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Iranian

Iranian

The term Iranian may refer to:
- the inhabitants of the modern nation of Iran, which includes several ethnolinguistic groups.
- the Iranian peoples, in which case Iranian is an over-arching term for various peoples and their languages, which share descent in common from a particular branch of the ancient Aryans (Iranians), as discerned from the relationship between their languages (see Iranian languages), as well as between some of their other inherited core cultural features. The term is based upon the membership of the main language of Iran in this group, as well as upon an etymological connection between the words Iran and Aryan. Iranian, in this ethno-linguistic usage, are most of the peoples of the modern nation of Iran, but are included as well such groups as the Afghans/Pashtuns Tats, Kurds, Baluchis, Ossetes, etc. Some ancient peoples such as the Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans are also widely believed to have belonged to the Iranian group, based upon scant evidence regarding their languages and the identity of their modern-day descendants. No origin for any of these peoples or their languages in the region of the modern nation of Iran is implied, or should be construed, from this particular use of the word Iranian. The Iranian language group is itself a sub-branch of the Indo-Iranian group, which is in turn a sub-branch of the Indo-European. The Indo-Iranian group includes besides Iranian, also Indo-Aryan and Nuristani.
- The term Iranian (Persian: ایرانیان) is cognate to the term Aryan (Persian: آریایی). Category:Ancient peoples Category:Iranian peoples

Iran

Iran (Persian: ايران) is a Middle Eastern country located in Southwest Asia bordering Armenia, Azerbaijan including its Nakhichevan exclave and Turkmenistan to the north, Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east, Turkey and Iraq to the west. Until 1935 the country was referred to in the West as Persia. In 1959, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi announced that both terms could be used. In 1979, the Iranian revolution established a theocratic Islamic Republic, changing the country's official name to the Islamic Republic of Iran (جمهوری اسلامی ايران). Dispute exists as to the country's current official name.

History

Sometime around 1500 to 1000 BC, the Iranian nomads of Indo-European stock emigrated to the Iranian plateau possibly from Central Asia. In 8th century BC, the first Iranian government was established under the Median dynasty and under the following dynasty, the Achaemenids, Iranians built the first world empire. Their empire emerged in the 6th century BC under Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Empire, who called himself "King of Iran and beyond". Indeed, the name Persia is derived from Persis, the ancient Greek name for the empire. The Achaemenid dynasty was followed by the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties as Persia's greatest pre-Islamic empires. Alexander the Great first conquered Persia in 331 BC, followed by Islam's Arab forces in the 7th century, and Genghis Khan, and lastly, Tamerlane who conquered a significant portion of Persia in the middle ages. middle ages The 9th century saw the rise of the Saffarids and then other lines of kings or shahs. During the 19th century Persia came under increasing pressure from both Russia and the United Kingdom, leading to a process of modernization that continued into the 20th century. By the 20th century Iranians were longing for a change and thus followed the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905/1911. In 1953 Iran's elected prime minister Mohammad Mosaddeq, was removed from power in a complex plot orchestrated by British and US intelligence agencies (dubbed "Operation Ajax"). Many scholars suspect that this ouster was motivated by British-US opposition to Mosaddeq's attempt to nationalize Iran's oil. Following Mosaddeq's fall, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (Iran's monarch) grew increasingly dictatorial. With strong support from the USA and the UK, the Shah further modernized Iranian industry but crushed civil liberties. His autocratic rule, including systematic torture and other human rights violations, led to the Iranian revolution and overthrow of his regime in 1979. After more than a year of political struggle between a variety of different groups, an Islamic republic was established under the Ayatollah Khomeini by a revolution. The new theocratic political system instituted some conservative Islamic reforms and engaged in an anti-Western course. In particular Iran distanced itself from the United States due to the American involvement in the 1953 coup, which supplanted an elected government with the Shah's repressive regime. It also declared its refusal to recognize the existence of Israel as a state. The new government inspired various groups considered by a large part of the Western World to be fundamentalist. As a consequence some countries, currently led by the USA, consider Iran to be a hostile power. In 1980 Iran was attacked by neighbouring Iraq and the destructive Iran-Iraq War continued until 1988. The struggle between reformists and conservatives over the future of the country continues today through electoral politics and was a central Western focus in the 2005 Elections where Conservative Mahmoud Ahmadinejad triumphed.

Politics

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad Iran is a constitutional Islamic Republic, whose political system is laid out in the 1979 constitution. Iran's makeup has several intricately connected governing bodies, some of which are democratically elected and some of which are appointed by religious leaders. The concept of velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the jurist) plays an influential role in the governmental structure. The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for the delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran." In the absence of a single leader, a council of religious leaders is appointed. The Supreme Leader is commander-in-chief of the armed forces; he alone can declare war. He has the power to appoint and dismiss the leaders of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, and the supreme commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps. He also appoints six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians. He, or the council of religious leaders, are elected by the Assembly of Experts, on the basis of their qualifications and the high popular esteem in which they are held. Twelve jurists comprise the Council of Guardians, six of whom are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The head of the judiciary recommends the remaining six, which are officially appointed by Parliament. The Council of Guardians is vested with the authority to interpret the constitution and determines if the laws passed by Parliament are in line with sharia (Islamic law) and the Iranian constitution; if a law passed by Parliament is deemed incompatible, it is referred back to Parliament for revision. After the office of Leadership, the President of Iran is the highest official in the country. His is responsibile for implementing the Constitution and acting as the head of the executive, except in matters directly concerned with the Leadership. All presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running, and are elected to a 4-year term. After his election, the president appoints and supervises the 21-member Council of Ministers (who must then be confirmed by Parliament), coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the parliament. Eight vice presidents serve under the president. The unicameral Iranian parliament consists of 290 members elected to a 4-year term (approved by the Council of Guardians before running). It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the country's budget. All legislation from the assembly must be reviewed by the Council of Guardians. The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week every year, consists of 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by the public to eight-year terms. Like presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines eligibility to run for a seat in this assembly. The head of the judiciary is appointed by the Supreme Leader, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. Public courts deal with civil and criminal cases. "Revolutionary" courts try certain categories of offenses, including crimes considered against national security or the republic and narcotics smuggling. Decisions rendered in these courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court, which functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader, handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people.

Administrative divisions

Provinces

Iran consists of 30 provinces: Provinces are governed from a local center, mostly the largest local city. Provincial authority is headed by a governor (استاندار: ostāndār), who is installed by the Minister of Interior subject to approval of the cabinet. Until 2004 there were 28 provinces. A law passed that year split the province of Khorasan into three new provinces: North Khorasan, Razavi Khorasan, and South Khorasan.

Major cities

Iran's top four largest cities are: Image:Meydoon sadeghiyeh.jpg|Tehran: 8,601,473 (2005 pop.) Image:Nadershahtomb.jpg|Mashad: 2,307,177 (2005 pop.) Image:IMG 0414 resize.jpg|Isfahan: 1,547,164 (2005 pop.) Image:Poets tomb tabriz.jpg|Tabriz: 1,424,641 (2005 pop.) See also: List of cities in Iran.

Geography

List of cities in Iran Iran borders Azerbaijan (length of border: 432 km / 268 mi ) and Armenia (35 km / 22mi) to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan (992 km / 616 mi) to the northeast, Pakistan (909 km / 565 mi) and Afghanistan (936 km / 582 mi) to the east, Turkey (499 km / 310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km / 906 mi) to the west, and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's total land mass is 1,648,000 km² / ≈636,300 mi² (Land: 1,636,000 km² / ≈631,663 mi², Water: 12,000 km² / ≈4,633 mi²). Iran's landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Zagros and Alborz Mountains, the latter of which also contains Iran's highest point, the Damavand at 5,671 m (18,606 ft). The eastern half consists mostly of uninhabited desert basins with the occasional salt lake. The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders on the mouth of the Arvand river (Shatt al-Arab). Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea of Oman. The Iranian climate is mostly arid or semiarid, though subtropical along the Caspian coast. Iran is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "Cradle of Humanity".

