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Irenidae

Irenidae

See text The two fairy-bluebirds are small passerine bird species found in forests and plantations in tropical southern Asia and the Philippines. They are the sole members of the family Irenidae, but are related to the ioras and leafbirds. These are bulbul-like birds of open forest or thorn scrub, but whereas that group tends to be drab in coloration, fairy-bluebirds are sexually dimorphic, with the males being dark blue in plumage, and the females duller green. These species eat fruit, especially figs, and maybe some insects. They lay 2-3 eggs in a tree nest. The call of the Asian Fairy-bluebird is a liquid two note Glue-It. As one would expect, the Asian Fairy-bluebird occurs across southern Asia, and the Philippine Fairy-bluebird in that archipelago.
- Family: Irenidae
- Asian Fairy-bluebird, Irena puella
- Philippine Fairy-bluebird, Irena cyanogaster

Passerine

Many, see text A passerine is a bird of the giant order Passeriformes. More than half of all species of bird are passerines. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines are one of the most spectacularly successful vertebrate orders: with around 5,400 species, they are roughly twice as diverse as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia. The group gets its name from the Latin name for the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus).

Characteristics

Many passerines are songbirds and have complex muscles to control their syrinx; all of them gape in the nest as infants to beg for food. The order is divided into two suborders, Tyranni, and Passeri (oscines). Oscines have the most control of their syrinx muscles and are true songbirds (though some of them, such as the crow, do not sound like it). Most passerines are smaller than typical members of other avian orders.

Origin

The evolutionary history of and relationships among the passerine families remained rather mysterious until around the end of the 20th century. Many passerine families were grouped together on the basis of morphological similarities which, it is now believed, are the result of convergent evolution, not a close genetic relationship. For example, the "wrens" of the northern hemisphere, of Australia, and of New Zealand all look very similar and behave in similar ways, and yet belong to three far-flung branches of the passerine family tree: they are as unrelated as it is possible to be while yet remaining Passeriformes. Much research remains to be done, but a series of biochemical studies are gradually revealing a clearer picture of passerine origins and evolution. It is now thought that the early passerines evolved in Gondwana at about the time that the southern supercontinent was breaking up. This led to the Tyranni and, a little later, to a great radiation of forms in Australia-New Guinea (the Passeri or songbirds). A major branch of the passerine tree, the Passerida (or sparrow-like forms), emerged either as the sister group to another (the Corvida, or crow-like birds), or more likely as a subgroup of the Corvida, and reached the northern hemisphere, where there was a further explosive radiation of new species. Since then, there has been extensive mixing, with northern forms returning to the south, southern forms moving north, and so on. Corvida]

Taxonomy of passerines

- ORDER PASSERIFORMES
- Suborder Tyranni
- Tyrannidae: tyrant flycatchers
- Pittidae: pittas
- Eurylaimidae: broadbills
- Dendrocolaptidae: woodcreepers
- Furnariidae: ovenbirds
- Thamnophilidae: antbirds
- Formicariidae: antpittas and antthrushes
- Conopophagidae: gnateaters
- Rhinocryptidae: tapaculos
- Cotingidae: cotingas
- Pipridae: manakins
- Philepittidae: asities
- Acanthisittidae: New Zealand wrens
- Suborder Passeri
- Menuridae: (Corvida) lyrebirds
- Atrichornithidae: (Corvida) scrub birds
- Climacteridae: (Corvida) Australian treecreepers
- Maluridae: (Corvida) fairy-wrens, emu-wrens and grasswrens
- Meliphagidae: (Corvida) honeyeaters and chats
- Pardalotidae: (Corvida) pardalotes, scrubwrens, thornbills, and gerygones
- Petroicidae: (Corvida) Australian robins
- Orthonychidae: (Corvida) logrunners
- Pomatostomidae: (Corvida) Australasian babblers
- Cinclosomatidae: (Corvida) whipbirds and allies
- Neosittidae: (Corvida) sittellas
- Pachycephalidae: (Corvida) whistlers, shrike-thrushes, pitohuis and allies
- Dicruridae: (Corvida) monarch flycatchers and allies
- Campephagidae: (Corvida) cuckoo shrikes and trillers
- Oriolidae: (Corvida) orioles and Figbird
- Artamidae: (Corvida) wood swallows, butcherbirds, currawongs and Australian Magpie
- Paradisaeidae: (Corvida) birds of paradise
- Corvidae: (Corvida) crows, ravens and jays
- Corcoracidae: (Corvida) White-winged Chough and Apostlebird
- Irenidae: (Corvida) fairy-bluebirds
- Laniidae: (Corvida) shrikes
- Vireonidae: (Corvida) vireos
- Ptilonorhynchidae: (Corvida) bowerbirds
- Turnagridae: (Corvida) Piopio
- Alaudidae: (Passerida) larks
- Chloropseidae: (Passerida) leafbirds
- Aegithinidae: (Passerida) ioras
- Picathartidae: (Passerida) rockfowl
- Bombycillidae: (Passerida) waxwings and allies
- Ptilogonatidae: (Passerida) silky flycatchers
- Cinclidae: (Passerida) dippers
- Motacillidae: (Passerida) wagtails and pipits
- Prunellidae: (Passerida) accentor
- Melanocharitidae: (Passerida) berrypeckers and longbills
- Paramythiidae: (Passerida) tit berrypecker and crested berrypeckers
- Passeridae: (Passerida) true sparrows
- Estrildidae: (Passerida) estrildid finches (waxbills, munias, etc)
- Parulidae: (Passerida) New World warblers
- Thraupidae: (Passerida) tanagers and allies
- Peucedramidae: (Passerida) Olive Warbler
- Fringillidae: (Passerida) true finches
- Drepanididae: (Passerida) Hawaiian honeycreepers
- Emberizidae: (Passerida) buntings and American sparrows
- Nectariniidae: (Passerida) sunbirds
- Dicaeidae: (Passerida) flowerpeckers
- Mimidae: (Passerida) mockingbirds and thrashers
- Sittidae: (Passerida) nuthatches
- Certhiidae: (Passerida) treecreepers
- Troglodytidae: (Passerida) wrens
- Polioptilidae: (Passerida) gnatcatchers
- Paridae: (Passerida) tits, chickadees and titmice
- Aegithalidae: (Passerida) long-tailed tits
- Hirundinidae: (Passerida) swallows and martins
- Regulidae: (Passerida) kinglets
- Pycnonotidae: (Passerida) bulbuls
- Sylviidae: (Passerida) Old World warblers
- Hypocoliidae: (Passerida) Hypocolius
- Cisticolidae: (Passerida) cisticolas and allies
- Zosteropidae: (Passerida) White-eyes
- Timaliidae: (Passerida) babblers
- Muscicapidae: (Passerida) Old World flycatchers and chats
- Turdidae: (Passerida) thrushes and allies
- Sturnidae: (Passerida) starlings

Species

In biology, a species is the basic unit of biodiversity. In scientific classification, a species is assigned a two-part name in Latin. The genus is listed first (and capitalized), followed by a specific epithet. For example, humans belong to the genus Homo, and are in the species Homo sapiens. The name of the species is the whole binomial not just the second term (the specific epithet). The binomial, and most other purely formal aspects of the biological codes of nomenclature, were formalized by Carolus Linnaeus in the 1700's and as a result are called the "Linnaean system". At that time, species were thought to represent independent acts of creation by God, and were therefore considered objectively real and immutable. Since the advent of the theory of evolution, the conception of species has undergone vast changes in biology, however no consensus on the definition of the word has yet been reached. The most commonly cited definition of "species" was first coined by Ernst Mayr. By this definition, called the biological species concept or isolation species concept, species are "groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups". However, many other species concepts are also used (see other definitions of species below). The scientific name of a species is properly typeset in italics. When an unknown species is being referred to this may be done by using the abbreviation "sp." in the singular or "spp." in the plural in the place of the second part of the scientific name. Note that the word "specie" is not the singular of "species". It refers to coined money.

