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Iron Maiden (torture Device)

Iron maiden (torture device)

] An iron maiden is any cabinet (usually in iron) built to torture or kill a person by piercing his body superficially with sharp objects (such as knives, spikes, or nails) but with excruciating pain, while the victim is forced to remain standing. The victim bleeds profusely and is weakened slowly and dies of a combination of shock and blood loss, if not asphyxiation. One of the best known examples of such a device once used in Nuremberg, Germany; the first person allegedly executed by it was a coin forger, on August 14, 1515.

Exterior

The Iron Maiden of Nuremberg was anthropomorphic. It was most likely styled after the Madonna, with a carved likeness of her on the face. The Maiden was about 7 feet (2.1m) tall and 3 feet (0.9m) wide, had double doors, and was big enough to contain a full grown man. The condemned prisoner had to pass through seven rooms with seven doors before his scheduled execution. At the end of a long corridor he found himself looking into the face of an iron wardrobe that vaguely resembled a female form. On the outside, the Maiden appeared harmless and unthreatening, yet inside were hidden spikes of iron that were not designed to kill quickly, only to torture slowly. The point of this deadly object was to impale the victim and inflict extreme pain and punishment - and also, like most instruments of torture, to intimidate the prisoner before actual use, so that he confessed.

Features of the Iron Maiden

Spikes

Inside the tomb-sized container, the Iron Maiden was fitted with dozens of sharp spikes. They were designed so that when the doors were shut, the spikes skewered the victim, missing vital organs and permitting the victim to remain alive and upright. The spikes were also movable to accommodate each victim.

Confined space and immobility

Secondly, the condemned person was kept in an extremely confined space to maximize his level of suffering by claustrophobia. Mobility was nearly impossible, and if the victim ever were weakened by the ordeal, the piercing objects would remain in place and tear into the body even further, causing even more intense pain.

Doors

The third aspect of the torture device was that the iron doors of the Maiden could be opened and closed one at a time, without letting the victim get away. This was always helpful when checking on the injured party to be sure that he was sufficiently suffering or was willing to comply with the demands of his tormenter.

Operation

The doors of the Maiden were shut slowly, so that the very sharp points penetrated a man’s arms, and his legs in several places, along with his belly and chest, bladder, eyes, shoulders, and his buttocks, but not enough to kill him; and so he remained making great cry and lament for two days, after which he died. Although this has not been proven, historical experts have theorized that the spikes on the inside of the doors were probably moveable. They were thought to have been able to be repositioned and/or relocated depending on the individual requirements of the person’s crime. Also, the overall result would be more or less lethal and mutilating depending upon where the spikes were currently located. It is possible that the Iron Maiden was also used as a torture device to render a victim willing to confess to crimes or to expose other participants in crimes of which the victim was accused. The Iron Maiden needed not even kill its confined victim to achieve its desired ends.

Fate of the Iron Maiden

The number of Iron Maidens ever built, let alone used in judicial proceedings or executions, is much in doubt. Replicas may have been made, even if never used for the macabre purpose. As torture became less accepted as either a means of extracting information and less-brutal methods of capital punishment became the norm during the Enlightenment, the Iron Maidens all went into disuse. The supposed original existed in Nuremberg Castle and was a popular execution method during the 1600s; it was destroyed in the air raids of 1944 near Nuremberg, Germany.

Alleged use elsewhere

At least one Iron Maiden was in supposed use in Ba'athist Iraq during the dictatorial rule of Saddam Hussein, and members of the Iraqi Olympic team during Hussein's regime claim that it was used against persons who ran afoul of Saddam Hussein's elder son Uday Hussein. [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,444889,00.html] Category:Torture ja:鉄の処女

Torture

was an infamous torture device.]] Torture is is the infliction of severe physical or psychological torment as an expression of cruelty, a means of intimidation, deterrent, revenge or punishment, or as a tool for the extraction of information or confessions. Torture is almost universally considered to be an extreme violation of human rights, as stated by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Signatories of the Third Geneva Convention and Fourth Geneva Convention agree not to torture protected persons (enemy civilians and POWs) in armed conflicts, and signatories of the UN Convention Against Torture agree not to intentionally inflict severe pain or suffering on anyone, to obtain information or a confession, to punish them, or to coerce them or a third person. These conventions and agreements notwithstanding, it is estimated by organizations such as Amnesty International that around 2/3 of countries do not consistently abide by the spirit of such treaties.

Current legal status of torture

On December 10, 1948 the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. Article 5 states "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment". Since that time the use of torture has been regulated by a number of international treaties, of which the two major ones are the United Nations Convention Against Torture and the Geneva Conventions.