Climate

Iran's varied landscape produces several different climates. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) the temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29°C (84°F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1700 mm (75 in) in the western side of the plain. At higher elevations to the west, settlements in the Zagros mountains basins experience lower temperatures. These areas have severe winters, with average daily temperatures below freezing and have heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid. They get less than 200 mm (8 in) of rain and have occasional desert. The average summer temperatures exceed 38°C (100°F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters and experience very humid and hot summers. The Annual precipitation ranges from 135 mm to 355 mm (6 to 14 in).

Economy

Gulf of Oman Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. The current administration has continued to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and has indicated that it will pursue diversification of Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran is attempting to diversify by investing revenues in other areas, including petrochemicals. Iran is also hoping to attract billions of dollars worth of foreign investment by creating a more favorable investment climate (i.e., reduced restrictions and duties on imports, creation of free-trade zones). Iran is OPEC's second largest oil producer and holds 10% of the world's proven oil reserves. It also has the world's second largest natural gas reserves (after Russia). The strong oil market in 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iran's financial situation tightened in 1997 because of lower oil prices. The subsequent rise in oil prices in 1999/2000 afforded Iran fiscal breathing room. Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies–totaling some $7.25 billion per year–including foodstuffs and especially gasoline. gasoline district.]] On March 20, 2006, Iran plans to participate in a new International Oil Bourse, trading oil priced as Petroeuros, rather than Petrodollars, as oil is traded in all other markets (as of 2005). This attempt to rebalance trading relationships in the world economy may trigger a series of far reaching consequences. A few observers, especially among peak oil production theorists who believe that an oil crisis is imminent, argue that there is a potential for a resource war with the United States of America over the flow of both dollars and oil. Others, including military leaders and peak oil theorists who believe that a crisis is further off, argue that the results of war game scenarios cast doubt on the argument that a war is the most likely result of the Oil Bourse. The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture, however, with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Large-scale irrigation schemes, together with the wider production of export-based agricultural items such as dates, flowers and pistachios, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s, although successive years of severe drought in 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001 have held back output growth substantially. Agriculture remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census. According to the U.N. World Drug Report for 2005, Iran has the highest proportion of opiate addicts in the world–2.8 percent of the population over age 15. Only two other countries–Mauritius and Kyrgyzstan–pass the 2 percent mark. With a population of about 70 million and some government agencies putting the number of regular users close to 4 million, Iran has no real competition as world leader in per capita addiction to opiates, including heroin.

Demographics

heroin

Ethnic groups

The majority of Iran's population speak one of the Iranian languages, though only Persian is an official language. While the number, percentage, and definition of the different Iranian peoples is disputed, the major ethnic groups and minorities in Iran include the Persians (51%), Azeris (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmen people (2%), Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Assyrians and others.

Religion

Assyrians Most Iranians are Muslims; 89% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 10% belong to the Sunni branch, which predominates in most Muslim countries. Non-Muslim religious minorities include the Bahá'í Faith, Zoroastrians, as well as Jews, Christians, and Mandeans. The latter three are officially recognised minority religions and have reserved seats in the Majlis (Parliament). Iran's population size increased dramatically during the latter half of the 20th century. Iran hosts more than one million foreign refugees, more than any other country on earth.

Culture

earth and guardians of an ancient and sophisticated culture.]] Like all ancient civilizations, culture constitutes the focal point and heart of Iranian civilization. The art, music, architecture, poetry, philosophy, traditions, and ideology of Iran have made it a continuously important nation in the global community. In fact, many Iranians believe their culture to be the one and only reason why their civilization has continuously survived thousands of years of plethoric calamities.

Miscellaneous topics

Notes and references

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-
- Please note that the numbers are according to the 2004 edition of CIA's The World Factbook. Different claims include higher numbers for Persian-speaking groups and respectively lower numbers for Turkic-speaking groups or vice versa. Some people in the first group claim that the CIA statistics are based on guesses made around 1964, while the CIA claims that their numbers are based on information from January 2004.
-
- Additional references and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article.

External links

Official Government Links

The following websites belong to the various branches of government, or are directly operated by the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
- [http://www.leader.ir Official site of the Supreme Leader], [http://www.wilayah.org/ (Qom office)]
- [http://www.president.ir Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran] - Official website.
- [http://www.irisn.com/ The Council of Guardians], Official website.
- [http://mellat.majlis.ir/ The Majlis], Iran's parliament. [http://www.majlis.ir/ (2)].
- [http://www.iranjudiciary.org/ The Judiciary of The Islamic Republic of Iran]
- [http://www.mfa.gov.ir Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
- [http://www.ershad.gov.ir/ Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance]
- [http://www.mod.ir/ Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces]
- [http://www.freezones.ir/ Secretariat of The High Council of Iran Free Trade Industrial Zones]
- [http://www.iranculture.org Secretariat of The High Council of The Cultural Revolution]
- [http://www.spk-gov.ir/ Official Spokesman of the Islamic Republic of Iran]
- [http://www.aeoi.org.ir/ Islamic Republic of Iran Atomic Energy Organization]
- [http://www.iranmiras.ir/ Islamic Republic of Iran Cultural Heritage Organization]
- [http://www.rcs.ir/en Islamic Republic of Iran Red Crescent Society]
- [http://www.irib.com Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting], official website.
- [http://www.shahid.ir/ Bonyad e Shahid Foundation]
- [http://www.iran-bonyad.com/ Bonyad e Mostazafeen Foundation]

Iranian peoples

Iranian people are those who speak an Iranian language. There are an estimated 150 million native speakers of Iranian languages. Iranian people in history included:
- Persians
- Medes (speaking an ancient Median tongue)
- Parthians
- Parni
- Cimmerians (ethnicity as Iranians specifically unknown)
- Sigynnae (uncertain, known only by obscure reports)
- Scythians
- Sarmatians, including the Rhoxolani, Iazyges, Siraces, and some regard the Alans as a subset of the Sarmatians as well
- Bactrians
- Khwarezmians
- Alans
- Saka
- Sogdians
- Massagetae
- Kambojas
- Pallavas, descended from Persian invaders of India
- Indo-Scythians Iranian peoples in modern times include:
- Persians
- Tajiks
- Pashtuns, one of the Afghan peoples
- Kurds
- Baluchis
- Gilanis
- Mazandaranis
- Bakhtiaris
- Lur
- Tati
- Talyshi
- Zaza
- Ossetes The Iranian peoples are the ethno-linguistic descendants of one of the branches of the ancient Indo-Iranian Aryans. The name Iran – in full Iran Shahr – itself means territory of the Aryans. Besides Iranian the Aryan or Indo-Iranian group includes Indo-Aryan, Nuristani, and the Dardic sub-groups. The Indo-Iranian group is itself a sub-branch of the Indo-European family, which was formerly, although inaccurately, also referred to as Aryan – a usage academically discredited. Most of the Iranian peoples live today in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, western and northern Pakistan, the northern Caucasus, western China and the Kurdish areas of Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria.
See also

- Indo-Iranians
External links

- [http://home.btconnect.com/CAIS/Religions/iranian/Zarathushtrian/Oric.Basirov/origin_of_the_iranians.htm The Origin of the Pre-Imperial Iranian Peoples]
- [http://www.parstimes.com/Iranians.html The Iranian people around the world] Category:Iranian society Category:Iranian peoples Category:Ethnic groups of the Middle East

Iranian languages

:The main language of Iran is not called Iranian, but rather Persian (also called Farsi). This article deals with the Iranian language group. The Iranian languages are a part of the Indo-European language family with estimated 150-200 million native speakers. The Iranian language group is part of the generally agreed-upon superstock of the Indo-Iranian language subfamily and accounts for some of the oldest-recorded Indo-European languages, and as Gathic Avestan and Vedic Sanskrit, along with Greek and Hittite, are the first languages to be written. The Indo-Iranian languages probably originated in Central Asia; the Andronovo culture is the near-universally preferred candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca. 2000 BC. The superstock made at least a three-way split, into the Iranian, Indo-Aryan (Indic), possibly the Dardic group, and probably the Nuristani languages as the speakers of Proto-Indo-Iranian moved south and south-east.