Definitions of species

The definition of a species given above as taken from Mayr, is somewhat idealistic. Since it assumes sexual reproduction, it leaves the term undefined for a large class of organisms that reproduce asexually. Biologists frequently do not know whether two morphologically similar groups of organisms are "potentially" capable of interbreeding. Further, there is considerable variation in the degree to which hybridization may succeed under natural and experimental conditions, or even in the degree to which some organisms use sexual reproduction between individuals to breed. Consequently, several lines of thought in the definition of species exist: ; Typological species : A group of organisms in which individuals are members of the species if they sufficiently conform to certain fixed properties. The clusters of variations or phenotypes within specimens (ie: longer and shorter tails) would differentiate the species. This method was used as a "classical" method of determining species, such as with Linnaeus early in evolutionary theory. However, we now know that different phenotypes do not always constitute different species (e.g.: a 4-winged Drosophila born to a 2-winged mother is not a different species). Species named in this manner are called morphospecies. ; Morphological species : A population or group of populations that differs morphologically from other populations. For example, we can distinguish between a chicken and a duck because they have different shaped bills and the duck has webbed feet. Species have been defined in this way since well before the beginning of recorded history. This species concept is much criticised because more recent genetic data reveals that genetically distinct populations may look very similar and, contrarily, large morphological differences sometimes exist between very closely-related populations. Nonetheless, most species known have been described solely from morphology. ; Biological / Isolation species : A set of actually or potentially interbreeding populations. This is generally the most useful formulation for scientists working with living examples of the higher taxa like mammals, fish, and birds, but meaningless for organisms that do not reproduce sexually. It does not distinguish between the theoretical possibility of interbreeding and the actual likelihood of gene flow between populations and is thus impractical in instances of allopatric (geographically isolated) populations. The results of breeding experiments done in artificial conditions may or may not reflect what would happen if the same organisms encountered each other in the wild, making it difficult to gauge whether or not the results of such experiments are meaningful in reference to natural populations. ; Mate-recognition species : A group of organisms that are known to recognise one another as potential mates. Like the isolation species concept above, it applies only to organisms that reproduce sexually. Unlike the isolation species concept, it focuses specifically on pre-mating reproductive isolation. ; Phylogenetic / Evolutionary / Darwinian species : A group of organisms that shares an ancestor; a lineage that maintains its integrity with respect to other lineages through both time and space. At some point in the progress of such a group, members may diverge from one another: when such a divergence becomes sufficiently clear, the two populations are regarded as separate species. ; Microspecies : Species that reproduce without meiosis or mitosis so that each generation is genetically identical to the previous generation. See also apomixis. In practice, these definitions often coincide, and the differences between them are more a matter of emphasis than of outright contradiction. Nevertheless, no species concept yet proposed is entirely objective, or can be applied in all cases without resorting to judgement. Given the complexity of life, some have argued that such an objective definition is in all likelihood impossible, and biologists should settle for the most practical definition. For most vertebrates, this is the biological species concept, and to a lesser extent (or for different purposes) the phylogenetic species concept. Many BSC subspecies are considered species under the PSC; the difference between the BSC and the PSC can be summed up insofar as that the BSC defines a species as a consequence of manifest evolutionary history, while the PSC defines a species as a consequence of manifest evolutionary potential. Thus, a PSC species is "made" as soon as an evolutionary lineage has started to separate, while a BSC species starts to exist only when the lineage separation is complete.

Importance in biological classification

The idea of species has a long history. It is one of the most important levels of classification, for several reasons:
- It often corresponds to what lay people treat as the different basic kinds of organism - dogs are one species, cats another.
- It is the standard binomial nomenclature (or trinomial nomenclature) by which scientists typically refer to organisms.
- It is the only taxonomic level which has empirical content, in the sense that asserting that two animals are of different species is saying something more than classificatory about them. After thousands of years of use, the concept remains central to biology and a host of related fields, and yet also remains at times ill-defined and controversial.

Implications of assignment of species status

The naming of a particular species should be regarded as a hypothesis about the evolutionary relationships and distinguishability of that group of organisms. As further information comes to hand, the hypothesis may be confirmed or refuted. Sometimes, especially in the past when communication was more difficult, taxonomists working in isolation have given two distinct names to individual organisms later identified as the same species. When two named species are discovered to be of the same species, the older species name is usually retained, and the newer species name dropped, a process called synonymization, or convivially, as lumping. Dividing a taxon into multiple, often new, taxons is called splitting. Taxonomists are often referred to as "lumpers" or "splitters" by their colleagues, depending on their personal approach to recognizing differences or commonalities between organisms (see lumpers and splitters). Traditionally, researchers relied on observations of anatomical differences, and on observations of whether different populations were able to interbreed successfully, to distinguish species; both anatomy and breeding behavior are still important to assigning species status. As a result of the revolutionary (and still ongoing) advance in microbiological research techniques, including DNA analysis, in the last few decades, a great deal of additional knowledge about the differences and similarities between species has become available. Many populations which were formerly regarded as separate species are now considered to be a single taxon, and many formerly grouped populations have been split. Any taxonomic level (species, genus, family, etc.) can be synonymized or split, and at higher taxonomic levels, these revisions have been still more profound. From a taxonomical point of view, groups within a species can be defined as being of a taxon hierarchically lower than a species. In zoology only the subspecies is used, while in botany the variety, subvariety, and form are used as well.

The isolation species concept in more detail

In general, for large, complex, organisms that reproduce sexually (such as mammals and birds), one of several variations on the isolation or biological species concept is employed. Often, the distinction between different species, even quite closely related ones, is simple. Horses (Equus caballus) and donkeys (Equus asinus) are easily told apart even without study or training, and yet are so closely related that they can interbreed after a fashion. Because the result, a mule or hinny, is not usually fertile, they are clearly separate species. But many cases are more difficult to decide. This is where the isolation species concept diverges from the evolutionary species concept. Both agree that a species is a lineage that maintains its integrity over time, that is diagnosably different to other lineages (else we could not recognise it), is reproductively isolated (else the lineage would merge into others, given the chance to do so), and has a working intra-species recognition system (without which it could not continue). In practice, both also agree that a species must have its own independent evolutionary history—otherwise the characteristics just mentioned would not apply. The species concepts differ in that the evolutionary species concept does not make predictions about the future of the population: it simply records that which is already known. In contrast, the isolation species concept refuses to assign the rank of species to populations that, in the best judgement of the researcher, would recombine with other populations if given the chance to do so.

