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Irish Civil War

Irish Civil War

The Irish Civil War (June 1922–April 1923) was a conflict between supporters and opponents of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 6, 1921, which established the Irish Free State, precursor of today's Republic of Ireland. Opponents of the Treaty objected to the fact that it retained constitutional links between the United Kingdom and Ireland, and that the six counties of Northern Ireland would not be included in the Free State. The Civil War cost the lives of more than had died in the War of Independence that preceded it. It left Irish society deeply divided and its influence in Irish politics can still be seen to this day.

Background

War of Independence (second from left, front row), Arthur Griffith (fourth from left, front row) Eamon de Valera (centre, front row), W.T. Cosgrave (second from right, front row).]]

The Treaty

The Anglo-Irish Treaty arose from the Anglo-Irish War (or "Irish War of Independence"), fought between Irish separatists (organised as the extra-legal Irish Republic) and the British government, from 1919-1921. The treaty provided for a fully self-governing Irish state, controlling most of Ireland's population and area, and having its own army and police. However, rather than creating the independent republic favoured by many nationalists, it provided that the state would be a dominion of the British Empire with the British monarch as head of state. The treaty also stipulated that members of the new Irish Oireachtas (parliament) would have to take an "Oath of Allegiance" to the Free State constitution and an oath of fidelity to the British king. Under the treaty the state was not to be called a republic but a "free state" and it was only to include twenty-six southern and western counties of Ireland. Also, several strategic ports were to remain occupied by the Royal Navy. Nonetheless Michael Collins argued that the treaty gave "not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire and develop, but the freedom to achieve it". Events were eventually to prove him right, as the Free State later evolved into an independent republic. However, Anti-Treaty militants in 1922 believed that the Treaty would never deliver full Irish independence.

Split in the Nationalist Movement

The split over the Treaty was deeply personal. The protagonists on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their lethal disagreement over the Treaty all the more bitter. Michael Collins felt that Éamon de Valera had sent him to negotiate the Treaty because he knew that no more concessions could be got from the British and wanted Collins to take the blame for the compromise settlement. He therefore felt deeply betrayed when De Valera refused to stand by the agreement he had negotiated with David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill. Winston Churchill Dáil Éireann (the parliament of the Irish Republic) narrowly passed the Anglo-Irish Treaty in December 1921. Upon the Treaty's ratification Eamon de Valera resigned as President of the Republic and led the anti-treaty wing of Sinn Féin out of the Dáil. He challenged the right of the Dáil to approve the Treaty, saying that its members were breaking their oath to the Irish Republic and attempted unsuccessfully to set up his own rival government. Meanwhile under the leadership of Michael Collins and Arthur Griffith, the pro-treaty government set about establishing the Irish Free State, an organised national army to replace the IRA and a new police force. Supporters of the treaty came to be known as "pro-treaty", "National Army" or "Free State" forces. Its opponents were known as "anti-treaty", "Irregulars" or "Republicans" and continued to refer to themselves as the "IRA". The Anti-Treaty IRA claimed that it was defending the Irish Republic that had been declared in 1916 during the Easter Rising, that had been confirmed by the First Dáil and that had been invalidly set aside by those who accepted the compromise of the Free State. Éamon de Valera stated that he would serve as an ordinary IRA volunteer, and left the leadership of the Anti-Treaty Republicans to military leaders such as Liam Lynch.

Course of the war

Dublin Fighting

Liam Lynch In April 1922 anti-treaty militants led by Rory O'Connor occupied the Four Courts in Dublin, resulting in a tense stand-off. The Anti-Treaty Republicans wanted to spark a new armed confrontation with the British, which they hoped would unite the two factions of the IRA against their common enemy. However, for those who were determined to make the Free State into a viable, self-governing Irish state, this was an act of rebellion that would have to be put down by them rather than the British. Michael Collins attempted unsuccessfully to persuade the men holding the Four Courts to leave it before violence broke out. They refused and Collins decided to end the stand-off, under a British threat of re-occupation, by the bombarding the Four Courts garrison into surrender. This attack was not the opening shots of the war as skirmishes had taken place throughout the country when the British were handing over barracks. However this represented the 'point of no return' when all out war was ipso facto declared and the Civil War officially began. Michael Collins Michael Collins had accepted a British offer of artillery for use by the new Free State Army. The anti-treaty forces, who possessed only small arms, surrendered after several days of bombardment. In the chaos of the moment, the Irish Public Records Office was the centre of a huge explosion, blowing to pieces one thousand years of Irish state and religious archives. Several anti-Treaty leaders, notably Ernie O'Malley escaped from captivity to continue fighting elsewhere. Pitched battles continued in Dublin until July 5, as anti-Treaty IRA units occupied O'Connell Street - provoking a week's more street fighting. Among the casualties was Republican leader Cathal Brugha. Cathal Brugha When the fighting in Dublin died down, the Free State Government was left firmly in control of the Irish capital and the anti-treaty forces dispersed around the country, mainly to the south and west.Cathal Brugha At the start of the Civil War the IRA had split down the middle. The Anti-Treaty side had considerable support among IRA units, particularly in the south and west of Ireland. However the anti-treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure, a clear strategy and sufficient arms. They were forced to adopt a defensive stance throughout. Michael Collins and his commanders were able to build up an army which was able to overwhelm the Irregulars in the field. British supplies of artillery, aircraft, armoured cars, machine-guns, small arms and ammunition were much help to pro-treaty forces. By the end of the war, the Free State Army had swollen to over 55,000 men, far in excess of what the Irish state would need to maintain in peacetime. Collins' most ruthless officers were recruited from the Dublin Brigade of the IRA, (which he had commanded in the Irish War of Independence) and in particular from his assassination unit "The Squad". Towards the end of the war, they were implicated in some gruesome atrocities against Anti-Treaty guerrillas. Most of the Free State Army's officers were Pro-Treaty IRA. However, the bulk of the Free State Army was made up of unemployed Irish ex-servicemen, who had fought in the First World War in the British Army.