Early history

With the invention of the chariot about 2000 BC, the Indo-Iranian people greatly expanded. Iranian languages grew to dominate the entire steppe, with occasional deep intrusions into central and western Europe. The Scythians are particularly well known, as are the Sarmatians, and classical era descriptions of them survive.

The Persians

The imperial period of the Iranian languages is that of the Persian Empire, particularly the Achaemenid dynasty. In later times, the Parthians and their successors, the Sassanids, created their own empires.

Iranian Languages after the Arab Conquest of Persia

Ibn al-Nadim, in his book Al-fehrest (), mentions that all the Median and Persian lands of antiquity (including what is today known as Azerbaijan) spoke one language. In the book, which is the most accredited account of spoken languages of Iran during the early Islamic era, he quotes the great scholar Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa: :The Iranian languages are Fahlavi (Pahlavi), Dari, Khuzi, Persian, and Seryani. But Fahlavi comes from the word Fahleh. And Fahleh is a name that refers to five regions: Isfahan, Ray, Hamedan, Mah-Nahavand, and Azerbaijan. He then adds that Dari is the official language of the royal courts and the language of Khorasan and Balkh and eastern Iran; Parsi is the language of the Moobeds of Fars; Khuzi is the unofficial language of the royalty and comes from Khuzestan; and Seryani originates in Mesopotamia. This has also been verified and reported by such respected medieval historians as Tabari, Ibn Hawqal, Istakhri, Moqaddasi, Yaghubi, Masudi, and Mostowfi Qazvini. Al-Khwarizmi mentions it in chapter 6, vol. 6, of his book Mafatih al-‘Ulum ().

Iranian languages and the question of Azeri

Etymological studies verify that current dialects spoken from Baku to Khalkhal to Semnan all originated from a common source. In other words, the people of Azerbaijan spoke the same language spoken by the Medes. (See UCLA's distinguished professor Ehsan Yarshater's report in: Majaleh-ye Dâneshkadeh-ye Adabiyât, “مجله دانشكده ادبيات”, year 5, No. 1-2, p 35–37.) Researcher Ahmad Kasravi Tabrizi also mentions that the medieval historian Yaqut al-Hamawi used the phrase Al-Ajam ol-Azariyah ("The Azeri Iranian") in his books Mo'ajjem ol-Odabaa and Mo'jem ol Baladaan. In other sources such as Surat al-Ard (صورة الأرض) by Ibn Hawqal, Ahsan al-Taqasim by Moqaddasi, and Al-Masalik wa al-Mamalik by Istakhri, the people of Azerbaijan are recorded to be speaking Iranian languages. Obviously, this was of before the Turkic cultural arrival. And Tabari in 235 A.H. also mentions that poets in Maragheh recited Pahlavi poetry. Some Azerbaijani poets however, such as Qatran Tabrizi (d465 A.H.), used the word "Persian" and "Pahlavi" interchangeably to describe their native language. The historian Hamdollah Mostowfi even goes as far as describing variants of "Pahlavi" spoken in different areas of Azerbaijan (then part of Greater Persia). In his book Tarikh Gozideh, he describes eight poets from Azerbaijan, calling them "Ahl-ol She'r Men-al-Ajam" (Iranian poets), all Persian by tongue. By now, of course, Dari and Pahlavi had merged into one, as successive dynasties moved from east to west. Suffice it to say that the number of records and documents from Azerbaijan in the Pahlavi language are so numerous that it has left no doubt that this was indeed the native tongue of Azerbaijan before the arrival of the Turks. Many words in the current Azeri vocabulary in fact are of Pahlavi origin. (See studies in Nashriyeh Adabiyaat of Tabriz University, by Dr. Mahyar Navabi, year 5 and 6. Also see Farhang e Kamaleddin Teflisi, Ajayeb ol-Makhluqat by Najibeddin Hamadani, and also the books: Majmal-ol-Tavarikh, Al-qasas, Iskandar-Nameh e Qadeem, and others for lists of words.) It is agreed that the current Turkic form of the Azeri language supplanted and replaced Pahlavi in Azerbaijan before the Safavid dynasty, perhaps starting with the arrival of Seljukian Turks, and during a gradual course. But some historians report Pahlavi being spoken in Tabriz as late as the 17th century. (See Rowdhat ul-Jinan by Hafez Hosein Tabrizi [d997 A.H.], and Risaleh ye Anarjani written in 985 AH). Even the Ottoman Turkish explorer Evliya Çelebi (1611–1682) mentions this in his Seyahatname. He also reports that the elite and learned people of Nakhichevan and Maragheh spoke Pahlavi, during his tours of the region.

Classification of the Iranian Languages

I. Eastern Iranian

A. Northeastern # Avestan
- # Chorasmian
- (Khwarezmian) # Bactrian
- # Sogdian
- (dialects: Christian, Buddhist, Manichaean), Yaghnobi # Scythian
- , Sarmatian
- , Alanian
- , Ossetian (dialects: Iron, Digor), Jassic
- B. Southeastern # Munji, Sanglechi, Ishkashimi, Zebaki, Sarikoli, Shughni, Rushani, Yazgulyam, Wakhi, Yidgha # Saka
- (dialects: Khotanese and Tumshuqese), Pashto, Waneci,

II. Western Iranian

A. Northwestern # Ormuri, Parachi # Northwestern: , , , , , ; Western: , , (Khwanshari), , ; North-Central: , , , , , , , , , , , , (Yarani), (Sohi), , , , , , ; Southern: , , , , , , , , , , ; Eastern: Dari (Yazdi), , (Na’ini), , , , , , , ; ; , , , # Kurdish (Dialects: Kurdi, Kurmanji, Kermanshahi) # # Zaza-Gorani (dialects: Gorani, Bajelan, Kirmanjki (Northern Zaza), Dimli (Southern Zaza) # Parthian
- , Semnani, Sangisari # Median
- # Gilaki, Mazanderani, Shahmirzadi # Balochi, # Talysh, , Harzani # Khalaj B. Southwestern (Persid languages) # Old Persian
- , Middle Persian
- , also called Pahlavi (dialects: Manichaean Pahlavi), Persian (dialects: , Dari, Tajik, Hazaragi, Dzhidi (Judeo-Persian), , Judeo-Bukharic # Judeo-Tat, Muslim Tat # , Lari (Larestani), Bashkardi # Luri, Bakhtiari, Feyli, Kumzari

III. Unclassified # Tangshewi (
- indicates extinct languages)

External link

- [http://www.krysstal.com/borrow_farsi.html English words borrowed from Persian]
- [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=946 Iranian languages]
- [http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html Iranian Language Family]
- [http://www.azargoshnasp.net/~iran/languages/Azari/26.pdf Kasravi's research on Azari language] (in Persian)
- Category:Iranian peoples

Afghan people

An Afghan or an Afghani is the name used to describe a person from the country of Afghanistan. It is, however, hard to combine the varying groups. Often times the Pashtun are refered to as Afghans while other groups hold to their ethnic name (ex. Tajiks are known as Tajiks, etc.). The citizens of Afghanistan are in many ways somewhat distinct from the notion of ethnic Afghans as a result of this understanding. In addition, many Afghans, such as the Tajiks, consider themselves distinct from Iranians since the religious wars between Shias and Sunnis during the Safavid era. The remaining groups are of Turkic, Nuristani and Mongolian ancestry with Jewish (most of whom have left for Israel) origins.