The isolation question

There are, essentially, two questions to resolve. First, is the proposed species consistently and reliably distinguishable from other species? Secondly, is it likely to remain so in the future? To take the second question first, there are several broad geographic possibilities.
- The proposed species are sympatric—they occupy the same habitat. Observation of many species over the years has failed to establish even a single instance of two diagnostically different populations that exist in sympatry and have then merged to form one united population. Without reproductive isolation, population differences cannot develop, and given reproductive isolation, gene flow between the populations cannot merge the differences. This is not to say that cross breeding does not take place at all, simply that it has become negligible. Generally, the hybrid individuals are less capable of successful breeding than pure-bred individuals of either species.
- The proposed species are allopatric—they occupy different geographical areas. Obviously, it is not possible to observe reproductive isolation in allopatric groups directly. Often it is not possible to achieve certainty by experimental means either: even if the two proposed species interbreed in captivity, this does not demonstrate that they would freely interbreed in the wild, nor does it always provide much information about the evolutionary fitness of hybrid individuals. A certain amount can be inferred from other experimental methods: for example, do the members of population A respond appropriately to playback of the recorded mating calls of population B? Sometimes, experiments can provide firm answers. For example, there are seven pairs of apparently almost identical marine snapping shrimp (Altheus) populations on either side of the Isthmus of Panama, which did not exist until about 3 million years ago. Until then, it is assumed, they were members of the same seven species. But when males and females from opposite sides of the isthmus are placed together, they fight instead of mating. Even if the isthmus were to sink under the waves again, the populations would remain genetically isolated: therefore they are now different species. In many cases, however, neither observation nor experiment can produce certain answers, and the determination of species rank must be made on a 'best guess' basis from a general knowledge of other related organisms.
- The proposed species are parapatric—they have breeding ranges that abut but do not overlap. This is fairly rare, particularly in temperate regions. The dividing line is often a sudden change in habitat (an ecotone) like the edge of a forest or the snow line on a mountain, but can sometimes be remarkably trivial. The parapatry itself indicates that the two populations occupy such similar ecological roles that they cannot coexist in the same area. Because they do not crossbreed, it is safe to assume that there is a mechanism, often behavioral, that is preventing gene flow between the populations, and that therefore they should be classified as separate species.
- There is a hybrid zone where the two populations mix. Typically, the hybrid zone will include representatives of one or both of the 'pure' populations, plus first-generation and back-crossing hybrids. The strength of the barrier to genetic transmission between the two pure groups can be assessed by the width of the hybrid zone relative to the typical dispersal distance of the organisms in question. The dispersal distance of oaks, for example, is the distance that a bird or squirrel can be expected to carry an acorn; the dispersal distance of Numbats is about 15 kilometres, as this is as far as young Numbats will normally travel in search of vacant territory to occupy after leaving the nest. The narrower the hybrid zone relative to the dispersal distance, the less gene flow there is between the population groups, and the more likely it is that they will continue on separate evolutionary paths. Nevertheless, it can be very difficult to predict the future course of a hybrid zone; the decision to define the two hybridizing populations as either the same species or as separate species is difficult and potentially controversial.
- The variation in the population is clinal; at either extreme of the population's geographic distribution, typical individuals are clearly different, but the transition between them is seamless and gradual. For example, the Koalas of northern Australia are clearly smaller and lighter in colour than those of the south, but there is no particular dividing line: the further south an individual Koala is found, the larger and darker it is likely to be; Koalas in intermediate regions are intermediate in weight and colour. In contrast, over the same geographic range, black-backed (northern) and white-backed (southern) Australian Magpies do not blend from one type to another: northern populations have black backs, southern populations white backs, and there is an extensive hybrid zone where both 'pure' types are common, as are crossbreeds. The variation in Koalas is clinal (a smooth transition from north to south, with populations in any given small area having a uniform appearance), but the variation in magpies is not clinal. In both cases, there is some uncertainty regarding correct classification, but the consensus view is that species rank is not justified in either. The gene flow between northern and southern magpie populations is judged to be sufficiently restricted to justify terming them subspecies (not full species); but the seamless way that local Koala populations blend one into another shows that there is substantial gene flow between north and south. As a result, experts tend to reject even subspecies rank in this case.

The difference question

Obviously, when defining a species, the geographic circumstances become meaningful only if the populations groups in question are clearly different: if they are not consistently and reliably distinguishable from one another, then we have no grounds for believing that they might be different species. The key question in this context, is "how different is different?" and the answer is usually "it all depends". In theory, it would be possible to recognise even the tiniest of differences as sufficient to delineate a separate species, provided only that the difference is clear and consistent (and that other criteria are met). There is no universal rule to state the smallest allowable difference between two species, but in general, very trivial differences are ignored on the twin grounds of simple practicality, and genetic similarity: if two population groups are so close that the distinction between them rests on an obscure and microscopic difference in morphology, or a single base substitution in a DNA sequence, then a demonstration of restricted gene flow between the populations will probably be difficult in any case. More typically, one or other of the following requirements must be met:
- It is possible to reliably measure a quantitative difference between the two groups that does not overlap. A population has, for example, thicker fur, rougher bark, longer ears, or larger seeds than another population, and although this characteristic may vary within each population, the two do not grade into one another, and given a reasonably large sample size, there is a definite discontinuity between them. Note that this applies to populations, not individual organisms, and that a small number of exceptional individuals within a population may 'break the rule' without invalidating it. The less a quantitative difference varies within a population and the more it varies between populations, the better the case for making a distinction. Nevertheless, borderline situations can only be resolved by making a 'best-guess' judgement.
- It is possible to distinguish a qualitative difference between the populations; a feature that does not vary continuously but is either entirely present or entirely absent. This might be a distinctively shaped seed pod, an extra primary feather, a particular courting behaviour, or a clearly different DNA sequence. Sometimes it is not possible to isolate a single difference between species, and several factors must be taken in combination. This is often the case with plants in particular. In eucalypts, for example, Corymbia ficifolia cannot be reliably distinguished from its close relative Corymbia calophylla by any single measure (and sometimes individual trees cannot be definitely assigned to either species), but populations of Corymbia can be clearly told apart by comparing the colour of flowers, bark, and buds, number of flowers for a given size of tree, and the shape of the leaves and fruit. When using a combination of characteristics to distinguish between populations, it is necessary to use a reasonably small number of factors (if more than a handful are needed, the genetic difference between the populations is likely to be insignificant and is unlikely to endure into the future), and to choose factors that are functionally independent (height and weight, for example, should usually be considered as one factor, not two).