The Free State takes Major Towns

First World War With Dublin in pro-treaty hands, conflict spread throughout the country, with anti-Treaty forces briefly holding Cork, Limerick and Waterford as part of an independent "Munster Republic". However, the Anti-Treaty side were not equipped to wage conventional war, lacking artillery and armoured units, both of which the Free State obtained from the British. This meant that the large towns in Ireland were all easily taken by the Free State after only sporadic fighting. On August 10, Cork was retaken by sea, the last county to fall in the Munster Republic. Government victories in the major towns inaugurated a period of inconclusive guerrilla warfare marked by assassinations and executions of leaders formerly allied in the cause of Irish independence. Defence Minister Michael Collins was assassinated by anti-treaty republicans in August, near his home in Cork, in August 1922. Arthur Griffith, the Free State president had also died of a stroke ten days before, leaving the Free State government in the hands of William Cosgrave and the Free State Army under the command of General Richard Mulcahy. Richard Mulcahy

Atrocities, Executions and the End of the War

The final phase of the Civil War (1923) degenerated into a series of atrocities that left a lasting legacy of bitterness in Irish politics. The Anti-Treaty IRA began assassinating T.D.s who sat in the Dail, beginning with Sean Hales. In response, the Free State announced that it would be shooting IRA prisoners in reprisal for future "outrages". Accordingly, four prominent Republicans (one from each province), who had been held since the first week of the war - Rory O'Connor, Liam Mellows and two others - were executed in revenge for the killing of Hales. In all, the Free State sanctioned 77 official executions of Anti-Treaty prisoners during the civil war, including acclaimed author and treaty negotiator Robert Erskine Childers, - a number that was recalled by Fianna Fail members with bitterness for decades afterwards. In addition, Free State troops, particularly in County Kerry, where the guerrilla campaign was most bitter, began unofficial killings of captured Anti-Treaty militants. The most notorious example of this occurred at Ballyseedy, where 9 Republican prisoners were tied to a landmine, which was exploded and remaining survivors were then machine-gunned, with one of the prisoners Stephen Fuller, escaping to tell of the event afterwards. landmine The Anti-Treaty IRA were unable to maintain an effective guerrilla campaign, since the great majority of the Irish population did not support them. This was demonstrated in the elections immediately after the civil war, which Cumann na nGaedheal, the Free State party, won easily (See Irish general election, 1923 for the results). The Roman Catholic Church also supported the Free State, deeming it the lawful government of the country, denouncing the Anti-Treaty IRA and refusing to administer the Sacraments to Anti-Treaty militants. This stance would have influenced many Catholic Irish people at the time. The lack of public support for the Anti-Treaty IRA, the determination of the government to defeat them and their lack of will also contributed to the their defeat. As the conflict petered out into a de facto victory for the pro-Treaty side, de Valera asked for a ceasefire, followed in May 1923 by an order by the leadership of the Irregulars to dump arms rather than surrender them or continue a fight which they were incapable of winning. Some historians suggest that the death of Liam Lynch, an intransigent Republican leader, in a skirmish in the Knockmealdown mountains in County Waterford, allowed the more pragmatic Frank Aiken to call a halt to what seemed a futile struggle. Thousands of Anti -Treaty IRA members (including De Valera) were arrested by the Free State forces in the weeks after the end of the war, when they had dumped their arms and returned home.

Attacks on Loyalists

Although the cause of the civil war was the treaty, as the war developed the irregulars sought to identify their actions with the traditional republican cause of the "men of no property" and the result was that the war also saw large Loyalist landowners, and some not very well-off Loyalists, attacked and a large number of country estates occupied by small holders. Many, but not all of these, had supported the Crown forces during the War of Independence. This support was often largely moral, but sometimes it took the form of actively assisting the British in the conflict. This made their situation post-independence difficult, and in the anarchy of the Civil War they became easy targets. Sometimes these attacks had sectarian overtones, although most anti-treaty IRA men made no distinction between Catholic and Protestant supporters of the Irish government. The Free State made efforts to protect Protestants and their property, most notably in County Louth, where a special police force was set up specifically for this purpose. Controversy continues to this day about the extent of intimidation of Protestants at this time.

Cost and Results

The Civil War, though short, was bloody. It cost the lives of many senior figures, including Michael Collins. Both sides carried out brutal acts: the anti-treaty forces murdered TDs (MPs) and burned many historic homes (such as the famous Moore Hall in Mayo, because its owner had become a senator); the government executed anti-treaty prisoners, officially and unofficially. The pro-treaty National Army suffered 800 fatalities and perhaps as many as 4000 people were killed. As their forces retreated the Irregulars caused much destruction and the economy of the Free State suffered a hard blow in the earliest days of its existence as a result. In addition, about 12,000 Republicans were interned by the end of the Civil War, most of whom were not released until 1924. However, it has also been argued that the Irish Civil War could have been far worse than it actually was. The numbers killed were relatively modest by the standards of other contemporary civil wars - for example in Russia and Spain. Moreover, the fact the new Police force, the Gardai, were not involved, meant that it was possible for the Free State to establish an unarmed and politically neutral police service after the war. The fact that The Irish Civil War was fought between Irish Nationalist factions meant that the issue of Northern Ireland was ignored and Ireland was spared what could have been a far bloodier civil war based on ethnic and sectarian lines over the future of Ireland's six north-eastern counties. In fact, because of the Irish Civil War, Northern Ireland was able to consolidate its existence and partition of Ireland was confirmed for the foreseeable future. It was only after their defeat in the Civil War that Irish Republicans seriously considered whether to take armed action against British rule in Northern Ireland. In 1926, having failed to persuade the majority of the anti-treaty side of accepting the new status quo as a basis for an evolving Republic, a large faction led by de Valera and Aitken left to resume constitutional politics and to found the Fianna Fáil party. Fianna Fáil As with most civil wars, the internecine conflict left a bitter legacy, which continues to influence Irish politics to this day. The two largest political parties in the Republic are still Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, the descendants respectively of the anti-treaty and pro-treaty forces of 1922. Until the 1970s, almost all of Ireland's prominent politicians were veterans of the civil war, a fact which poisoned the relationship between Ireland's two biggest parties. Examples of Civil War veterans include: Eamon de Valera, Frank Aiken, Todd Andrews, Sean Lemass, (Republican) and W.T. Cosgrave, Richard Mulcahy and Kevin O'Higgins (Free State). Moreover, many of these men's sons and daughters also became politicians, meaning that the personal wounds of the civil war were felt over three generations. In the 1930s after Fianna Fail took power for the first time, it looked possible for a while that the Civil War might break out again between the IRA and the pro-Free State Blueshirts. Fortunately, this crisis was averted and by the 1950s, political violence was no longer prominent in Southern Irish politics. Blueshirts However, the breakaway IRA continued (and continues in various forms) to exist. Up until the 1980s it still claimed to be the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic declared in 1918 and annulled by the Treaty of 1921. Some people, notably Michael McDowell, claim that this attitude, which dates from the Civil War, still underpins the politics of the Provisional IRA.