History

For more information see:History of Afghanistan and Durrani Empire Afghans as a whole draw their modern national identity from the founding of the Durrani Empire in the mid 1700's. From 1747 until 1823 Ahmad Shah and his sons and grandsons held the monarchy. They were the first Pashtun rulers of Afghanistan, from the Sadozai line of the Abdali (known as the Durrani since Ahmad Shah's reign) group of clans. It was under the leadership of Ahmad Shah that the nation of Afghanistan began to take shape following centuries of fragmentation and exploitation. However each ethnic group has its own unique history which makes up the entire Afghan history. There requires some realization that Afghan nationalism can be synonymous with that of Pashtun nationalism and as a result cannot be conflated into an Afghan national identity as the country is a multiethnic entity. Thus, it is important to note that there have been a variety of groups who have lived in what is today Afghanistan, but were not ethnic Afghans such as the aforementioned Tajiks as well as Uzbeks and Hazaras etc. who are currently divided as to what constitutes a national Afghan identity. Because Afghan history is fraught with regional cleavages it is important to note that any notion of an Afghan nation-state is largely absent until the 18th century and the rise of the Durrani Empire. For this reason, important figures from the past such as Zoroaster and Rumi, who are of ethnic Persian identity but of Tajik extraction, are often not identified as ethnic Afghans or even as Afghan people, at least according to academics, while they are generally included within the context of the collective history of the modern nation-state in the geographic sense.

Pashtun

Pashtun or Afghan, are a warlike, fierce, and independent people that reside mainly in southern and eastern Afghanistan and spill over into western Pakistan. Considerable pockets also exist throughout other parts of Afghanistan. Smaller groups of Pashtuns are also found in Iran and India as well. Pashtun culture is ancient and much of it is yet to be recorded in contemporary times. There are many conflicting theories, some contemporary, some ancient, about the origins of the Pashtun people, both among historians and the Pashtun themselves. Most scholars agree that the Pashtuns are of Iranian stock and speak an eastern Iranian language. According to the writer W.K. Frazier Tyler writing in his book Afghanistan, "The word Afghan… first appears in history in the Hudud-al-Alam, a work by an unknown Arab geographer who wrote in 982 AD." Until the advent of the modern Afghan state in the 18th century, the word Afghan had been synonymous with Pashtun.

Tajik

The Tajiks are amongst the oldest inhabitants of the region, and can trace their roots back to the original Iranian peoples that settled Central Asia in ancient times, such as the Bactrians, Sogdians, and Parthians, but also Persians who fled to Central-Asia during Arab Islamic expansion. The Tajiks also comprise the majority population of Tajikistan and are found in large numbers in Uzbekistan and Iran as well as the western Pakistan and Xinjiang province of China. A related group in Afghanistan known as the Farsiwan are often affiliated with the Tajiks, but are generally of the Shia faith and are mostly distinct from the Hazaras as the Farsiwans are a Mediterrean people and are basically almost identical to the Persians of Iran. Tajiks are, by contrast, considered the Persians of Central Asia.

Hazara

Historically, the Hazara seem to have Turkic-Mongolian origins, but with some Caucasoid admixture from surrounding groups. Linguistically though the Hazara speak Dari, but their variant is interspersed with more Mongolian words, but this is also the case with many Turkic languages such as Uzbek. It may simply be the case that the Hazara are of Uighur Turkic origin as many Turks accompanied the Mongol armies or arrived in the region long before the Mongols. It is however commonly believed by many Afghans that the Hazara are descendants of Genghis Khan's army, which marched into the area during the 12th century. Proponents of this view hold that many of the Mongol soldiers and their family members settled in the area and remained there after the Mongol empire dissolved in the 13th century, converting to Islam and adopting local customs. The theory regarding a more Turkic origin for the Hazara has equal validity and the relatively small number of actual Mongols in comparison to Turks makes it more likely that the Hazara are descendents of Turkic invaders who were Persianized over time. Unlike most Afghans the Hazara are Shia, which has often set them apart from their neighbors.

Uzbek

The Uzbeks are the main Turkic people of Afghanistan and are found mainly in the northern regions of the country. Most likely the Uzbeks migrated with a wave of Turkic invaders and intermingled with local Iranian tribes over time to become the ethnic group they are today. By the 1500s the Uzbeks had settled throughout Central Asia and reached Afghanistan following the conquests of Muhammad Shibani. Most Uzbeks are Sunni Muslim and are closely related to the Turkmen who also can be found in Afghanistan.

Turkmen

The Turkmen are the smaller Turkic group who can also be found in neighoring Turkmenistan. Largely Sunni Muslim, their origins are very similar to that of the Uzbeks.

Baluch

The Baluch are another Iranian ethnic group that numbers around 200,000 in Afghanistan. They are most likely an offshoot of the Kurds and reached Afghanistan sometime between 1000 and 1300 BCE. Mainly pastoral and desert dwellers, the Baluch are also Sunni Muslim.

Nuristani

The Nuristani are an Indo-Iranian people, representing a third branch of independent of the Iranian and Indo-Aryan groups, who live in isolated regions of northeastern Afghanistan. Better known historically as the Kafirs of what was once known as Kafiristan (now called Nuristan), they were forcibly converted to Islam during the rule of "Iron" Amir Abdur Rahman and their country was renamed "Nuristan" or "Land of Light" as in the light of Islam. Many Nuristanis believe that they are the descendents of Alexander's Greeks, but there is a lack of genetic evidence for this and they are more than likely an isolated pocket of early Aryan invaders. They are largely Sunni Muslim.

Culture

Contributions to Humanity

The different ethnic groups that today make up Afghanistan made significant contributions in poetry, architecture, art, music, and religion. Prominent individuals are:
- Literature:
- Ibn Sina (Avicenna), one of the greatest philosophers and scientists in history - Tajik
- Jalaundin-e-Rumi, one of the greatest Persian poets - Tajik
- Khushal Khan Khattak, the greatest Pashtun poet - Pashtun
- Abdur Rahman Baba, a famous Pashtun poet - Pashtun
- Sana'i of Ghazni, a great Persian poet of the Ghaznavid era - Tajik
- Mirza Abdul Qadir Bedel, a famous Persian poet - Tajik
- Jami of Heart, the last great Sufi poet of the medieval times - Tajik
- Theology And Philosophy:
- Abu Hanifa, founder of the Hanafi school of thought within Sunni Islam - Tajik
- al-Bukhari, choronologist of Hadiths - Tajik
- Sayyid Jamal al-Din Afghani, the last great Muslim philosopher - Pashtun or Tajik (not known)
- Kings And Conquerors:
- Babur, the founder of the Moghul Dynasty in India - Mongol
- Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of modern Afghanistan - Pashtun Modern prominent individuals include mucisians:
- Ustad Mohammad Hashem Cheshti
- Ahmad Zahir
- Farhad Darya ... and poets:
- Mohammad Rahim el-Ham
- Abdul Ali Mustaghni
- Ustad Khalilullah Khalili

Language

Afghans speak a variety of languages of which the largest are Pashto and Dari (Farsi). Other significant languages include the Turkmen and the Uzbek. Pashto and Persian are the official languages of Afghanistan.

Religion

The majority of Afghans are Sunni Muslims. The remaining are mostly Shiites. Before the Muslim conquest of the region various religions including Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrians and Nestorianism significantly influenced Afghan culture.