Historical development of the species concept

In the earliest works of science, a species was simply an individual organism that represented a group of similar or nearly identical organisms. No other relationships beyond that group were implied. Aristotle used the words genus and species to mean generic and specific categories. Aristotle and other pre-Darwinian scientists took the species to be distinct and unchanging, with an "essence", like the chemical elements. When early observers began to develop systems of organization for living things, they began to place formerly isolated species into a context. To the modern mind, many of the schemes delineated are whimsical at best, such as those that determined consanguinity based on color (all plants with yellow flowers) or behavior (snakes, scorpions and certain biting ants). In the 18th century Carolus Linnaeus classified organisms according to differences in the form of reproductive apparatus. Although his system of classification sorts organisms according to degrees of similarity, it made no claims about the relationship between similar species. At the time, it was still widely believed that there is no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appear; every species was individually created by God, a view today called creationism. This approach also suggested a type of idealism: the notion that each species exists as an "ideal form". Although there are always differences (although sometimes minute) between individual organisms, Linnaeus considered such variation problematic. He strove to identify individual organisms that were exemplary of the species, and considered other non-exemplary organisms to be deviant and imperfect. By the 19th century most naturalists understood that species could change form over time, and that the history of the planet provided enough time for major changes. As such, the new emphasis was on determining how a species could change over time. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck suggested that an organism could pass on an acquired trait to its offspring, i.e., the giraffe's long neck was attributed to generations of giraffes stretching to reach the leaves of higher treetops (this well-known and simplistic example, however, does not do justice to the breadth and subtlety of Lamarck's ideas). Lamarck's most important insight may have been that species can be extraordinarily fluid; his 1809 Zoological Philosophy contained one of the first logical refutations of creationism. With the acceptance of the work of Charles Darwin in the 1860s, Lamarck's view of evolution was quickly eclipsed. It was not until the late 20th century that his work began to be reexamined, and took its place as a fundamental stepping stone to the modern theory of adaptive mutation. Lamarck's long-discarded ideas of the goal-oriented evolution of species, also known the teleological process, have also received renewed attention, particularly by proponents of artificial selection. Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace provided what scientists now consider the most powerful and compelling theory of evolution. Basically, Darwin argued that it is populations that evolve, not individuals. His argument relies on a radical shift in perspective from Linnaeus: rather than defining species in ideal terms (and searching for an ideal representative and rejecting deviations), Darwin considered variation among individuals to be natural. He further argued that variation, far from being problematic, actually provides the explanation for the existence of distinct species. Darwin's work drew on Thomas Malthus' insight that the rate of growth of a biological population will always outpace the rate of growth of the resources in the environment, such as the food supply. As a result, Darwin argued, not all the members of a population will be able to survive and reproduce. Those that did will, on average, be the ones possessing variations—however slight—that make them slightly better adapted to the environment. If these variable traits are heritable, then the offspring of the survivors will also possess them. Thus, over many generations, adaptive variations will accumulate in the population, while counter-adaptive will be eliminated. It should be emphasized that whether a variation is adaptive or non-adaptive depends on the environment: different environments favor different traits. Since the environment effectively selects which organisms live to reproduce, it is the environment (the "fight for existence") that selects the traits to be passed on. This is the theory of evolution by natural selection. In this model, the length of a giraffe's neck would be explained by positing that proto-giraffes with longer necks would have had a significant reproductive advantage to those with shorter necks. Over many generations, the entire population would be a species of long-necked animals. In 1859, when Darwin published his theory of natural selection, the mechanism behind the inheritance of individual traits was unknown. Although Darwin made some speculations on how traits are inherited (pangenesis), his theory relies only on the fact that inheritable traits exist, and are variable (which makes his accomplishment even more remarkable.) Although Gregor Mendel's paper on genetics was published in 1866, its significance was not recognized. It was not until 1900 that his work was rediscovered by Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak, who realised that the "inheritable traits" in Darwin's theory are genes. The theory of the evolution of species through natural selection has two important implications for discussions of species -- consequences that fundamentally challenge the assumptions behind Linnaeus' taxonomy. First, it suggests that species are not just similar, they may actually be related. Some students of Darwin argue that all species are descended from a common ancestor. Second, it supposes that "species" are not homogeneous, fixed, permanent things; members of a species are all different, and over time species change. This suggests that species do not have any clear boundaries but are rather momentary statistical effects of constantly changing gene-frequencies. One may still use Linnaeus' taxonomy to identify individual plants and animals, but one can no longer think of species as independent and immutable. The rise of a new species from a parental line is called speciation. There is no clear line demarcating the ancestral species from the descendant species. Although the current scientific understanding of species suggests there is no rigorous and comprehensive way to distinguish between different species in all cases, biologists continue to seek concrete ways to operationalize the idea. One of the most popular biological definitions of species is in terms of reproductive isolation; if two creatures cannot reproduce to produce fertile offspring, then they are in different species. This definition captures a number of intuitive species boundaries, but nonetheless has some problems, however. It has nothing to say about species that reproduce asexually, for example, and it is very difficult to apply to extinct species. Moreover, boundaries between species are often fuzzy: there are examples where members of one population can produce fertile offspring with a second population, and members of the second population can produce fertile offspring with members of a third population, but members of the first and third population cannot produces fertile offspring. Consequently, some people reject this notion of species. In recent years we have witnessed the drastic reduction in the size of breeding populations and the geographical range of many physically large mammals. In earlier times it was assumed that every species existed in at least a few thousand living individuals, except very rare relic, isolated groups. In the present, many well know mammal & bird species are so stressed by habitat loss, and other effects of the modern world, that only a very few breeding males may contribute the genetic material to a small number of breeding females. In these highly stressed conditions, the likelihood of change is very much greater. Mammals may become smaller, have darker fur, more stripes, more cautious behavior, even over time learn to co-exist with the human world. Very likely, evolution is radically accelerated, and we are only beginning to notice it. Species in transition before our eyes. It is possible that this severe stress is essential to the creation of new species, and may have been a prime factor throughout biological history, from other population reducing influences. Richard Dawkins defines two organisms as conspecific if and only if they have the same number of chromosomes and, for each chromosome, both organisms have the same number of nucleotides (The Blind Watchmaker, p. 118). However, most if not all taxonomists would strongly disagree. For example, in many amphibians, most notably in New Zealand's Leiopelma frogs, the genome consists of "core" chromosomes which are mostly invariable and accessory chromosomes, of which exist a number of possible combinations. Even though the chromosome numbers are highly variable between populations, these can interbreed successfully and form a single evolutionary unit. In plants, polyploidy is extremely commonplace with few restrictions on interbreeding; as individuals with an odd number of chromosome sets are usually sterile, depending on the actual number of chromosome sets present, this results in the odd situation where some individuals of the same evolutionary unit can interbreed with certain others and some cannot, with all populations being eventually linked as to form a common gene pool. The classification of species has been profoundly affected by technological advances that have allowed researchers to determine relatedness based on molecular markers, starting with the comparatively crude blood plasma precipitation assays in the mid-20th century and coming into full swing with Charles Sibley's ground-breaking DNA-DNA hybridisation studies in the 1970s. The results of the technique caused revolutionary changes in the higher taxonomic categories (such as phyla and classes), resulting in the reordering of many branches of the phylogenetic tree (see also: molecular phylogeny). For taxonomic categories below genera, the results have been mixed so far; the pace of evolutionary change on the molecular level is rather slow, yielding clear differences only after considerable periods of reproductive separation. Instances of hybridization can result in misleading molecular data, the Pomarine Skua - Great Skua phenomenon being a famous example. Turtles have been determined to evolve with just one-eighth of the speed of other reptiles on the molecular level, and the rate of molecular evolution in albatrosses is half of what is found in the rather closely related storm-petrels. The hybridization technique is however no longer considered a good technique and more reliable computational techniques for sequence comparison are now used for. Molecular taxonomy does not directly measure the evolutionary processes, but rather the overall change brought upon by these processes. The processes that lead to the generation and maintenance of variation such as mutation, crossover and selection are not uniform (see also molecular clock). DNA is only extremely rarely a direct target of natural selection rather than changes in the DNA sequence enduring over generations being a result of the latter; for example, silent transition-transversion combinations would alter the melting point of the DNA sequence, but not the sequence of the encoded proteins and thus are a possible example where, for example in microorganisms, a mutation confers a change in fitness all by itself.

External links

- http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/S/Speciation.html
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/12/031231082553.htm 2003-12-31, ScienceDaily: Working On The 'Porsche Of Its Time': New Model For Species Determination Offered] Quote: "...two species of dinosaur that are members of the same genera varied from each other by just 2.2 percent. Translation of the percentage into an actual number results in an average of just three skeletal differences out of the total 338 bones in the body. Amazingly, 58 percent of these differences occurred in the skull alone. "This is a lot less variation than I'd expected", said Novak..."
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/08/030808081854.htm 2003-08-08, ScienceDaily: Cross-species Mating May Be Evolutionarily Important And Lead To Rapid Change, Say Indiana University Researchers] Quote: "...the sudden mixing of closely related species may occasionally provide the energy to impel rapid evolutionary change..."
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040109064407.htm 2004-01-09 ScienceDaily: Mayo Researchers Observe Genetic Fusion Of Human, Animal Cells; May Help Explain Origin Of AIDS] Quote: "...The researchers have discovered conditions in which pig cells and human cells can fuse together in the body to yield hybrid cells that contain genetic material from both species... "What we found was completely unexpected", says Jeffrey Platt, M.D."
- [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/09/000913211733.htm 2000-09-18, ScienceDaily: Scientists Unravel Ancient Evolutionary History Of Photosynthesis] Quote: "...gene-swapping was common among ancient bacteria early in evolution..."
- [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/species/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
- [http://www.barcodinglife.org/ Barcoding of species] rank22 rank22 ms:Spesies ja:種 (生物) th:สปีชีส์