Footnotes

In the 1996 film Michael Collins, Eamon de Valera orders Collins' death. However, although de Valera was in the area at the time, he is not known to have been involved in the assassination.
Whose brother Noel was abducted and shot by Free State forces. His body was dumped in the Wicklow Mountains, near Glencree, where it is marked by a memorial.
O'Higgins was assasinated in 1927 by anti-treaty IRA members on his way to mass. He was killed in reprisal for what they viewed as his responsibility for executions of republicans during the civil war.

Sources

- Ernie O'Malley, The Singing Flame, Dublin 1978.
- M.E. Collins, Ireland 1868-1966, Dulin 1993.

1922

1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 7 - Dáil Éireann, the extra-legal parliament of the Irish Republic, ratifies the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64-57 votes.
- January 10 - Arthur Griffith is elected President of Dáil Éireann.
- January 11 - First successful insulin treatment of diabetes.
- January 12 - British government releases remaining Irish prisoners captured in the War of Independence.
- January 13 - Flu epidemic has claimed 804 victims in Britain.
- January 15 - Michael Collins becomes Chairman of the Irish Provisional Government.
- January 24 - Christian K. Nelson patents the Eskimo Pie.
- January 29 - Union of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador is dissolved
- February 1 - William Desmond Taylor, Hollywood director, is shot in his home
- February 2 - Ulysses (novel) by James Joyce is published in Paris on his fortieth birthday by Sylvia Beach.
- February 5 - DeWitt and Lila Wallace publish the first issue of Reader's Digest.
- February 6 - Achille Ratti becomes Pope Pius XI.
- February 6 - Five Power Naval Disarmament Treaty signed between United States, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy
- February 8 - President of the United States, Warren G. Harding introduces the first radio in the White House.
- February 8 - Cheka becomes GPU, a section of NKVD
- February 14 - Finnish Minister of the Interior Heikki Ritavuori is assassinated by Ernst Tandefelt.
- February 25 - Murderer Henri Désiré Landru's head is chopped off by the guillotine.
- February 27 - A challenge to the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, allowing women the right to vote, is rebuffed by the Supreme Court of the United States.
- February 28 - The United Kingdom accepts the independence of Egypt.
- March 1 - Ice mass breaks the Oder dam in Breslau
- March 1 - The British Civil Aviation Authority is established.
- March 11 - Mohandas Gandhi is arrested in Bombay for sedition
- March 15 - Egypt having gained nominal independence from the United Kingdom, Fuad I becomes King of Egypt.
- March 18 - In India, Mohandas Gandhi is sentenced to six years in prison for sedition. He would serve only two years.
- March 20 - The USS Langley is commissioned as the first United States Navy aircraft carrier.
- April 7 - Teapot Dome scandal: United States Secretary of the Interior leases Teapot Dome oil reserves in Wyoming.
- April 7 - First air collision between Daimler Airways DH 18 ja Grands Express Farman Goliat collide over Poix
- April 10 - The historic Genoa Conference commences in Genoa. The representatives of 34 countries convened to speak about monetary economics in the wake of World War I.
- April 13 - State of Massachusetts opens all public offices to women
- April 16 - The Treaty of Rapallo marks rapprochement between the Weimar Republic and Bolshevist Russia.
- May 5 - In The Bronx, construction begins on Yankee Stadium.
- May 12 - 20-ton meteorite lands near Blackstone, Virginia, USA
- May 19 - Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union is established.
- May 29 - British Liberal MP Horatio Bottomley jailed for 7 years for fraud fraud
- May 30 - In Washington, D.C., the Lincoln Memorial is dedicated.
- June 1 - Official founding of the Royal Ulster Constabulary.
- June 1 - Bolshevik forces defeat Asmachi troops under Enver Pasha
- June 22 - IRA rebels assassinated British field marshal Henry Wilson in Belgravia - assassins are sentenced to death July 18.
- June 24 - Assassination of Weimar Republic foreign minister Walter Rathenau - murderers are captured July 17
- June 26 - Louis Honoré Charles Antoine Grimaldi becomes Reigning Prince Louis II of Monaco.
- June 28 - The Irish Civil War begins
- August 12 - Death of Arthur Griffith, President of Dáil Éireann
- August 22 - Death of General Michael Collins - President of the Irish Provisional Government and Commander-in-Chief of the Provisional Army, killed in an ambush.
- August 23 - Revolt against the Spanish in Morocco
- August 28 - Japan agrees to withdraw its troops from Siberia
- September 9 - Turkish forces pursuing withdrawing Greek troops enter Smyrna
- September 11 - One of the Herald Sun of Melbourne, Australia's predecessor papers The Sun News-Pictorial is founded.
- September 13 - 15 - Fire, probably started by Turkish troops, destroys most of Smyrna. Death toll estimated 100,000
- September 18 - Hungary joins the League of Nations
- October 9 - Sir William Horwood, London Metropolitan Police Service commissioner is poisoned by arsenic-filled chocolates
- October 23 - German army occupies Saxony and crushes Soviet Republic of Saxony
- October 25 - The Third Dáil enacts the Constitution of the Irish Free State.
- October 28 - In Italy, with the March on Rome, Fascism obtains power and Benito Mussolini becomes prime minister
- October 28 - Red Army occupies Vladivostok
- October 31 - Benito Mussolini becomes the youngest Premier in the history of Italy.
- September 23 - Gdynia Seaport Construction Act passed by the Polish parliament.
- November 1 - Ottoman Empire is abolished and its last sultan Mehmed VI Vahdettin abdicates.
- November 1 - The broadcasting license fee of ten shillings introduced in the United Kingdom
- November 4 - In Egypt, British archaeologist Howard Carter and his men find the entrance to King Tutankhamen's tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
- November 14 - The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) begins radio service in the United Kingdom. 2LO became the first radio station in the United Kingdom.
- November 17 - Former Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI leaves for exile in Italy.
- November 19 - Abdul Mejid II, Crown Prince of the Ottoman Empire is elected Caliph.
- November 21 - Rebecca Felton of Georgia takes the oath of office, becoming the first woman United States Senator.
- November 24 - Popular author and Irish Republican Army member Robert Erskine Childers is executed by an Irish Free State firing squad for illegally carrying a revolver.
- November 26 - Howard Carter and Lord Carnarvon become the first people to enter the tomb of Egyptian King Tutankhamun in over 3000 years. Tutankhamun
- December 5 - British parliament enacts the Irish Free State Constitution Act, by which it legally sanctions the new Constitution of the Irish Free State.
- December 6 - The Irish Free State officially comes into existence. George V becomes the Free State's monarch. Tim Healy is appointed first Governor-General of the Irish Free State and W.T. Cosgrave becomes President of the Executive Council.
- December 14 - Assassination of Gabriel Narutowicz, the president of Poland
- December 30 - Russia and allied Soviet republics form the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Exact month/day of event unknown