Symbols

Nestorianism The Flag of Afghanistan has three stripes which represent three stages in Afghan history. The black represents the 19th century when Afghanistan was occupied, the red symbolizes the fight for independence and the green represents the fight for independence. In the past on the flags before communist takeover the black represented sovereignty, the red symbolized progress and development and the green represented Islam. [http://www.fotw.net/flags/af.html#shd]

Identity

The Afghan identity began to develop as Pashtun identity under the rule of Ahmad Shah who united the Pashtun (Afghan) chiefdoms in the late 18th century. Another boost took place under the rule of Nadir Shah who with Pashtun support further centralized the government. In Afghanistan everyone can be called Afghan and they all call themselves Afghans, but the Hazareas who consider themselves Afghani. Even Pashtuns from Pashtunistan NWFP and Balochistan (I.e Durand Line) also consider themselves as "Afghan" but usually rejected by the people of Pakistan. Because internationally they represent "Pakistan" with a green Pakistani Passport.

Tats

The Tat are an Iranian ethnic group from the Caucasus. The Tat of Aran (Azerbaijan Republic) number about 22,000. The majority of the Tat of Dagestan (est. less than 15,000) live in Kaitag, Magaramkend, Derbent and Makhachkala. A small number have settled in North Caucasia - Gorny and Nalchik. The Tat descend from Persian tribes that moved into the Caucasian mountains in the 5th and 6th centuries. The Tat of Arran live in the mountain valleys of the north and north-eastern parts of Azerbaijan, along the Russian border, with important concentrations in Krasnaya Sloboda and Oguz. A large number also live in and around Baku. The Tat include three groups: Muslim (90% Shia), Christian and Jewish Tats - the latter also known as Mountain Jews. There's some debate on the origin of the Jewish Tat, with some defending that they are not Tat at all but simply Jews that took the Tat language, while others argue that they are the descendants of Tats that converted to Judaism. The Turks originally coined the term 'Tats' to designate settled groups of non-Turkic origin. Alternative designations for the Tatsare 'Tatians' and 'Dagchufuts'. Muslim, Christian and Jewish Tats speak a unique dialect of Persian (so Indo-European) language known as Tati. Because no alphabet exists for Tati, they use Azeri for their written and literary language. Although the Tat have been an agricultural people from the beginning of their history, they have also developed a strong urban community. Farmers living in the valleys raise wheat, barley, maize, grapes and cattle. Those living in mountain villages raise sheep, bulls and buffaloes. In the north-eastern area, communities consisting of 80 to 120 households are located in mountain settlements built on ledges. The availability of water determines the villages' location, each village contains a religious building, a bath area, a well, as well as family dwellings. The rural Tat usually live in one or two story homes, which are constructed of rectangular shaped natural stones cemented with clay mortar. The houses feature flat roofs and front porches supported by wooden pillars. Families living in two-story homes use the upper floor for living quarters and the lower floor for working space. The Tat are considered a closed society because they insist on maintaining ethnic purity by allowing marriage only within the tribe. It can be argued that, for such a small ethnic group, this is the only strategy for survival. Originally based on an article by Travel-images.com, licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License, used with permission. Category:Ethnic groups of Dagestan Category:Ethnic groups of Asia Category:Iranian peoples ko:타트족

Kurds

The Kurds are an Iranian people (a classification that is more linguistic than 'ethnic' in the case of many Kurds) inhabiting a mountainous area of Southwest Asia that includes parts of Iraq, Turkey, and Iran as well as smaller sections of Syria, Armenia and Lebanon. Kurds speak the mostly mutually intelligible dialects of the Kurdish language, which has Indo-European roots. Ranging anywhere from 25 to 27 million people, the Kurds comprise one of the largest ethnic groups without their own country in the world. For over a century, many Kurds have campaigned and fought for the right to 'self-determination' in an autonomous homeland known as "Kurdistan". The governments of those countries with sizable Kurdish populations are actively opposed to the possibility of a Kurdish state, believing such a development would require them to give up parts of their own national territories.

Historical Roots of the Kurdish People

The earliest evidence, thus far, of a unified and distinct culture and peoples inhabiting the Kurdish mountains dates back to the Halaf culture of 8,000-7,400 years ago. This was followed by the Hurrian period which lasted from 6,300 to about 2,600 years ago. The Hurrians spoke a language that was possibly part of the Northeast Caucasian family of languages (or Alarodian), akin to modern Chechen and Lezgian. The Hurrians spread out and eventually dominated significant territories outside their Zagros-Taurus mountainous base. Like their Kurdish descendents, they however did not expand too far from the mountains. The "Hurrian" name survives now most prominently in the dialect and district of Hawraman/Auraman in Kurdistan. They were divided into many clans and subgroups and settled in city-states, kingdoms and empires with eponymous clan names. These included the Gutis, Kurti, Khaldi, Mards, Mushku, Mannaeans (Mannai), Hatti, Urartu, Lullubi and the Kassites among others. All these tribes were part of the larger group of Hurrians, and together helped to shape the Hurrian phase of Kurdish history [http://www.xs4all.nl/~tank/kurdish/htdocs/his/orig.html]. The region of Mahabad was the centre of the Mannaeans, who flourished in the early 1st millennium BC.[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050086] Approximately 4,000 years ago, the first groups of Indo-European-speaking peoples started trickling into Kurdistan. These groups included the Medes, Mitanni, Scythians and Sagarthians and other Indo-European-speaking Aryans who settled in Kurdistan. Approximately 2,600 years ago, the Medes had already formed an empire that included much of what is today Kurdistan and beyond. There are numerous historical records that refer to the antecedents of the modern Kurds. The ancient Greek historian Xenophon referred to the Kurds in the Anabasis as "Khardukhi", a 'fierce and protective mountain-dwelling people' who attacked Greek armies in 400 BCE. The Lullubi people inhabited the "Sharazor" plain in Iraqi Kurdistan and are known for having fought wars with the Akkadians around 2300-2200 B.C. Today a Kurdish clan is known as Lullu and may be a possible derivation of the ancient Lullabi.[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Lullubi.html] Moreover, the name Madai appears in the Book of Genesis as a Japhethic grandson of Noah in the Biblical tradition. Scholars have identified Madai with various nations, from the early Mitanni to the Medes who were contemporaries of the ancient Persians. The modern Kurds are the descendants of many invaders and migrants who settled the region including the aforementioned Hurrians, Guti, Lullubi, Kurti, Medes, Mards, Carduchi, Gordyene, Adiabene, Mushku, Mannai, Mitanni, Kassites, Zila, and Khaldi. In addition, the lands populated by the Kurds were also invaded by the Assyrians, Akkadians, Armenians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Mongols, and Turks and these groups also made contributions to the modern Kurds both culturally and/or genetically. As a result of the vast parade of peoples who have come to Kurdistan, it is safe to say that the Kurds are a combination of indigenous peoples who were living in the Zagros Mountains, Aryan tribes, and numerous other invaders and migrants.[http://www.kurdistanica.com/english/history/origin-e.html] Recent genetic tests of random Kurdish populations show links to the Caucasus, various Iranian peoples, Europeans, northern Semites, and Anatolia.