Asia

Asia is the central and eastern part of Eurasia, and the world's largest continent. Defined by subtracting Europe from Eurasia, Asia is either regarded as a landmass of its own, or as part of Eurasia. The demarcation between Asia and Africa is the isthmus of Suez (although the Sinai Peninsula, being a part of Egypt east of the canal, is often geopolitically considered a part of Africa). The boundary between Asia and Europe runs via the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, to the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, the Ural River to its source, and the Ural Mountains to the Kara Sea at Kara, Russia. About 60 percent of the world's human population lives in Asia. Asia as a political division consists of the eastern part of Eurasia and nearby islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, often excluding Russia. Pacific Ocean

Etymology

The word Asia entered English, via Latin, from Ancient Greek Ασία (Asia; see also List of traditional Greek place names). This name is first attested in Herodotus (c. 440 BC), where it refers to Asia Minor; or, for the purposes of describing the Persian Wars, to the Persian Empire, as opposed to Greece and Egypt. Even before Herodotus, Homer knew of a Trojan ally named Asios, son of Hyrtacus, a ruler over several towns, and elsewhere he describes a marsh as ασιος (Iliad 2, 461). The Greek term may be derived from from Assuwa, a 14th century BC confederation of states in Western Anatolia. Hittite assu- "good" is probably an element in that name. Alternatively, the ultimate etymology of the term may be from the Akkadian word (w)aṣû(m), cognate of Hebrew יצא, which means "to go out", referring to the direction of the sun at sunset in the Middle East. This may be compared to a similar etymology proposed for Europe, as being from Semitic erēbu "to enter" or "set" (of the sun). These etymologies presuppose an originally Mesopotamian or Middle Eastern perspective, which would explain how the term "Asia" first came to be associated with Anatolia as lying west of the Semitic speaking area.

Geographical Regions

See also Geography of Asia. As already mentioned, Asia is a subregion of Eurasia. For further subdivisions based on that term, see North Eurasia and Central Eurasia. Some Asian countries stretch beyond Asia. See Bicontinental country for details about the borderline cases between Asia and Europe, Asia and Africa and Asia and Oceania. Asia itself is often divided in the following subregions:
- North Asia
- Central Asia
- East Asia (or Far East)
- Southeast Asia
- South Asia (or Indian Subcontinent)
- Southwest Asia (or West Asia)

North Asia

This term is rarely used by geographers, but usually it refers to the bigger Asian part of Russia, also known as Siberia. Sometimes the northern parts of other Asian nations, such as Kazakhstan are also included in Northern Asia.

Central Asia

There is no absolute consensus in the usage of this term. Usually, Central Asia includes:
- the Central Asian Republics of Kazakhstan (excluding its small European territory), Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Kyrgyzstan.
- Afghanistan, Mongolia, and the western regions of China are also sometimes included.
- Former Soviet states in the Caucasus region. Central Asia is currently geopolitically important because international disputes and conflicts over oil pipelines, Nagorno-Karabakh, and Chechnya, as well as the presence of U.S. military forces in Afghanistan.

East Asia (or Far East)

This area includes:
- The Pacific Ocean islands of Taiwan and Japan.
- North and South Korea on the Korean Peninsula.
- China, but sometimes only the eastern regions Sometimes the nations of Mongolia and Vietnam are also included in East Asia. More informally, Southeast Asia is included in East Asia on some occasions.

Southeast Asia

This region contains the Malay Peninsula, Indochina and islands in the Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean. The countries it contains are:
- In mainland Southeast Asia, the countries Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam.
- In Maritime Southeast Asia, the countries of Malaysia, Brunei, the Philippines, Singapore and Indonesia (some of the Indonesian islands also lie in the Melanesia region of Oceania). East Timor (also Melanesian) is sometimes included too. The country of Malaysia is divided in two by the South China Sea, and thus has both a mainland and island part.

South Asia (or Indian Subcontinent)

South Asia is also referred to as the Indian Subcontinent. It includes:
- the Himalayan States of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh.
- the Indian Ocean nations of Sri Lanka and the Maldives.

Southwest Asia (or West Asia)

This can also be called by the Western term Middle East, which is commonly used by Europeans and Americans. Middle East (to some interpretations) is often used to also refer to some countries in North Africa. Southwest Asia can be further divided into:
- Anatolia (i.e. Asia Minor), constituting the Asian part of Turkey.
- The island nation of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.
- The Levant or Near East, which includes Syria, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Iraq and the Asian portion of Egypt.
- The Arabian peninsula, including Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, Yemen and occasionally Kuwait.
- The Caucasus region, including Armenia, a tiny portion of Russia and almost the whole of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
- The Iranian Plateau, containing Iran and parts of other nations. Also see Gulf States, for a different grouping involving several of the above countries.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Asia In terms of gross domestic product (PPP), Asia's largest economy wholly within Asia is that of the PRC (People's Republic of China), however the economy of the E.U. (European Union), one state of which (Cyprus) lies within Asia, is the largest in the world. The E.U.'s status as a supranational union, rather than a sovereign state, makes the claim questionable, especially since, when considered alone, the economy of Cyprus is one of the smallest in both the E.U. and Asia, and not many times larger than that of East Timor, the Asian state with the smallest economy (although as of 2005 there is no reliable data for either Iraq or North Korea). Over the last decade, China's and India's economies have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate over 6%. PRC is the world's third largest economy after the E.U. and U.S.A., followed by Japan and India as the world's fourth and fifth largest economies respectively (then followed by the European nations: Germany, U.K., France and Italy). In terms of exchange rates however, Japan has the largest economy in Asia and the third largest in the world. Trade blocs:
- Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
- Association of Southeast Asian Nations
- Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
- Commonwealth of Independent States
- South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
- South Asia Free Trade Agreement (proposed)

Natural resources

Asia is by a considerable margin the largest continent in the world, and is rich in natural resources, such as Petroleum and iron. High productivity in agriculture, especially of rice, allows high population density of countries in the warm and humid area. Other main agricultural products include wheat and chicken. Forestry is extensive throughout Asia except Southwest and Central Asia. Fishing is a major source of food in Asia, particularly in Japan.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in PRC, Taiwan, Japan, South Korea and Singapore. The industry varies from manufacturing cheap goods such as toys to high-tech goods such as computers and cars. Many companies from Europe, North America, and Japan have significant operations in the developing Asia to take avantage of its abundant supply of cheap labor. One of the major employers in manufacturing in Asia is the textile industry. Much of the world's supply of clothing and footwear now originates in Southeast Asia.

Financial and other services

Asia has three main financial centers. They are in Hong Kong, Singapore and Tokyo. Call centers are becoming major employers in India, due to the availablity of many well-educated English speakers. The rise of the business process outsourcing industry has seen the rise of India and China as the other financial centers.

Early history

Main article: History of Asia The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe. The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys. The civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and the Yangtze shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel. Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area. Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands. The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes they could reach all areas of Asia. The earliest known such central expansion out of the steppe is that of the Indo-Europeans, who spread their languages into the Middle East, India, and in the Tocharians to the borders of China. The northern part of Asia, covering much of Siberia, was inaccessible to the steppe nomads, due to the dense forests and the tundra. These areas were very sparsely populated. The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and deserts. The Caucasus, Himalaya, Karakum Desert and Gobi Desert formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty. While technologically and culturally, the urban city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe. However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force. Thus the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.

Population density

The following table lists countries and dependencies by population density in inhabitants and km². Unlike the figures in the country articles, the figures in this table are based on areas including inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers) and may therefore be lower here. The whole of Egypt, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Turkey are referred to in the table, although they are only partly in Asia.