- Invention of Vegemite by Australian Fred Walker
- Kurd Istigdul Djemijetin, the Kurdish Independence Committee, founded
- Ring Magazine first published
- Molly Pitcher Club formed to promote the repeal of prohibition in United States
- Raymond Pearl founds Quarterly Review of Biology.
- Thompson Webb founds The Webb Schools

Births

January-March

- January 1 - Ernest "Fritz" Hollings, U.S. Senator from South Carolina
- January 7 - Jean-Pierre Rampal, French flutist (d. 2000)
- January 9 - Har Gobind Khorana, Indian biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- January 13 - Albert Lamorisse, French film director (d. 1970)
- January 16 - Ernesto Bonino, Italian singer
- January 17 - Nicholas Katzenbach, American politician
- January 17 - Betty White, American television actress
- January 19 - Guy Madison, American actor (d. 1996)
- January 21 - Paul Scofield, English actor
- January 22 - Leonel Brizola, Brazilian politician
- January 28 - Robert W. Holley, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1993)
- January 30 - Dick Martin, American comedian
- February 1 - Renata Tebaldi, Italian soprano (d. 2004)
- February 6 - Patrick Macnee, British actor
- February 6 - Bill Johnston, Australian cricketer
- February 6 - Denis Norden, British television and radio scriptwriter and personality
- February 7 - Hattie Jacques, British actress (d. 1980)
- February 9 - Kathryn Grayson, American actress
- February 15 - John Bayard Anderson, U.S Congressman and Presidential candidate
- February 17 - Marshall Teague, American race car driver (d. 1959)
- February 18 - Helen Gurley Brown, American editor and publisher
- February 24 - Richard Hamilton, British painter
- February 24 - Steven Hill, American actor
- March 1 - William Gaines, American publisher of MAD Magazine (d. 1992)
- March 1 - Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1995)
- March 5 - Pier Paolo Pasolini, Italian film director
- March 8 - Mizuki Shigeru, Japanese author
- March 9 - Tommy Cooper, British comedian and magician (d. 1984)
- March 12 - Jack Kerouac, American author (d. 1969)
- March 12 - Lane Kirkland, American union leader (d. 1999)
- March 18 - Egon Bahr, German politician
- March 20 - Carl Reiner, American film director, producer, actor, and comedian
- March 21 - Russ Meyer, American film director and producer (d. 2004)
- March 27 - Stefan Wul, French writer (d. 2003)
- March 28 - Felice Chiusano, Italian singer (Quartetto Cetra)
- March 28 - Joey Maxim, American boxer (d. 2001)
- March 31 - Richard Kiley, American actor and singer (d. 1999)