Demographics

The exact number of Kurdish people living in the Middle East is unknown, due to both an absence of recent and extensive census analysis, and the reluctance of the various governments in Kurdish-inhabited regions to give accurate figures. The fact that some Kurds have mixed with other local ethnic groups has also contributed to the uncertainty as to who can be counted as a 'Kurd'. For example, many Kurds in Turkey have adopted Turkish, having moved to mainly Turkish regions of the country and assimilated to some extent, while most Kurds in Iraq have attempted to maintain their distinct identity. In addition, groups such as the Zaza and Dimli are often counted by some as Kurds, but are actually a closely- related Iranian people. Nonetheless, if estimated figures are accurate, comprising between 25 and 27 million people, the Kurds are, as Carole A. O’Leary (a professor at the American University) commented, the largest ethnic group without a separate state in the world. [http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2002/issue4/jv6n4a5.html]

Religion

The majority of the Kurds are Sunni Muslims, belonging to the Shafi and Hanafi Schools of Islam. There is also a significant minority of Kurds that are Shia Muslims, and they primarily live in the Kermanshah and Ilam provinces of Iran and Central Iraq ("Al-Fayliah" Kurds). Another religious minority among the Kurds are the Alevi Shia Muslims, who are mainly found in Turkey. The remaining Kurds are either Christians, Kurdish Jews or Yezidis. Before the spread of Islam in the 7th century CE, the majority of Kurds practiced Zoroastrianism, which is believed to be one of the oldest religions in the world. The Kurdish Kingdom of Adiabene converted to Judaism in the course of the 1st century BC, along with, a large number of Kurdish citizens in the kingdom [http://www.kurdistanica.com/english/religion/judaism/judaism.html]. Rabbi Asenath Barzani,who lived in Mosul, Kurdistan, from 1590 to 1670 was among the very first Jewish women to become a Rabbi (see Kurdish Jews). 'Yezidism' is an ancient Kurdish religion. The name of this religion in Kurdish language is Êzidî. Most Yezidis live in Iraqi Kurdistan, in the vicinity of Mosul, Sinjar, and Lalish. Large numbers of Yezidis are also found in Syria, Armenia and Turkey. The holy book of the Yezidis is "Mishefa Reş" (The Black Book)[http://kurdistanica.com/english/religion/yazdani/yezidi/yezidi.html]. There is also another native Kurdish religion in eastern parts of Kurdistan, called Yarsan or Ahl-e Haqq.

Language

The Kurdish language is part of the northwestern group of the Iranian section of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. Even though Kurdish is an Iranian language, Kurds have been greatly-influenced by languages around them, especially Arabic, as well as Turkish and Persian. In addition, the Northern Kurdish dialects such as Kurmanji are written using the Roman alphabet, while the southern dialects tend to be written in the Arabic alphabet. The Kurdish languages form a dialect continuum, with comprehensibility diminishing as the distance from one's native dialect increases. The principal Kurdish languages are:
- Northern Kurdish including Kurmanji/Bahdinan
- Central Kurdish or Sorani
- The Southern Kurdish dialects
- Hewrami or Auramani

Kurds in Iraq

Under the former Iraqi Ba'athist regime, which ruled Iraq from 1968 until 2003, Kurds were initially granted limited autonomy (1970), and after the Barzani revolt in 1961, were given some high-level political representation in Baghdad. However, for various reasons, including the pro-Iranian sympathies of some Kurds during the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980's, the regime implemented anti-Kurdish policies and a de facto civil war broke out. Iraq was widely-condemned by the international community, but was never seriously punished for oppressive measures, including the use of chemical weapons against the Kurds, which resulted in thousands of deaths. (See Halabja poison gas attack.)

Anfal Genocidal Campaign

Anfal--"the Spoils"(of War)--is the name of the eighth sura of the Koran. From March 29, 1987 until April 23, 1989, Ali Hassan Al-Majid was granted power that was equivalent, in Northern Iraq, to that of the President himself, with authority over all agencies of the state. Al-Majid, who is known to this day to Kurds as "Ali Anfal" or "Ali Chemical," was the overlord of the Kurdish genocide. The regime designated areas in which Peshmerga were active as "Prohibited Areas". Al-Majid ordered that, "All persons captured in those villages (in the prohibited area) shall be detained and interrogated by the security services and those between the ages of 15 and 70 shall be executed after any useful information has been obtained from them, of which we should be duly notified." Halabja poison gas attack was only a small part of the larger Anfal operation. The campaigns of 1987-199 were characterized by the following gross violations of human rights: a) mass summary executions and mass disappearance of many tens of thousands of non-combatants, including large numbers of women and children, and sometimes the entire population of villages; b) the widespread use of chemical weapons, including mustard gas and the nerve agent GB, or Sarin, against the town of Halabja as well as dozens of Kurdish villages, killing many thousands of people, mainly women and children; c) the wholesale destruction of some 2,000 villages, which are described in government documents as having been "burned," "destroyed," "demolished" and "purified," as well as at least a dozen larger towns and administrative centers (nahyas and qadhas); Since 1975, some 4,000 Kurdish villages have been destroyed by the Former Iraqi Regime. d) By the most conservative estimates, 50,000 rural Kurds died during Anfal. Middle East Watch has documented three cases of mass executions in late 1988; in one of them, 180 people were put to death. e) Army engineers even destroyed the large Kurdish town of Qala Dizeh (population 70,000) and declared its environs a "prohibited area," removing the last significant population center close to the Iranian border. ( For more details see [http://www.hrw.org/reports/1993/iraqanfal/] by the Human Rights Watch. Also see [http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html]) During the 1990's, Kurdish regions gained some measure of autonomy with fully-functioning civil administrations; they were protected by the US-enforced Iraqi no-fly zone, which prevented air attacks by Iraqi government forces. During this period, armed clashes developed between three main political/military groups in the area (including the Kurdistan Democratic Party) over political authority. In the aftermath of the US invasion which unseated the Iraqi President Saddam Hussein in 2003, the 'Kurdistan issue' became a major concern. Iraqi Kurds were unwilling to accept a strong central government and many of them called for outright independence. However, neighboring Turkey made it clear that an independent Kurdistan would be unacceptable. President Jalal Talabani, leader of the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, distanced himself from the movement for independence. The Kurdish delegation to the Constitutional Committee succeeded in achieving a highly federal structure in exchange for certain Islamist conditions demanded by Shia delegates. The Kurdish provinces (governorates) will be allowed to unite into a largely autonomous region that can maintain its own armed forces, levy taxes and overrule federal laws. Also, Kurdish was made a national language alongside Arabic.

Kurds in Turkey

About half of all Kurds live in Turkey, numbering some 14 million. They comprise 20% of the total population of Turkey and are predominantly distributed in the southeastern corner of the country. Modern Turkey's founder, Mustafa Kemal (better known as Atatürk in Turkish--"father of the Turks"), enacted a constitution 70 years ago which denied the existence of distinct cultural sub-groups in Turkey. As a result, any expression by the Kurds (as well as other minorities in Turkey) of unique ethnic identity has been harshly repressed. For example, until 1991, the use of the Kurdish language--although widespread--was illegal. To this day, music, radio and TV broadcasts, and education in Kurdish are not allowed except under extremely limited circumstances. Teaching Kurdish in public schools is still banned. The Turkish government has consistently thwarted attempts by the Kurds to organize politically. Kurdish political parties are shut down one after another, and party members are harassed and imprisoned for "crimes of opinion."

Kurdish IDP's in Turkey

Security forces in Turkey forcibly displaced Kurdish rural communities during the 1980s and 1990s in order to combat the Kurdish Workers’ Party (PKK) insurgency, which drew its membership and logistical support from the local peasant population. Turkish security forces did not distinguish the armed militants they were pursuing from the civilian population they were supposed to be protecting. By the mid-1990s, more than 3,000 villages had been virtually wiped from the map, and, according to official figures, 378,335 Kurdish villagers had been displaced and left homeless.(see [http://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/turkey0305/3.htm#_Toc97005223],[http://hrw.org/reports/2002/turkey/] and [http://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/turkey0305/]. Also see Report D612, October, 1994, "Forced Displacement of Ethnic Kurds"(A Human Rights Watch Publication)[http://store.yahoo.com/hrwpubs/tur.html] )

Leyla Zana

Most famously, in 1994 Leyla Zana--who, three years prior, had been the first Kurdish woman elected to the Turkish parliament--was sentenced to 15 years for "separatist speech". At her inauguration as an MP, she reportedly identified herself as a Kurd. Amnesty International reported "She took the oath of loyalty in Turkish, as required by law, then added in Kurdish, 'I shall struggle so that the Kurdish and Turkish peoples may live together in a democratic framework.' Parliament erupted with shouts of 'Separatist', 'Terrorist', and 'Arrest her'".