Religion

A large majority of the people in the world who practice a religious faith practice one which was founded in Asia. Religions founded in Asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in Asia include:
- Bahá'í Faith (slightly more than half of all adherents are in Asia)
- Buddhism (Japan,Sri Lanka, Korea, Singapore, China, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Malaysia, India)
- Hinduism (India, Singapore, Malaysia, Nepal, Bali)
- Islam (Central, South, and Southwest Asia, Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia)
- Jainism (India)
- Shinto (Japan)
- Sikhism(India, Malaysia, Hong kong)
- Taoism (China, Vietnam, Singapore, and Taiwan)
- Zoroastrianism (Iran, India, Pakistan) Religions founded in Asia that have the majority of their contemporary adherents in other regions include:
- Christianity (South Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, East Timor, India and the Philippines)
- Judaism (slightly fewer than half of its adherents reside in Asia)

References

External links

- http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html
- http://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/index.html
- [http://www.alloexpat.com AlloExpat - Asia Information & Forums]
- [http://www.asiaexpat.info Asia Expat Forum - Discuss this region with expatriates] Category:Continents zh-min-nan:A-chiu ko:아시아 ms:Asia ja:アジア simple:Asia th:ทวีปเอเชีย

Philippines

The Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas), or the Philippines (Filipino: Pilipinas), is a nation in Southeast Asia with Manila as its capital. It lies 1,210 km (750 mi) away from mainland Asia and consists of 7,107 islands called the Philippine Archipelago. It is also part of the Malay Archipelago. It is, with East Timor, one of the two predominantly Catholic nations in Southeast Asia and one of the most westernized, a unique blend of East and West. Spain and the United States have held the Philippine Islands as a colony for most of the last four centuries. While still predominantly an agricultural nation, the Philippines today is a premier destination for outsourcing, an exporter of electronics and agricultural products, and is a major source of exported labor. Remittances from overseas Filipinos forms a significant portion of the country's gross national product. The country's name originated with Ruy López de Villalobos naming both the islands of Samar and Leyte, Las Islas Felipinas after King Philip II of Spain during his failed expedition in 1543. The archipelago was known under various names such as Spanish East Indies, New Castille (Nueva Castilla), Western Islands (Islas del Poniente), the St. Lazarus Islands (Islas de San Lázaro) and others. Ultimately, Filipinas came to refer to the entire archipelago.
History
Archeological and paleontological evidence, prove that homo sapiens existed in Palawan probably about 50,000 years ago. These inhabitants are called the Tabon Man. Thousands of years later, waves of Austronesian-speaking migrants - the ancestors of today's maintsream ethnic Filipinos - crossed from neighboring Indonesia and through Southern China via Taiwan. Ethnic Chinese merchants arrived in the 8th century. Ferdinand Magellan first set foot in the archipelago in 1521. After establishing friendly relations with some local chieftains and converting them to Christianity, Magellan got into a conflict with one of the chieftains still hostile to him, Lapu-Lapu. In the ensuing battle, the Spaniards were defeated and Magellan killed, but one of his ships was able to return to Spain and bring the news about this new land. On April 27, 1565, the Spanish conquistador, Miguel López de Legazpi and 500 armed soldiers came to Cebu and established the first Spanish settlement on the islands. Augustinians and Franciscans,followed later by the Jesuits, Dominicans, and Recollects, marched with soldiers from island to island, in search of native villages and people. The Spaniards soon established churches and forts, while searching for gold and spices. Roman Catholicism was introduced and embraced by the majority. Sporadic rebellions occurred from tribal groups in the highlands of north Luzon and coastal regions. Muslim belligerents maintained resistance in the southern islands of Mindanao. The Spanish military fought-off Chinese pirates, Japanese and Portuguese, Dutch and British forces, all of whom also had an interest in the Philippines. The Philippines was ruled from New Spain (Mexico) until the openning of the Suez Canal and Mexican independence. A burgeoning Manila Galleon or Manila-Acapulco galleon trade began in the late 16th century. In 1781, Governor José Basco y Vargas established the Economic Society of Friends of the Country. The Philippines was administered directly from Spain. Developments in and out of the country and the opening up of the Suez Canal in 1869, which helped cut travel time to Spain and helped bring new ideas to the Philippines. This prompted the rise of the ilustrados, or the enlightened Filipino upper middle class. Many young Filipinos were thus able to study in Europe. Enlightened by the Propaganda Movement to the injustices of the Spanish colonial government and the frailocracy, they originally clamored for adequate representation to the Spanish Cortes and later for independence. José Rizal, the most celebrated intellectual (and most controversial ilustrado), was executed in 1896 for treason as Rizal was implicated in the outbreak of the Revolution. The Katipunan, or the "Kataas-taasang Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga anak ng Inang Bayan" was founded by Andrés Bonifacio as its Supremo or leader. It was a secret society for the sole purpose of overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines. However, the society was discovered by Fr. Mariano Gil who broke his vow of confession and reported to the Spanish authorities the confession of a parishioner who was a sister of a Katipunero.(Honoria Patinio, the sister of Teodoro Patinio) The Philippine Revolution broke out. The Katipunan, meanwhile, was split into two groups, Magdiwang led by Andrés Bonifacio, and Magdalo led by Emilio Aguinaldo. The revolution ended in a truce with the Pact of Biak na Bato, where the revolutionaries capitulated and agreed to exile themselves in Hong Kong. The United States and Spain became involved in the Spanish-American war in 1898. Emilio Aguinaldo was then lured back to the Philippines with a supposed promise of independence similar to Cuba, which was fighting a war of independence. Thus, on June 12, 1898, with victory seemingly attainable, Emilio Aguinaldo, leader of the revolutionaries, declared the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite. However, the Battle for Manila between Spain and the United States turned out to be a farce, which sought to exclude the Filipinos from the eventual occupation of Manila. Spain and the United States ignored the Filipino representative, Felipe Agoncillo, during their negotiations in the Treaty of Paris. Spain was forced in the negotiations to hand over Guam, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico to the United States in exchange for US$20,000,000.00, which payment the United States later claimed to be a gift to Spain. The first Philippine Republic rebelled against the US occupation and this resulted in the Philippine-American War (1899-1913). It came under U.S. control and in 1935, its status was upgraded to that of a U.S. Commonwealth. Independence for the Philippines was finally granted on July 4, 1946, after the Japanese invasion and occupation of the islands during World War II. The Philippines has faced some degree of economic and political instability after 1946. The restive Hukbalahaps, guerillas who fought against the Japanese during World War II, turned communistic in ideology. They organized clandestinely, mounted anti-government campaigns of sedition and open hostilities against government forces, and conducted terroristic activities, including kidnappings, massacres, assasinations, rapes and extorsion. They threatened the countryside, and subsequently the capital, Quezon City, and Manila in the '50's. The Huk threat was eventually broken with the surrender of Luis Taruc, the Huk Supremo, to a young reporter named Benigno Aquino Jr. (later elected as Senator), and Secretary of Defense Ramón Magsaysay, who would eventually become president. The late '60's and early '70's saw the rise of student activism, and anti-American demonstrations. Furthermore, a Constitutional Convention composed of elected delegates drafted a new constitution to replace the 1935 Constitution in a referendum. This period was marred by civil unrest and exposés on corruption until the declaration of martial law on September 21, 1972. The new constitution was subsequently enforced through somewhat questionable means, as challenges were made in the Supreme Court on the propriety of its ratification. This eventually culminated in the resignation of Chief Justice Roberto Concepción. The situation appeared to ebb until the later years when the authoritarian regime of President Ferdinand E. Marcos became marred with unmitigated, pervasive corruption and despotism, at which time public outcry and dissidence resurged to new highs. In 1986, Marcos, his family and some cronies left the Philippines and went to exile to Hawaii, as Corazon Aquino, widow of assassinated Sen. Benigno Aquino, assumed the reins of government in the aftermath of a hotly-contested "snap elections". While some cite a return to democracy and governmental reform in the Post-Marcos era, systemic government corruption, continuing civil unrest and the activity of Communist insurgency and Muslim separatist movements continue to hamper economic productivity in the country. The country has seen two Presidential crises during this time, the most recent being the 2005 Philippine electoral crisis.
Politics and Government
The government of the Philippines is loosely patterned after the U.S. government. It is organized as a representative republic, where the President functions as head of state, the head of government, and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president is elected by popular vote to a term of 6 years, during which he or she appoints and presides over the cabinet. The bicameral legislature, the Congress, consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives; members of the former are nationally elected and those of the latter by district. There are 24 senators serving 6 years in the Senate ( in staggered batches of 8 every 2 years, while the House of Representatives consists of no more than 250 congressmen each serving 4-year terms. The judiciary branch of the government is headed by the Supreme Court, which has a Chief Justice as its head and 14 Associate Justices, all of whom the President appoints from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council. The Philippines is a founding and active member of the United Nations (UN) since its inception on October 24, 1945 and is a founding and prominent member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), an active player in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), the Latin Union and a member of the Group of 24. The Philippines is a major non-NATO ally of the United States, but also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement. The Philippines is currently in a dispute with the Republic of China (Taiwan), the People's Republic of China, Vietnam and Malaysia over the oil- and natural gas-rich Spratly Islands and Scarborough Shoal, and with Malaysia over Sabah. The Sultan of Sulu, who received Sabah as a gift in 1703 after having helped the Sultan of Brunei defeat a rebellion, has given the Philippine Government power to reclaim his lost territory. To this day, the Sultan of Sulu's family still receives "rental" payments for Sabah from the Malaysian Government.
Geography
Sultan of Sulu The Philippines constitutes an archipelago of 7,107 islands with a total land area of approximately 300,000 km². It lies between 116° 40' and 126° 34' E. longitude, and 4° 40' and 21° 10' N. latitude, and is bordered on the east by the Philippine Sea, on the west by the South China Sea, and on the south by the Celebes Sea. The island of Borneo lies a few hundred kilometers to the southwest and Taiwan directly north. The Moluccas and Celebes are farther south, and on the eastern side of the Philippine Sea is Palau. The islands are commonly divided into three major groups: Luzon (Regions I to V, NCR & CAR), Visayas (VI to VIII), and Mindanao (IX to XIII & ARMM). The busy port of Manila, on Luzon, is the country's capital and second-largest city after Quezon City. The local climate is hot, humid, and tropical. The average yearly temperature is around 26.5°C. There are three recognized seasons: Tag-init or Tag-araw (the hot season or summer from March to May), Tag-ulan (the rainy season from June to November), and Taglamig (the cold season from December to February). The southwest monsoon (May-October) is known as the "Habagat" and the dry winds of the northeast monsoon (November-April) as the "Amihan". Most of the mountainous islands used to be covered in tropical rainforests and are volcanic in origin. The highest point is Mount Apo on Mindanao at 2,954 m. Many volcanoes in the country, such as Mayon Volcano, Mount Pinatubo ,and Taal Volcano are active. The country is also astride the typhoon belt of the Western Pacific and about 19 typhoons strike per year. Lying on the northwestern fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines experiences frequent seismic and volcanic activities. Some 20 earthquakes are registered daily in the Philippines, though they are too weak to be felt.
Administrative divisions
:Main articles: Provinces of the Philippines, Regions of the Philippines Regions of the Philippines The Philippines is divided into a hierarchy of local government units (LGUs) with the province as the primary unit. There are 79 provinces in the country. Provinces are further subdivided into cities and municipalities, which are in turn composed of barangays. The barangay is the smallest local government unit. The Philippines is divided into 17 regions with all provinces grouped into one of 16 regions for administrative convenience. The National Capital Region however, is divided into four special districts. Most government offices establish regional offices to serve the constituent provinces. The regions themselves do not possess a separate local government, with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao which is autonomous. Go to the articles on the regions and provinces to see a larger map showing the locations of the regions and provinces. Regions
- Ilocos Region (Region I)
- Cagayan Valley (Region II)
- Central Luzon (Region III)
- CALABARZON (Region IV-A) ¹ ²
- MIMAROPA (Region IV-B) ¹ ²
- Bicol Region (Region V)
- Western Visayas (Region VI)
- Central Visayas (Region VII)
- Eastern Visayas (Region VIII)
- Zamboanga Peninsula (Region IX)
- Northern Mindanao (Region X)
- Davao Region (Region XI)
- SOCCSKSARGEN (Region XII) ¹
- Caraga (Region XIII)
- Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)
- Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR)
- National Capital Region (NCR) (Metro Manila) ¹ Names are capitalized because they are acronyms, containing the names of the constituent provinces or cities (see Acronyms in the Philippines).
² These regions formed the former Southern Tagalog region, or Region IV.