April-June

- April 1 - William Manchester, American writer (d. 2004)
- April 3 - Maurice Riel, Canadian Senator
- April 4 - Elmer Bernstein, American composer (d. 2004)
- April 5 - Sir Tom Finney, English footballer
- April 5 - Christopher Hewett, British actor (d. 2001)
- April 5 - Gale Storm, American singer and actress
- April 7 - Mongo Santamaria, Cuban jazz musician (d. 2003)
- April 13 - Julius Nyerere, President of Tanzania (d. 1999)
- April 16 - Sir Kingsley Amis, English novelist (d. 1995)
- April 22 - Charles Mingus, American musician (d. 1979)
- April 28 - Alistair MacLean, Scottish writer (d. 1987)
- May 7 - Darren McGavin, American actor
- May 14 - Franjo Tuđman, President of Croatia (d. 1999)
- May 15 - Setouchi Jakucho, Japanese writer and Buddhist nun
- May 18 - Kai Winding, Danish-born musician (d. 1983)
- May 21 - James Lopez Watson, American judge (d. 2001)
- May 22 - Quinn Martin, American television producer (d. 1987)
- May 25 - Enrico Berlinguer, Italian politician (d. 1984)
- May 27 - Christopher Lee, English actor
- May 28 - Lou Duva, American boxing trainer
- May 29 - Iannis Xenakis, Greek composer (d. 2001)
- May 30 - Hal Clement, American writer (d. 2003)
- May 31 - Denholm Elliott, English actor (d. 1992)
- June 1 - Povel Ramel, Swedish musican
- June 2 - Charlie Sifford, American golfer
- June 10 - Judy Garland, American singer and actress (d. 1969)
- June 18 - Claude Helffer, French pianist (d. 2004)
- June 19 - Aage Niels Bohr, Danish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- June 24 - Tata Giacobetti, Italian singer and lyricist (Quartetto Cetra)
- June 29 - Vasko Popa, Yugoslavian poet (d. 1991)

July to December

- July 15 - Leon M. Lederman, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- July 18 - Thomas Kuhn, American philosopher of science (d. 1996)
- July 19 - Tuanku Jaafar ibni Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman, King of Malaysia
- July 31 - Bill Kaysing, American writer
- August 15 - Lukas Foss, German-born composer
- August 17 - Agostinho Neto, Angolan politician (d. 1979)
- August 22 - Sosuke Uno, Prime Minister of Japan (d. 1998)
- August 23 - George Kell, baseball player
- September 1 - Vittorio Gassmann, Italian actor and director (d. 2000)
- September 3 - Salli Terri, Canadian mezzo-soprano (d. 1996)
- September 8 - Sid Caesar, American actor and comedian
- September 9 - Hans Georg Dehmelt, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- September 12 - Jackson Mac Low, American poet (d. 2004)
- September 15 - Jackie Cooper, American actor and director
- September 22 - Chen Ning Yang, Chinese-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- September 25 - Hammer DeRoburt, first President of Nauru (d. 1992)
- October 1 - Burke Marshall, American lawyer and politician (d. 2003)
- October 5 - José Froilán González, Argentine race car driver
- October 15 - Luigi Giussani, Italian Catholic priest (d. 2005)
- October 22 - John Chafee, American politician (d. 1999)
- October 27 - Poul Bundgaard, Danish actor and singer (d. 1998)
- October 31 - Barbara Bel Geddes, film and stage actress (d. 2005)
- November 8 - Christiaan Barnard, South African surgeon (d. 2001)
- November 11 - Kurt Vonnegut, American novelist
- November 14 - Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egyptian Secretary General of the United Nations
- November 14 - Veronica Lake, American actress
- November 16 - José Saramago, Portuguese author, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 17 - Stanley Cohen, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- November 19 - Yuri Knorosov, Russian linguist and epigrapher (d. 1999)
- November 26 - Charles M. Schulz American cartoonist (d. 2000)
- December 11 - Dilip Kumar, Indian actor
- December 14 - Nikolay Basov, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)
- December 22 - Barbara Billingsley, American actress
- December 22 - Jack Brooks, American politician
- December 23 - Micheline Ostermeyer, French athlete and musician (d. 2001)
- December 23 - Donald Tennant, American advertising agency executive (d.2001)
- December 28 - Stan Lee, American comics creator

Deaths

- January 5 - Ernest Shackleton, Irish explorer (b. 1874)
- January 22 - Pope Benedict XV (b. 1854)
- January 22 - Fredrik Bajer, Danish politician and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1837)
- February 2 - William Desmond Taylor, Irish-born film director (b. 1872)
- March 1 - Rafael Moreno Aranzadi, Spanish footballer (b. 1892)
- March 24 - Walter Parr, British preacher (b. 1871)
- April 1 - Emperor Karl I of Austria (b. 1887)
- April 2 - Hermann Rorschach, Swiss psychiatrist (b. 1884)
- May 18 - Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, French physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1845)
- May 19 - Son, Byong-Hi, Korean leader of the March 1st Movement (b. 1861)
- June 6 - Lillian Russell, American singer and actress (b. 1861)
- June 18 - Jacobus Kapteyn, Dutch astronomer (b. 1851)
- June 26 - Albert I of Monaco (b. 1848)
- July 20 - Andrey Markov, Russian mathematician (b. 1856)
- August 2 - Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-born inventor (b. 1847)
- August 5 - Harry Boland, Irish republican (b. 1887)
- August 12 - Arthur Griffith, President of Ireland (b. 1871)
- August 22 - Michael Collins, Irish leader (assassinated) (b. 1890)
- September 4 - Sarah L. Winchester, builder of the Winchester Mystery House (b. 1837)
- October 30 - Géza Gárdonyi, Hungarian author (b. 1863)
- November 7 - Sam Thompson, baseball player (b. 1860)

Marriages

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - Niels Henrik David Bohr
- Chemistry - Francis William Aston
- Medicine - Archibald Vivian Hill, Otto Fritz Meyerhof
- Literature - Jacinto Benavente
- Peace - Fridtjof Nansen