PKK Insurgency

The PKK is a formerly Marxist separatist group that until recently sought to create an independent Kurdish state in southeastern Turkey and parts of neighboring countries inhabited by Kurds. (It’s known as the PKK after its Kurdish name, Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan.) During a rebellion that began in the mid-1980s and claimed some 35,000 lives, the group used guerrilla warfare and terrorism, including kidnappings of foreign tourists in Turkey, suicide bombings, and attacks on Turkish diplomatic offices in Europe. The PKK has also repeatedly attacked civilians who refuse to assist it. The organization was founded in 1973 by Abdullah Ocalan. He ruled the party until his capture in 1999 by Turkish special forces in Kenya, after taking refuge in the Greek embassy in Kenya. Ocalan remains imprisoned on an island (Imrali) near Istanbul.(see [http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/kurdistan_print.html] and [http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/pkk-pr.cfm])

Kurds in Iran

For a detailed account of history of the Kurds in the Persian Empire and Iran see History of the Kurds and Iranian Kurdistan. In recent years, intense fighting occurred between Kurds and the Iranian state between 1979 and 1982. Since 1983 the Iranian government has had control over the area which the Kurds inhabit. This area encompasses Kurdistan Province and greater parts of West Azarbaijan, Kermanshah, Ilam Province and smaller parts of Lorestan that totally is called Iranian Kurdistan. In Iran Kurds, like other minorities, express their cultural identity with difficulties and they are denied the right of self-government or administration. Membership of any Kurdish 'separatist' party could be punishable by death. The Kurdish language is also banned from being taught in schools; which is a breach of the current constitution, and there are restrictions today on publishing Kurdish literature. In 2005, the Islamic government banned the two Kurdish magazines "Aso" and "Ashti" (following many Persian-language ones in other areas of Iran in recent years), and their editors have been arrested. Kurdish human rights activists in Iran have been threatened by Iranian authorities in connection with their work. [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGMDE130102005?open&of=ENG-370]

Kurds in Syria

Kurds often speak Kurdish in public, unless all those present do not. It is claimed that Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated. No political parties are allowed for any group, Arab or Kurdish. Population is 10% or about 1.8 million. According to Human Rights Watch, there are 142,465 Kurds (by the government's count), and well over 200,000 Kurds (according to Kurdish sources), who have been arbitrarily denied the right to Syrian nationality in violation of international law. These Kurds, who have no claim to a nationality other than Syrian, are literally trapped in Syria: not only are they treated in a discriminatory fashion in the land of their birth, but also they do not have the option of relocating to another country because they lack passports or other internationally recognized travel documents. They are not permitted to own land, housing or businesses. They cannot be employed at government agencies and state-owned enterprises, and cannot practice as doctors or engineers. They may not legally marry Syrian citizens. Kurds with "foreigner" status, as they are called, do not have the right to vote in elections or referenda, or run for public office. They are not issued passports or other travel documents, and thus may not legally leave or return to Syria. [http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Syria.htm] Suppression of ethnic identity of Kurds in Syria include: various bans on the use of the Kurdish language; refusal to register children with Kurdish names; replacement of Kurdish place names with new names in Arabic; prohibition of businesses that do not have Arabic names; not permitting Kurdish private schools; and the prohibition of books and other materials written in Kurdish. (see [http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Syria.htm] and [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/syria9812.htm])

Kurds in Armenia

In the Soviet Union, from the 1930's to the 1980's, the Kurds were a 'protected minority', under Soviet Law. They had their own state-sponsored newspaper, radio broadcast and cultural events.During the conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh, many Kurds were forced to leave their homes.

