resources. The work was carried out in secrecy during four months at a factory property of the Piura-Paita Northern Railroad. The submarine, a 48 feet long cylindrical, ¼ inch thick iron boiler, bound together by iron strips and rivets, could be operated manually by eight men out of a total crew of eleven who, at the same time, could move the air fans and the water pump. The ventilation tubes were made of brass, and they could be raised or lowered trough a special device. Ship instrumentation included internal pressure gauges, depth meter and ballast tank water level. gauges On October 14, 1879, Blume, together with his son and eight railroad workers, started testing the submarine off the coast of Paita. Testing lasted almost three weeks and proved that the submarine could reach a depth of 72 feet and a maximum speed of 4 knots. News about the amazing weapon reached Supreme Director Nicolas de Pierola, who became very enthusiast about the idea of using it against the Chilean Navy, so preparations were made to show her capability to the authorities. The submarine was brought to Callao under the utmost secrecy, hidden in the transport Limeña. In July 1880, the "Toro" made its first official submersion. Among the passengers was the Peruvian Minister of War. During those maneuvers, the submarine remained submerged for 30 minutes without suffering any damage, proving that it could be used as a reliable weapons platform; the Minister was very impressed. His report to the government about the capabilities of the submarine was favorable and a decision was made to use it against Chilean warships. The first task conferred upon the Toro was to advance at night towards either of the enemy battleships (Almirante Cochrane or Blanco Encalada), which were anchored at the San Lorenzo Island a few kilometers off Callao, pulling two torpedoes. The submarine should deploy under one of the battleships and release the torpedoes, which, activated by a time device, would explode and sink the objective. However, as Toro was preparing to attack and already under 36 feet of water, the Chileans, informed by their spies of a Peruvian secret and powerful weapon, moved their battleships to the South and the mission was aborted. On January 16, 1881, after the battle of Miraflores and at the brink of the occupation of the Peruvian capital, Blume´s submarine was scuttled with the other ships of the Peruvian fleet to avoid capture by the enemy. [http://members.lycos.co.uk/Juan39/THE_FIRST_SUBMARINE.html][http://www.esup.edu.pe/Politica_Estrategia/La%20Guerra%20del%20Pac%C3%ADfico%20(Campa%C3%B1a%20por%20el%20control%20del%20Mar)_36.doc] Some naval war analysts still believe that, had Toro been successful, it would have changed dramatically the course of the war in favor to Peru; however, many modern historians have expressed skepticism that it would be possible.

Prominent military commanders

Bolivia
- Mr. Eduardo Avaroa †, an engineer, was killed leading a group of civilian defenders at the Battle of Topater
- General Narciso Campero, military President of Bolivia (1880-1884)
- General Hilarión Daza, military President of Bolivia (1876-1879) Chile
- General Manuel Baquedano, commander in chief of the Chilean Army
- Colonel Ignacio Carrera †, killed with the entire garrison at the Battle of La Concepción
- Rear Admiral Patricio Lynch, military Governor of occupied Peru
- Captain Arturo Prat †, was killed while boarding Huáscar at the Battle of Iquique Peru
- Colonel Francisco Bolognesi †, was killed while leading the defense of the Arica garrison
- General Andrés Cáceres, led the guerilla war during the occupation of Peru, was elected President of Peru after the war
- Rear Admiral Miguel Grau †, commander of Huáscar and widely known as the knight of the seas, was killed at the Naval Battle of Angamos
- Colonel Leoncio Prado †, the son of President Prado, chose duty as a soldier over an oath not to fight, was executed by firing squad after the Battle of Huamachuco
- Colonel Alfonso Ugarte †, was killed during the Battle of Arica, incorrectly believed to have jumped off a cliff on his horse to save the flag from capture Other nationalities
- Rear Admiral Abel Bergasse Dupetit-Thouars, French commander, After the Battle of Miraflores, he prevented the destruction and looting of Lima by threatening to engage and destroy the Chilean Navy with a multinational force under his command
- Colonel Robert Souper Howard †, British soldier that served in the Chilean Army in nearly every battlefield of the war, was killed at the Battle of San Juan
- Lt. Colonel Roque Saenz Peña, Argentinian soldier that served in the Peruvian Army during the battles of Tarapaca and Arica, was later elected President of Argentina