Heads of state in 1922

- Albania -
- Xhafer Ypi, Prime Minister of Albania (acting, 1922).
- Ahmet Zogu, Prime Minister of Albania (acting, 1922 - 1924).
- Belgium - King Albert I of Belgium (1909 - 1934).
- Bolshevist Russia/Soviet Union - Mikhail Kalinin, President of the Soviet Union (1919/1922 - 1946).
- Costa Rica - Julio Acosta García, President of Costa Rica (1920 - 1924).
- Denmark - King Christian X of Denmark (1912 - 1947).
- Egypt - King Fuad I of Egypt (1917/1922 - 1936).
- Ethiopia - Empress Zawditu of Ethiopia (1916 - 1930).
- France - Alexandre Millerand, President of France (1920 - 1924).
- Germany - Friedrich Ebert, Reich President (1919 - 1925).
- Italy - King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy (1900 - 1946).
- Japan - Yoshihito, the Taisho Emperor (1912 - 1926).
- Mexico - Álvaro Obregón, President of Mexico (1920 - 1924).
- Monaco -
- Reigning Prince Albert I of Monaco (1889 - 1922).
- Reigning Prince Louis II of Monaco (1922- 1949).
- Netherlands - Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands (1890 - 1948).
- Norway - King Haakon VII of Norway (1905 - 1957).
- Ottoman Empire -
- Sultan Mehmed VI (1918 - 1922).
- Caliph Abdul Mejid II (1922 - 1924).
- Republic of China -
- Xu Shichang of the Beijing government, President of the Republic of China (1918 - 1922).
- Sun Yat-sen of the Guangzhou government, rival President of the Republic of China (1921 - 1925).
- Saudi Arabia - Ibn Saud, King of Saudi Arabia (1902 - 1953).
- Sweden - King Gustav V of Sweden (1907 - 1950).
- United Kingdom - King George V of the United Kingdom (1910 - 1936).
- United States - Warren Gamaliel Harding, President of the United States (1921 - 1923).

Anglo-Irish Treaty

The Anglo-Irish Treaty, officially called the Articles of Agreement for a Treaty Between Great Britain and Ireland, was a treaty between the Government of the United Kingdom and representatives of the (extra-judicial) Irish Republic which concluded the Anglo-Irish War. It established an Irish dominion within the British Empire known as the Irish Free State and provided an option for the previously existing Northern Ireland, created by the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, to opt out of the Irish Free State, which it duly exercised. The treaty was signed in London by representatives of the British government and envoys plenipotentiary of the Irish Republic (i.e., negotiators empowered to sign a treaty without reference back to their superiors) on December 6, 1921. Three-fold ratification of the treaty by Dáil Éireann, the House of Commons of Southern Ireland and the British Parliament was required. The Irish side were split on the Treaty, and it was only narrowly ratified in the Dáil. Though duly enacted, the split produced the Irish Civil War which was ultimately won by the pro-treaty side. The Irish Free State created by the Treaty came into force on 6 December 1922 by royal proclamation, after its constitution was enacted by the Third Dáil and the British parliament.

Content of the Treaty

Among its main clauses were that:
- British forces would withdraw from most of Ireland.
- Most of Ireland was to become a self-governing dominion of the British Empire, like Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand and The Union of South Africa. The Union of South Africa
- As with the other dominions, the head of state of the Irish Free State / Saorstát Éireann would be the British monarch, who would be represented by a Governor General (See Representative of the Crown).
- Members of the new Free State's parliament would be required to take an Oath of Allegiance to the Free State. A secondary part of the Oath was to be of fidelity to "King George V, his heirs and successors" as part of the Treaty settlement.
- Northern Ireland (which had been created earlier by the Government of Ireland Act) was to have the option of withdrawing from the Irish Free State within one month of the Treaty coming into effect.
- If Northern Ireland chose to withdraw, a Boundary Commission would be constituted to draw the boundary between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland.
- Britain, for its own security, would continue to control a limited number of ports, known as the Treaty Ports, for the Royal Navy.
- The Irish Free State would assume responsibility for its part of the Imperial debt.
- The Treaty would have superior status in Irish law: in the event of a conflict between it and the new 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State, it would take precedence. 1922 Constitution

Negotiators of the Treaty

The negotiators included
- David Lloyd George, MP 25px (British Prime Minister)
- Lord Birkenhead 25px
- Winston Churchill 25px
- Austen Chamberlain 25px
- Sir Gordon Hewart 25px
- Arthur Griffith 25px (Chairman of the Irish delegation)
- Michael Collins, TD 25px (Irish Republic's Minister for Finance and head of the Irish Republican Brotherhood).
- Robert Barton 25px
- Eamonn Duggan 25px
- George Gavan Duffy 25px (Robert Erskine Childers, the author of the Riddle of the Sands and former Clerk of the British House of Commons served as one of the secretaries of the Irish delegation. Tom Jones was one of Lloyd George's principal assistants, and described the negotiations in his book Whitehall Diary.)