Timeline of modern Kurdish history

1919: Shaikh Mahmoud Barzanji, proclaimed himself King of an independent Kurdish state and took over the city and area of Sulaimania.(see [http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html]) 1920: Treaty of Sèvres determines the borders for the territory of Kurdistan. 1921: Boundaries of the modern Iraq overlaps the territory of Kurdistan, which had been determined by the Treaty of Sèvres. When a referendum was held in 1921 to approve the appointment of Faisal as King of Iraq, in Kirkuk the Kurdish majority there voted against him, whilein the Kurdish heartland city of Sulaimania, the referendum was totally boycotted. 1923: Boundaries of the modern Turkey determined by the Treaty of Lausanne overlaps the territory of Kurdistan, which had been determined by the Treaty of Sèvres. 1922 to 1958: The Iraqi Kurds live under the Iraqi Kingdom. 1925: The first Kurdish revolt in Turkey, supported by British powers from Iraq, by Sheikh Sayid, is overcome. 1925: The League of Nations decided to attach the former Ottoman Vilayet of Mosul to the State of Iraq, with two conditions. One was that the British Mandate should last another 25 years; the other was that "the desire of the Kurds that the administrators, magistrates and teachers in their country be drawn from their own ranks and adopt Kurdish as the official language in all their activities will be taken into account."[http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html] 1930: Anglo-Iraq Treaty. Iraq is granted independence. the Kurds rebelled, in protest at the failure of both the British and the Iraqis to fulfill the League's recommendations of 1925.[http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html] 1930: Tunceli demonstrations were stopped. 1937: Agri demonstrations were suppressed. (See Republic of Ararat) 1946: Although Iran had declared its neutrality during the Second World War, it was occupied by allied forces. The kurdish inhabited areas of Mukriyan in the West Azerbaijan province in north western iran were occupied by the soviet forces. with the support of which a Kurdish state was created in the city of Mahabad under the leadership of Qazi Muhammad and Mustafa Barzani. The republic of Mahabad, as it is often called, lasted less than a year, however; as with the end of the War, and the withdrawal of the occupying Soviet forces, the central government crushed the separatists and re-joined Kurdistan with Iran. 1958: Abdel Kareem Qasem becomes President of Iraq; Iraq's new constitution declares 2 major ethnic groups in Iraq: Arabs and Kurds. The President invites Mustafa Barzani from the Soviet Union to Iraq for discussions about Kurds. 1961: Failed negotiations between the government and Kurds ignites the September 11 revolt of Barzani. Fighting continues until 1970. 1970: The March 11 autonomy agreement reached by both sides (the Baath party is now in power). 1971: In September 1971, tens of thousands of Faily Kurds were deported to Iran. [http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html] 1973: In early 1973, the Iraqi army began expelling Kurds from villages in the Kirkuk area and from certain sectors of Iraq's borders with Turkey and Iran.[http://www.jafi.org.il/education/actual/iraq/4.html] 1974: Relations break up again about economic issues. Fighting erupts again. Governments bombs Kurdish towns such as Qela Dize where over 250 people die, half of which are children. 1975: The Algiers agreement declares an end to the Kurdish revolt and Iran discontinues its support of Iraqi Kurds. Kurdish uprising disbanded. Barzani flees to the United States. 1975 to 1980: The son of Mustafa, Masoud Barzani, encourages a new uprising against the government. 1979: :
- The Islamic Revolution in Iran gives the Kurds an opportunity to receive some autonomy. They failed. :
- The PKK (Kurdistan Workers Party) is created. 1980: :
- PKK leader Abdullah Ocalan flees to Syria and trains his armed supporters in several places including Syria, Lebanon, Iraq and possibly Iran. :
- The Iran-Iraq war affects Kurds in both countries. Support to either government by Kurds could cause repercussions for Kurds in the other country. Both governments send Kurds to the frontlines. More than 1 million die on both sides. 1984: PKK guerillas launch their first attacks on Turkish targets in Turkey and abroad. 1988: The genocidal Anfal-campaign is being carried out by the Iraqi government to "decrease" the Kurds. Some 4500 villages are completely destroyed, and 182,000 Kurds are relocated to unknown destinations, in this year alone. 1988: The Halabja-disaster on the 16th of March, with intensive aerial chemical bombing (by Saddam's regime), such as Nerve gas, VX and Mustard gas, kills more than 5000 Kurds and wounds an estimated 12,000. 1990's: The massive PKK uprising propels Turkey into a state of civil war. Attacking the KDP in Iraq in order to control another part of Kurdistan, Turkey repels PKK guerillas and pursues them into Iraq. 1991: A popular uprising by the Kurds, encouraged by George Bush Sr. ignites, after the Iraqi defeat of the Persian Gulf war. The uprising is initially successful, but government forces crack down; causing more than 2 million Kurds to flee to Turkey and Iran. Thousands die of starvation, cold and hunger. 1991: Turkey's 70-year ban on using the Kurdish language is lifted. 1992: After the set-up of the no-fly zones in the North and South to protect the civil Iraqi population, the Allied forces make a security zone in the north of Iraq, so that the refugees can return. After that, the Kurds seize their area, set up their own government, start their own elections and draw autonomous borders. 1992 to 2003: The Kurds enjoy self-rule, but heavy fighting erupts between the two main Kurdish factions. The KDP and the PUK almost commit 'political suicide' in fighting in 1994, 1996 and 1997. In 1999, the two parties agree to a cease-fire. 1994: Leyla Zana, the first Kurdish woman MP in Turkey's Parliamnet, is sentenced to 15 years in prison. She is also the first person to have spoken in Kurdish in Turkey's Parliament. 1995: Leyla Zana is awarded the Sakharov Prize by the European Parliament, while still in jail. 1998: PKK leader flees from Syria to Russia after threats from Turkey against Syria. 1999: After spending months in Russia, Italy, and Kenya, Abdullah Öcalan is arrested by Turkish special forces in the Greek embassy in Nairobi, Kenya and is brought to Turkey for trial. 2002: PKK changes its name to 'KADEK', in an effort to remove the 'terrorist' connotations of the name PKK. 2003: :
- The 2003 Invasion of Iraq by the United States removes the Baath-regime from power. Kurds celebrate. :
- March 12: The European Court of Human Rights rules that the Turkish trial of Abdullah Öcalan, leader of the terrorist organisation PKK, was not fair. :
- January 4: Invasion of Iraq commences. :
- February 25: Both major parties of Kurdistan, an autonomous region in Northern Iraq, vow to fight Turkish troops if they enter Kurdistan to capture Mosul, or if they interfere in Kurdish self-rule. Between them, the two parties can mobilize up to 80,000 guerillas - most likely no match for the modern Turkish army; but complicate relations between U.S. allies on the Northern front, expected in the U.S. plan to invade Iraq. :
- March 21: The arrest of alleged Ansar al-Islam leader Mullah Krekar is ordered by Økokrim, a Norwegian law enforcement agency; to ensure he does not leave Norway while accusations that he had threatened terrorist attacks are investigated. :
- April 6: In a 'friendly fire' incident, U.S. warplanes struck a convoy of allied Kurdish fighters and U.S. Special Forces, during a battle in northern Iraq. At least 18 people were killed and more than 45 wounded; including senior Kurdish commanders. :
- April 10: U.S. Green Berets and Kurdish fighters enter the city of Kirkuk in Iraq, with little resistance. Turkey and U.S., in separate statements, say they will not allow the Kurds to occupy the city. [http://www.washtimes.com/national/default-200341121717.htm], [http://www.canada.com/news/story.asp?id=45D53827-FA52-4452-9E87-7DF9276D26B9] :
- June 12: In Dokan, Kurdistan Democratic Party and Patriotic Union of Kurdistan leaders set up a six-member committee to map out a plan for unification. 2004: In the city of Qamishli, Syria, violence broke out between Arab supporters and Kurds at a soccer match. As many as 40 Kurds died, causing the Kurdish population in Syria to rise up and riot in the days of the aftermath. Thousands were arrested; and some were taken to prisons. 2004: Under pressure from European Union, Turkey frees Leyla Zana. She is still awaiting a new trial. 2004: KADEK changes its name to KONGRA-GEL. 2005: :
- Iraqi transitional assembly and Kurdistan national assembly elections held. Jalal Talabani, secretary-general of the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan, is elected as President of Iraq. Kurds receive more than a quarter of the votes. :Declaration by Abdullah Öcalan of Democratic Confederalism. :
- KONGRA-GEL changes its name to the historic PKK. 2005: Massoud Barzani is elected by the Kurdish Parliament in Arbil (Hewlêr) as the President of the Iraqi Kurdistan region. (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4092926.stm])
- See also: History of the Kurds
- See also: History of the Kurdistan Workers Party

Culture

- Kurdish music

Renowned Kurdish individuals

- Saladin, the great Muslim conqueror and founder of the Ayyubid Dynasty.
- Malaye Jaziri (or Melayê Cizîrî), Renowned Kurdish poet and sufi (1570-1640)
- Faqi Tayran (or Feqîyê Teyran), Kurdish poet (1590-1660), Author of the epic Sheik San'an.
- Ahmad Khani (or Ehmedê Xanî), the great Kurdish poet, (1651-1707) (Author of Mem û Zîn).
- Rabbi Asenath Barzani (1590-1670), the first Jewish woman Rabbi in Mosul, Kurdistan. (see Kurdish Jews)
- Emîr Xanî Lep-Zêrîn (Amir Khan the Golden Hand), Leader of the Kurdish Principality of "Baradost", who fought Shah Abbas I in the Battle of Dimdim (1609-1610). (see Kurdistan)
- Shaikh Said Piran, Leader of Kurdish Nationalist movement in Turkey. (1925)
- Shaikh Mahmood Barzenji, Leader of the Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Iraq. (1920)
- Jaladat Ali Badirkhan (or Celadet Alî Bedirxan), (1893-1951), Intellectual, Linguist, Journalist and Politician.
- Qazi Muhammad (1893-1947), President of the Kurdish Republic of Mahabad in 1946.
- Arab Shamilov (or Erebê Şemo) (1897-1978), Kurdish writer and novelist in Armenia.
- Mustafa Barzani (1903-1979), Leader of the Kurdish Nationalist movements in Iraq and Iran.
- Abdulla Goran, (1904-1962), Founder of the modern Kurdish Poetry.
- Jamal Nebez, (1933- ), Writer, Linguist, Translator and Academic, Germany.
- Sherko Bekas, (1940- ), Contemporary Kurdish Poet
- Yitzhak Mordechai, (1944- ), Kurdish Israeli general and politician
- Abdulla Pashew, (1946- ), Contemporary Kurdish Poet
- Jalal Talabani, current President of Iraq.
- Massoud Barzani, current President of Iraqi Kurdistan region.
- Leyla Zana, Politician and Human Rights Activist
- Abdullah Öcalan, founder of PKK. (currently in İmralı)
- Bahman Ghobadi, film director.
- Yilmaz Güney, film director.
- Benazir Bhutto, former Prime Minister of Pakistan (Kurdish mother)
- Turgut Özal, 1989-1993 Prime Minister of Turkey.
- İbrahim Tatlıses, the most well-known star in Turkey, artist, musician, businessman, producer, director, etc...
- Yıldız Tibe, musician.

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