References

# Border treaty of 1866 between Bolivia and Chile ([http://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Tratados_firmados_entre_Bolivia_y_Chile#Tratado_de_l.C3.ADmites_de_1866_entre_Bolivia_y_Chile Tratado de límites de 1866 entre Bolivia y Chile], in Spanish) # Border treaty of 1874 between Bolivia and Chile ([http://es.wikisource.org/wiki/Tratados_firmados_entre_Bolivia_y_Chile#Tratado_de_l.C3.ADmites_de_1874_entre_Bolivia_y_Chile Tratado de límites de 1874 entre Bolivia y Chile], in Spanish) # Defensive alliance treaty of 1873 between Bolivia and Peru ([http://es.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Tratado_de_Alianza_Defensiva_firmado_entre_Bolivia_y_Per%C3%BA_en_1873 Tratado de alianza defensiva de 1873 entre Bolivia y Perú], in Spanish) # Foster, John B. & Clark, Brett. (2003). [http://www.nodo50.org/cubasigloXXI/taller/foster_clark_301104.pdf "Ecological Imperialism: The Curse of Capitalism"] (accessed September 2, 2005). The Socialist Register 2004, p190-192. Also available in print from Merlin Press.

External links

- [http://www.boliviaweb.com/mar/sea/index.htm The United States and the Bolivian Seacoast] Online book by Bolivian historian and diplomat Jorge Gumucio Granier
- [http://www.onwar.com/aced/data/papa/pacific1879.htm Clear brief account of causes and consequences of the War of the Pacific, 1879-1883.]
- [http://www.laguerradelpacifico.cl La Guerra del Pacífico, Los Héroes Olvidados] Chilean site (in Spanish)
- [http://www.pafko.com/history/h_s_n2.html History of Chemical Engineering: Nitrogen], for a brief description nitrates and its strategic importance
- [http://www.bolivia.com/Especiales/2004/dia_del_mar/] Page dedicated to explain the war and its impact on the Bolivian Society ja:太平洋戦争 (南米) Pacific Pacific Pacific

Bolivia

The Republic of Bolivia is a landlocked country in central South America. It is bordered by Brazil on the north and east, Paraguay and Argentina on the south, and Chile and Peru on the west.

History

Main article: History of Bolivia

Pre-colonial period

The Andean region probably has been inhabited for some 20,000 years. Beginning about the 2nd century B.C., the Tiwanaku culture developed at the southern end of Lake Titicaca. This culture, centered around and named for the great city of Tiwanaku, developed advanced architectural and agricultural techniques before it disappeared around 1200 A.D., probably because of extended drought (some legends of the Aymará, who claim descendance from the inhabitants of Tiwanaku, indicate that Lake Titikaka rose and flooded the city, causing dispersal of the survivors). Roughly contemporaneous with the Tiwanakan culture, the Moxos in the eastern lowlands and the Mollos north of present-day La Paz also developed advanced agricultural societies that had dissipated by the 13th century A.D. In about 1450, the Quechua-speaking Incas entered the area of modern highland Bolivia and added it to their empire. They controlled the area until the Spanish conquest in 1525.

Colonial period

During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of Lima. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata — modern Sucre). Bolivian silver mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, and Potosí, site of the famed Cerro Rico — "Rich Hill" — was, for many years, the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. A steady stream of enslaved Indians served as labor force. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the Napoleonic wars, sentiment against colonial rule grew.

The Republic and economic instability (1809)

Independence was proclaimed in 1809, but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for Simón Bolívar, on August 6, 1825 (see Bolivian War of Independence). Independence did not bring stability. For nearly 60 years, coups and short-lived constitutions dominated Bolivian politics. Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the War of the Pacific (1879–83), when it lost its seacoast, and the adjoining rich nitrate fields, together with the port of Antofagasta, to Chile. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries due to wars or bad deals. See Treaty of Ayacucho in 1867 and Treaty of Petropolis in 1903. An increase in the world price of silver brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late 1800s. During the early part of the 20th century, tin replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the first third of the century. Living conditions of the indigenous people, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in the Chaco War (1932–35) marked a turning point. Great loss of life and territory discredited the traditional ruling classes, while service in the army produced stirrings of political awareness among the indigenous people. From the end of the Chaco War until the 1952 revolution, the emergence of contending ideologies and the demands of new groups convulsed Bolivian politics.

Rise of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (1951)

The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, carried out a sweeping land reform, promoted rural education, and nationalized the country's largest tin mines. Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In 1964, a military junta overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of President René Barrientos Ortuño, a former member of the junta elected President in 1966, led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) Hugo Banzer Suárez as President in 1971. Banzer ruled with MNR support from 1971 to 1974. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but human rights violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in 1978, and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil.

Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo (1978)

Elections in 1978, 1979, and 1980 were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, Gen. Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless and violent coup that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo," or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]." He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human rights abuses, narcotics trafficking, and economic mismanagement; during his presidency the inflation that would later cripple the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for crimes including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year sentence in 1995. After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in 1981, three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the Congress elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October 1982, twenty-two years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60), Hernán Siles Zuazo again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.

Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993)

Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. He relied heavily on successful entrepreneurs-turned-politicians like himself and on fellow veterans of the Paz Estenssoro administration (during which Sánchez de Lozada was Minister for Planning). The most dramatic change undertaken by the Sánchez de Lozada government was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state oil corporation, telecommunications system, airlines, railroads, and electric utilities in return for agreed upon capital investments. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994 through 1996. The Sánchez de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca, and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca going into cocaine. In the 1997 elections, Gen. Hugo Banzer, leader of the ADN, won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. Gen. Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president and he was inaugurated on August 6, 1997. The Banzer government basically continued the free market and privatization policies of its predecessor, and the relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth. Job creation remained limited throughout this period and the public perceived a significant amount of public-sector corruption. Both factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term. At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic 4-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan). On August 6, 2001, Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer. He died less than a year later. Banzer's U.S.-educated Vice President, Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez, completed the final year of the term. Quiroga was constitutionally prohibited from running for national office in 2002 but could do so in 2007. In the June 2002 national elections, former President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by illegal-coca advocate and indigenous campesino leader Evo Morales (Movement Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%. Morales edged out populist candidate Manfred Reyes Villa of the New Republican Force (NFR) by just 700 votes nationwide, earning a spot in the congressional run-off against Sánchez de Lozada on August 4, 2002. A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former president Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on August 6 he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social inclusion.

Social Crisis and the nationalization of hydrocarbon resources (2001-2005)

In September 2001, following the advice of the World Bank, the Bolivian government declared that all water was to become corporate property, so that even drawing water from community wells or gathering rainwater on their own properties, peasants and urban dwellers had to first purchase and obtain permits from International Water Limited (a multinational largely owned by the Bechtel Corporation). The government, however, retracted and abolished the new water privatization rules following wide-scales uprisings and riots in protest of the legislation. ^1-2 During, February 2003, four-year economic recession, tight fiscal situation, and longstanding ethnic tensions mounted again in a police revolt that nearly toppled the government of President Sánchez de Lozada; several days of unrest left more than 30 persons dead. The government stayed in power but remained unpopular. Widespread protests broke out in October and revealed deep dissatisfaction with the government. Approximately 80 persons died during the demonstrations which led President Sánchez de Lozada to resign from office on October 17. In a constitutional transfer of power, Vice President Carlos Mesa assumed the Presidency and promised to hold a binding referendum on the export of Bolivian natural gas. The referendum took place on July 18, and Bolivians voted overwhelmingly in favor of development of the nation's hydrocarbon resources. Mesa planned to detail the government's development plans in legislation to be introduced to Congress. Mesa enjoyed popularity with the Bolivian public, but he faced the same difficulties — social divisions, a radical opposition committed to extra-parliamentary action, and an ongoing fiscal deficit — as the previous administration. On June 6, 2005, President Carlos Mesa was forced to enter his resignation as over 80,000 protestors surrounded the presidential palace and congress demanding nationalization of the gas industry. The indigenous protestors argued that indigenous communities, two thirds of Bolivia's population, were not adequately represented in government. Consequently, the campesinos and indigenous population, angered by the inequitable dividends paid by the multinational petroleum companies, set up roadblocks throughout the country and placed all the major cities under siege. With Carlos Mesa stranded in the Palace of Plaza Murillo, the congress and senate closed, protestors roamed through the streets of La Paz threatening to drive the "corbateros" (those clothed in suits and ties) from the country. A civil war was averted when, on June 9th, 157 members of the congress and senate converged on the Casa de La Libertad in Sucre, Bolivia and nominated Eduardo Rodriguez, the current President of the Supreme Court, to the Presidency at the eleventh hour. President Rodriguez, to avert a civil war, has promised to hold new national elections in December of 2005. See also: Bolivian Gas War

Politics

Main article: Politics of Bolivia Politics of Bolivia The 1967 constitution, revised in 1994, provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes. Bolivia's nine departments received greater autonomy under the Administrative Decentralization law of 1995, although principal departmental officials are still appointed by the central government. Bolivian cities and towns are governed by directly elected mayors and councils. Municipal elections were held on 5 December 2004, with councils elected to five-year terms. The Popular Participation Law of April 1994, which distributes a significant portion of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make striking improvements in their facilities and services.

Administrative Division

Main article: Departments of Bolivia Bolivia is divided into nine departments, or departamentos:
- Chuquisaca (Sucre)
- Cochabamba (Cochabamba)
- Beni (Trinidad)
- La Paz (La Paz)
- Oruro (Oruro)
- Pando (Cobija)
- Potosí (Potosí)
- Santa Cruz (Santa Cruz de la Sierra)
- Tarija (Tarija) Additionally, each department is further divided into provinces, or provincias; cantons, or cantones; and municipalities, or municipalidades, which handle local affairs.

Geography

Tarija Main article: Geography of Bolivia Bolivia is a landlocked nation. However, it does have access