Economy

The Philippines is classified as a Developing Country. Although agricultural in nature, light industry and services have made great inroads ino the country. The Philippines has a nominal GDP of 86,429, and ranked 46th out of 184 countries and 15th among Asian countries. The country, often called as the New Tiger of Asia, deteriorated over the climax of the Asian financial crisis of 1998. This was coupled by rising prices, inflation, and poor weather conditions. Economic growth fell to 0.6% in 1998 from 5% in 1997, but recovered to about 3% in 1999 and 4% in 2000. The government has promised to continue its economic reforms to help match the pace of development in the newly industrialised countries of East Asia. Heavy debts (public debt at 77% of GDP), is hampering efforts to improve the economic situation. Budget allocation for servicing of debt is higher than the budget for the Department of Education and for the Military combined. The government's strategy for an economic revamp includes improving infrastructure, overhauling the tax system to bolster government revenues, furthering deregulation and privatisation of the economy, and increasing trade integration with the region. Prospects for the future depend heavily on the economic performance of the two major trading partners, the United States and Japan, and a more accountable administration and consistent government policies. In recent years, numerous call centers and business process outsourcing (BPO) firms have migrated to the Philippines generating thousands of jobs and improving their services with many clients, including Fortune 500 companies. The Philippines has one of the most vibrant BPO industries in Asia today. The Philippine Peso was hailed by Forbes as Asia's best performing currency for 2005. A new Expanded Value Added Tax (E-VAT) Law was instituted on November 1, 2005, a measure intended to cut the rising foreign debts of the Philippines and to improve government services such as education, health, social welfare, and road construction. The Philippines is a member of the Asian Development Bank, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, as well as other international economic associations, such as theAsia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Colombo Plan, and the G-77.