Detail and background

Tom JonesThe contents of the Treaty divided the Irish Republic's leadership, with the President of the Republic, Eamon de Valera, leading the anti-Treaty minority. The main dispute was centred on the status as a dominion (as represented by the Oath of Allegiance and Fidelity) rather than as an independent republic. Partition, though certainly a factor, was not the most important; both sides believed that the Boundary Commission would transfer many large nationalist areas to the Free State, reducing Northern Ireland's size so as to make it too small to be a viable political entity, leading to Irish unity. (In fact, the commission made no changes, despite the wishes of hundreds of thousands who found themselves left under British jurisdiction.) The Second Dáil formally ratified the Treaty in December 1921. (The House of Commons of Southern Ireland, which was made up largely of the same membership as the Dáil, but which was in British constitutional theory the parliament legally empowered to ratify the Treaty, did so in January 1922.) De Valera resigned as President and was replaced by Arthur Griffith. Michael Collins formed a Provisional Government of Ireland theoretically answerable to the House of Commons of Southern Ireland, as the Treaty laid down. In December 1922 a new Irish constitution was enacted by the Third Dáil, sitting as a Constituent Assembly. Constituent Assembly Opponents of the Treaty mounted a military campaign of opposition which produced the Irish Civil War (1922–23). In 1922 its two main Irish signatories, President Griffith and Michael Collins, both died. Griffith died partially from exhaustion; Collins, at the signing of the Treaty, had said that in signing it, he may have signed his "actual death warrant", and he was correct: he was assassinated by anti-Treaty republicans in Béal na mBláth in August 1922, barely a week after Griffith's death. Both men were replaced in their posts by William T. Cosgrave. The Treaty's provisions relating to the monarch, governor-general and the treaty's own superiority in law were all deleted from the Constitution of the Irish Free State in 1932, following the enactment of the Statute of Westminster by the British Parliament. The Statute provided that all dominions extant or newly created thereafter were fully independent of the United Kingdom and thus not subject to any acts of the British Parliament. (The sole exception to this was Canada, at her own request, who remained nominally subject to the British Parliament until 1982, because the federal and provincial governments could not agree on an amending formula for the Canadian Constitution.) Thus, the Government of the Irish Free State was free to change any laws previously passed by the British Parliament on their behalf. Nearly thirty years earlier, Michael Collins had argued that the Treaty would give "the freedom to achieve freedom". De Valera himself acknowledged the accuracy of this claim both in his actions in the 1930s but also in words he used to describe his opponents and their securing of independence during the 1920s. "They were magnificent", he told his son in 1932, just after he had entered government and read the files left by Cosgrave's Cumann na nGaedheal Executive Council. Cumann na nGaedheal Most people in Ireland today, including members of de Valera's own party, Fianna Fáil, agree that it was a mistake to oppose the Treaty and that it was the best deal possible in the circumstances. Although the British government of the day had, since 1914, desired home rule for the whole of Ireland, the British Parliament believed that it could not possibly grant complete independence to all of Ireland in 1921 without provoking a massacre of Ulster Catholics at the hands of their heavily-armed Protestant Unionist neighbours. At the time, although there were Unionists throughout the country, they were concentrated in the northeast. An uprising by them against home rule would have been an insurrection against the "mother county" as well as a civil war in Ireland. (See Ulster Volunteer Force). Dominion status for 26 counties, with partition for the six counties that the Unionists felt they could comfortably control, seemed the best compromise possible at the time. In fact, what Ireland received in dominion status, on par with that enjoyed by Canada, New Zealand and Australia, was far more than the Home Rule Act 1914 (negotiated and won, albeit through democratic parliamentary procedure by the Irish Parliamentary Party leaders John Redmond and John Dillon), and certainly a considerable advance on the Home Rule once offered to Charles Stewart Parnell in the nineteenth century. Further, though it was not generally realised at the time, the Irish Republican Army was in trouble. It had little ammunition or weaponry left. When Collins first heard that the British had called a Truce in mid-1921, following King George V's appeal for reconciliation at the opening of the Parliament of Northern Ireland under the Government of Ireland Act 1920, he commented: "We thought they were mad". The British, though they may never have realised it, were weeks, perhaps even days away from inflicting severe losses on an exhausted IRA; though, even if they had, it is unlikely that some form of autonomy in excess of home rule would not have been achieved, given the extent to which the Irish population had turned its back on continuing British rule. It is also doubtful that British public opinion would have tolerated the larger and more frequent atrocities this would have entailed. Parliament of Northern Ireland De Valera was once asked in a private conversation what had been his biggest mistake. His answer was blunt: "Not accepting the Treaty". Current Taoiseach (prime minister and leader of Fianna Fáil) Bertie Ahern has conceded that the date that marks the real achievement of independence is 1922, when the Irish Free State created by the Anglo-Irish Treaty came into being, as this brought about British and international recognition of Irish independence.

External links

- [http://www.nationalarchives.ie/topics/anglo_irish/dfaexhib2.html Anglo-Irish Treaty] — full text of the treaty from the National Archive of Ireland
- [http://historical-debates.oireachtas.ie Contemporaneous record of the debate on the Treaty in Dáil Éireann]. Category:History of Ireland 1801-1922 Category:Peace treaties

December 6

December 6 is the 340th day (341st on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 25 days remaining.

Events

- 963 - Leo VIII is elected Pope.
- 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev under Danylo of Halych and Voivode Dmytro falls to the Mongols under Batu Khan.
- 1534 - The city of Quito in Ecuador is founded by Spanish settlers led by Sebastián de Belalcázar.
- 1768 - The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica is published.
- 1790 - The U.S. Congress moves from New York City to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
- 1845 - Alpha Sigma Phi Fraternity was founded at Yale College by Louis Manigault, Horace Spangler Weiser, and Stephen Ornsby Rhea.
- 1849 - American abolitionist Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery.
- 1865 - The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified, banning slavery.
- 1877 - The Washington Post newspaper is first published.
- 1884 - The Washington Monument in Washington D.C. is completed.
- 1907 - A coal mine explosion at Monongah, West Virginia kills 362 workers.
- 1917 - Finland declares its independence from Russia.
- 1917 - Halifax Explosion: In Canada, a munitions explosion kills more than 1900 people and destroys part of the city of Halifax, Nova Scotia.
- 1921 - The Anglo-Irish Treaty is signed in London by British and Irish representatives
- 1922 - One year to the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the Irish Free State comes into existence.
- 1933 - U.S. federal judge John M. Woolsey rules that the James Joyce novel Ulysses is not obscene.
- 1947 - The Everglades National Park in Florida is dedicated.
- 1957 - Project Vanguard: A launchpad explosion thwarts the first United States attempt to launch a satellite.
- 1965 - Pakistan's Islamic Ideology Advisory Committee recommended that Islamic Studies be made a compulsory subject for Muslim students from primary to graduation level.
- 1969 - Meredith Hunter is killed by Hell's Angels during The Rolling Stones's concert at the Altamont speedway in California.
- 1971 - Pakistan snaps diplomatic ties with India following New Delhi's recognition of Bangladesh.
- 1971 - King Faisal of Saudi Arabia condemns Indian aggression on Pakistan.
- 1973 - The United States House of Representatives votes 387 to 35 to confirm Gerald Ford as Vice President of the United States (on November 27, the Senate confirmed him 92 to 3).
- 1975 - Balcombe Street Siege: An IRA Active Service Unit takes a couple hostage in Balcombe Street, London.
- 1977 - South Africa grants independence to Bophuthatswana, although it is not recognized by any other country
- 1978 - Spain approves its latest constitution in a referendum.
- 1989 - École Polytechnique Massacre: Marc Lépine kills 14 young women in Montreal, Quebec.
- 1991 - In Croatia, forces of the Yugoslav People's Army bombard Dubrovnik after laying siege there since May.
- 1992 - In Ayodhya, India, Hindus belonging to the nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party demolish the Babri Masjid, a 16th century mosque.
- 1997 - A Russian Antonov AN-124 transport cargo plane crashes into an apartment complex near Irkutsk, Siberia, killing 67.
- 2005 - David Cameron becomes leader of the Conservative Party, defeating David Davis.

Births

- 846 - Hasan al-Askari, Shia Imam (d. 874)
- 1285 - King Ferdinand IV of Castile (d. 1312)
- 1421 - King Henry VI of England (d. 1471)
- 1478 - Baldassare Castiglione, Italian diplomat and author (d. 1529)
- 1550 - Orazio Vecchi, Italian composer (baptism) (d. 1605)
- 1586 - Niccolo Zucchi, Italian astronomer (d. 1670)
- 1608 - George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, English soldier (d. 1670)
- 1637 - Sir Edmund Andros, English governor in North America (d. 1714)
- 1640 - Claude Fleury, French historian (d. 1723)
- 1642 - Johann Christoph Bach, German composer (d. 1703)
- 1721 - James Elphinston, British philologist (d. 1809)
- 1721 - Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French statesman (d. 1794)
- 1778 - Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, French physicist and chemist (d. 1850)
- 1792 - King William II of the Netherlands (d. 1849)
- 1805 - Adolf Reubke, German organ builder (d. 1875)
- 1805 - Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin, French magician (d. 1861)
- 1823 - Friedrich Max Müller, German orientalist (d. 1900)
- 1833 - John Singleton Mosby, American Confederate guerrilla leader (d. 1916)
- 1841 - Frédéric Bazille, French painter (d. 1870)
- 1849 - August von Mackensen, German Field Marshal (d. 1945)
- 1863 - Charles Martin Hall, American chemist (d. 1914)
- 1872 - William S. Hart, American actor (d. 1946)
- 1875 - Evelyn Underhill, British poet (d. 1941)
- 1886 - Joyce Kilmer, American poet (d. 1918)
- 1890 - Rudolf Schlichter, German artist and writer (d. 1955)
- 1892 - Sir Osbert Sitwell, British author (d. 1969)
- 1896 - Ira Gershwin, American lyricist (d. 1983)
- 1898 - Alfred Eisenstaedt, German-born American photojournalist (d. 1995)
- 1898 - Gunnar Myrdal, Swedish economist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)
- 1900 - Agnes Moorehead, American actress (d. 1974)
- 1903 - Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player (d. 1946)
- 1905 - James J. Braddock, American boxer and World Heavyweight Champion (d. 1974)
- 1908 - Pierre Graber, Swiss Federal Councilor (d. 2003)
- 1913 - Eleanor Holm, American swimmer and Olympic gold medalist (d. 2004)
- 1917 - Kamal Jumblatt, leader of the Lebanese Druze (d. 1977)
- 1919 - Paul de Man, Belgian-born literary critic (d. 1983)
- 1920 - Dave Brubeck, American pianist and composer
- 1920 - George Porter, British chemist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
- 1921 - Otto Graham, American football player (d. 2003)
- 1928 - Bobby Van, American singer (d. 1980)
- 1929 - Alain Tanner, Swiss filmmaker
- 1929 - Nikolaus Harnoncourt, German conductor
- 1930 - Daniel Lisulo, Zambian Prime Minister
- 1933 - Henryk Górecki, Polish composer
- 1936 - David Ossman, American comedian
- 1942 - Peter Handke, Austrian writer
- 1945 - Larry Bowa, American baseball player
- 1948 - JoBeth Williams, American actress
- 1948 - Keke Rosberg, Finnish race car driver and Formula 1 World Champion
- 1950 - Joe Hisaishi, Japanese composer
- 1952 - Rick Charlesworth, Australian cricketer, politician, hockey player, and coach
- 1953 - Tom Hulce, American actor
- 1953 - Gary Ward, American baseball player
- 1955 - Steven Wright, American comedian
- 1955 - Rick Buckler, British drummer (The Jam)
- 1956 - Peter Buck, American guitarist (R.E.M.)
- 1956 - Randy Rhoads, American guitarist (d. 1982)
- 1958 - Xander Berkeley, American actor
- 1958 - Nick Park, British filmmaker and animator
- 1961 - David Lovering, American drummer (The Pixies)
- 1962 - Janine Turner, American actress
- 1967 - Hacken Lee, cantopop singer
- 1971 - Richard Krajicek, Dutch tennis player
- 1971 - Ryan White, American AIDS activist (d. 1990)
- 1976 - Colleen Haskell, American reality TV contestant
- 1977 - Kevin Cash, American baseball player
- 1977 - Andr

Irish Civil War

Background

The Treaty

Split in the Nationalist Movement

Course of the war

Dublin Fighting

The Free State takes Major Towns

Atrocities, Executions and the End of the War

Attacks on Loyalists

Cost and Results

Footnotes

Sources

See also

1922

Events

Exact month/day of event unknown

Births

January-March

April-June

July to December

Deaths

Marriages

January-March

April-June

July to December

Nobel Prizes

Heads of state in 1922

See also

Anglo-Irish Treaty

Content of the Treaty

Negotiators of the Treaty

Detail and background

Further reading

See also

External links

December 6

Events

Births