Demographics

The Philippines is the world's twelfth most populous country, with a population of 86,241,697 as of 2005. Roughly two-thirds reside in the island of Luzon. Manila, the capital, is the eleventh most populous metropolitan area in the world. The educational system is efficient and based on the United States curriculum. The literacy rate is 95.9%, about equal for males and females. Life expectancy is 69.29 years, with 72.28 years for females and 66.44 years for males. Population growth per year is about 1.92%, with 26.3 births per 1000 people. In the 100 years since the 1903 Census, the population has grown by a factor of eleven. The country suffers from overpopulation due to a high birth rate. The people of the Philippines are collectively known as Filipinos. Colloquially, Filipinos may refer to themselves as Pinoy (feminine: Pinay). According to current Philippine government and independant data, some 95% of the population are the descendants of the various Austronesian-speaking migrants who arrived in successive waves over a thousand years ago, settling throughout the entire archipelago. Filipinos are divided into 12 major linguistic groups, namely the the Tagalogs, Cebuanos, Ilocanos, Ilonggos, Bicolanos, Pampangos, Pangasinenses, Karay-as, Warays, Maranaos, Maguindanaos, and Tausugs, and then numerous other smaller groups. The Negritos or Aetas, also known as the aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippines, were largely displaced by the invading Austronesian-speaking migrants, and today number less than 30,000 people (0.03%). The Mestizo population (those of any mixed native and foreign ancestry) form a tiny (2%) but economically and politically important minority (a Stanford [http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf genetic study], however, indicates that 3.6% of the population has at least some European ancestry). The largest minority of foreign nationality groups in the country are the ethnic Chinese (3%). The remaining population consists of other smaller foreign nationality groups, including North Americans, Spaniards and other Europeans, Mexicans and other Latin Americans, Arabs, South Asians, Indonesians, Koreans, Japanese, Vietnamese, and other Asian immigrants. Because of the vast number of native ethnolinguistic groups, the Philippines is said to be one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Asia. In recent decades, the government has worked to make the country more culturally homogeneous. However, there has been notable resistance among the various ethno-linguistic groups trying to preserve their unique cultural and linguistic identities. These are a source of immense pride for many people within the Republic of the Philippines; many are against what are perceived as attempts by certain Filipino nationalists to erradicate cultural diversity in place of a homogenous, Tagalog-dominated "nationalistic" Filipino identity. A recent manifestation of this can be seen in the complaints of many provinces that "Imperial Manila" dominates, oppresses, and exploits the people and resources of the rest of the country.

Languages

More than 170 languages are spoken; almost all of them belong to the Western Malayo-Polynesian language group of the Austronesian language family. According to the 1987 Constitution, Tagalog-based Filipino and English are the official languages. There are 12 native regional languages and are the auxiliary languages of their respective regions, each with over one million speakers: Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilokano, Hiligaynon, Waray-Waray, Bikol, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Kinaray-a, Maranao, Maguindanao, and Tausug. Other major foreign languages spoken include Spanish, Hokkien, Cantonese, Indonesian, Sindhi, Punjabi, Korean, and Arabic.

Religion

The Philippines is the fourth largest Roman Catholic country, the thirteenth largest Protestant country, the fortieth largest Islamic country, the seventh largest Hindu country, and the seventeenth largest Buddhist country. 92 % of all Filipinos are Christians. 83 % belong to the Roman Catholic Church.The other 9 % belonging to various Protestant denominations. Although Christianity is a major force in the culture of the Filipinos, many, however, still practice local traditions and rituals. The Roman Catholic church exerts considerable influence in both governmental and non-governmental affairs, although a constitutional provision for the separation of Church and State exists. The Philippines currently has two cardinals, Ricardo Cardinal Vidal and Jose Cardinal Sanchez. The late Jaime Cardinal Sin was a leading spiritual leader in the country and was an active participant in People Power I and People Power II. He died on June 21, 2005. Cardinal Vidal is the archbishop of Cebu. Cardinal Sanchez is the former Prefect of Congregation of the Clergy, Roman Curia. Gaudencio Borbon Rosales serves as the archbishop of Manila. The most famous cathedral is the huge Manila Cathedral. The various Protestant denominations are linked with North American churches and there is a significant presence of American missionaries. Two Filipino independent Christian churches were organized at the turn of the century and are prominent today. These are the Aglipay (Philippine Independent Church) and the Iglesia Ni Cristo (Church of Christ) founded in 1902 and 1914, respectively. The Eliseo Soriano-led Members Church of God International, more popularly known as the "Ang Dating Daan Group," is fast becoming a Christian denomination group in the country to watch, accounting for more than 2 million members worldwide. 5% of all Filipinos are Muslim. Most lowland Muslim Filipinos practice normative Islam, although the practices of some Mindanao's hilltribe Muslims reflect a fusion with Animism.

Culture

The culture of the Filipinos is influenced very much by the Spanish, Chinese, Mexican, American, Arabic, and Malaysian influences. The Hispanic influences in the culture of the Philippines are largely derived from the culture of Mexico and the culture of Spain over three hundred years of colonial rule. Hispanic influences are most visible in the form of customs and practices related to the Catholic church, especially in religious festivals. Every year, Filipinos from around the country hold major festivities known as Barrio Fiesta which commemorate the patron saints of the town, villages and regional districts. The festival season is celebrated with church ceremonies, street parades in honor of the patron saints, fireworks, beauty and dance contests for generations of old and new, and cockfighting tournaments. The Chinese influences in Filipino culture can be mostly seen in the domain of Filipino cuisine, which Chinese cuisine has totally penetrated. Noodles, known locally as mami, as well as other food, like meat dishes. Chinese influences are also obvious on the language side of culture. American cultural influence in the Philippines can be seen by the widespread use of English, as well as in the keenness of Filipinos in sports. Although there are pre-existing native sports in the Philippines, the most known sport in the Philippines is basketball. Other notable sports in the Philippines include boxing, swimming, and Martial Arts. The Philippines has produced numerous notable and revered athletes including boxing champion Manny Pacquiao., billiard champion Efren Reyes, chess champion Eugene Torre. Professional Basketball players are also idolized, and the Philippines has many sports clubs. Another obvious influence of the Americans is the love for fastfoods. In the Philippines, many corners have fastfoods, and aside from the American giant players like McDonald's, Pizza Hut, Burger King, KFC, Kenny Rogers Roasters, Wendy's, Shakey's, Carl's Jr., native fastfood chains have also been started, such as Jollibee, Greenwich Pizza, Chowking, and Max's Fried Chicken, among such others. Hamburgers, hotdogs, and ice cream can be bought from almost anywhere, and a prepondernace of American culture and customs is overwhelming. Filipinos listen to the latest American music, dance to American steps, watch American movies, and idolize American actors and actresses. Aside from these, the Philippines also boasts of its shopping malls, which are one of the largest in the world. The SM Megamall in Mandaluyong City is the third largest mall in the world, spanning three cities. Despite all of these influences, the Filipino still remains unique-a testimony to the living Filipino culture is the Jeepney, renovated relics of WWII, which are the standard mode of transportation in urban and rural areas. Filipinos honor national heroes whose works and deeds contributed to the shaping of Filipino nationalism. José Rizal is the most celebrated ilustrado, a visionary whose writings created a national identity and awareness. His novels Noli me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, required readings for Filipino students, provide vignettes of colonial life under the Spanish rule. They give a sense of Filipino identity and historical continuity. Andrés Bonifacio founded the pro-independence Katipunan movement which helped end Spanish rule. Disputes exist about whether he, not Rizal, should be the national hero. Ninoy Aquino is highly revered as the martyr of the People Power revolution.

External links

;Official
- [http://www.gov.ph Official website of the Philippine Government] - Gateway to governmental sites
- [http://www.supremecourt.gov.ph Supreme Court]
- [http://www.dfa.gov.ph/ Department of Foreign Affairs]
- [http://www.wowphilippines.com.ph Department of Tourism]
- [http://www.dti.gov.ph Department of Trade and Industry] ; Other
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- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1262783.stm Country Profile: Philippines ] — BBC's Country Profile on The Philippines Category:ASEAN member states Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Southeast Asian countries zh-min-nan:Hui-li̍p-pin ko:필리핀 ms:Filipina ja:フィリピン simple:Philippines th:ประเทศฟิลิปปินส์

Leafbird

- See text The Leafbirds are a family of small passerine bird species found in India and southeast Asia. They are one of only two bird families that are entirely endemic to the Indomalayan ecozone. They were formerly grouped with the ioras in the family Irenidae. These are bulbul-like forest birds, but whereas that group tends to be drab in colorati