United Nations Convention Against Torture

The "United Nations Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment"(UNCAT) came into force in June 1987. The most relevant articles are articles 1, 2, 3 and the first paragraph of article 16. :Article 1 :1. Any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. It does not include pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions. :2. This article is without prejudice to any international instrument or national legislation which does or may contain provisions of wider application. 1 :Article 2 :1. Each State Party shall take effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to prevent acts of torture in any territory under its jurisdiction. :2. No exceptional circumstances whatsoever, whether a state of war or a threat of war, internal political in stability or any other public emergency, may be invoked as a justification of torture. :3. An order from a superior officer or a public authority may not be invoked as a justification of torture. :Article 3 :1. No State Party shall expel, return ("refouler") or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture. :2. For the purpose of determining whether there are such grounds, the competent authorities shall take into account all relevant considerations including, where applicable, the existence in the State concerned of a consistent pattern of gross, flagrant or mass violations of human rights. :Article 16 :1. Each State Party shall undertake to prevent in any territory under its jurisdiction other acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment which do not amount to torture as defined in article I, when such acts are committed by or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in an official capacity. In particular, the obligations contained in articles 10, 11, 12 and 13 shall apply with the substitution for references to torture of references to other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. There are several points which should be noted:
- Section 1: torture is defined as severe pain or suffering, which means there exist levels of pain and suffering which are not severe enough to be called torture. Discussions on this area of international law are influenced by a ruling of the European Court of Human Rights(ECHR). See the section Other conventions for more details on the ECHR ruling.
- Section 2: If a state has signed the treaty without reservations, then there are no exceptional circumstances whatsoever where a state can use torture and not break its treaty obligations. However the worst sanction which can be applied to a powerful country is a public record that they have broken their treaty obligations. In certain exceptional cases the authorities in those countries may consider that, with plausible deniability, this is an acceptable risk to take as the definition of severe is open to interpretation.
- Section 16: contains the phrase territory under its jurisdiction other acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, so if the government of a state authorises its personnel to use sensory deprivation on a detainee in territory not under its jurisdiction then it has not broken its treaty obligations. At the moment this treaty has been signed by about half the countries in the world.

Geneva Conventions

The four Geneva Conventions provide protection for people who fall into enemy hands. They envisage war in its traditional form, whereby people in uniforms fight clearly defined enemies in uniform, within a clearly defined arena. It therefore divides people into two explicit groups: combatants and non-combatants (civilians). There is a third group whose existence is implied, but whose treatment is not covered in detail. These are unlawful combatants, such as spies, mercenaries and other combatants who have broken the laws of war, for example by firing on an enemy while flying a white flag. Whilst combatants and non-combatants are provided substantial protection, a lesser level of protection is afforded to unlawful combatants. The third(GCIII) and fourth(GCIV) Geneva Conventions are the two most relevant for the treatment of the victims of conflicts. Both treaties state in their similarly worded article 3 that in a non-international armed conflict that "Persons taking no active part in the hostilities, including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms... shall in all circumstances be treated humanely and that there must not be any "violence to life and person, in particular murder of all kinds, mutilation, cruel treatment and torture." or "outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment". Under GCIV most enemy civilians in an international armed conflict will be "Protected Persons" under the meaning of GCIV, (see exemptions section immediately after this for those who are not). Under article 32, protected persons have the right to protection from "murder, torture, corporal punishments, mutilation and medical or scientific experiments...but also to any other measures of brutality whether applied by non-combatant or military agents." The treatment of prisoners of war (POWs) in an international armed conflict is covered by GCIII. In particular article 17 states that "No physical or mental torture, nor any other form of coercion, may be inflicted on prisoners of war to secure from them information of any kind whatever. Prisoners of war who refuse to answer may not be threatened, insulted or exposed to unpleasant or disadvantageous treatment of any kind.". GCIII POW status has far fewer exemptions than "Protected Person" status under GCIV. If a person is an enemy combatant in an international armed conflict, then they will have the protection of GCIII and be entitled to be regarded as POWs under GCIII unless they are an unlawful combatant. If there is a question of whether the combatant is an unlawful combatant, they must be treated as POW's "until their status has been determined by a competent tribunal" (GCIII article 5). If the tribunal decides that they are an unlawful combatant, and they are a Protected Person under GCIV, they will still have the some protections under GCIV Article 5. They must be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial [for war crimes], shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial prescribed by the present Convention". A person, who is found guilty of war crimes in an international armed conflict, or is not protected by GCIV because of some other exemption, is no longer protected by the Geneva Conventions.

Geneva Convention IV exemptions

GCIV provides an important exemption: :"Where in the territory of a Party to the conflict, the latter is satisfied that an individual protected person is definitely suspected of or engaged in activities hostile to the security of the State, such individual person shall not be entitled to claim such rights and privileges under the present Convention [ie GCIV] as would ... be prejudicial to the security of such State." (GCIV article 5) In a conflict like the U.S. War on Terrorism many so-called "unlawful combatants" have been controversially denied protection under the Geneva Conventions, because they are either excluded by their nationality (see below) or they are deemed to be so dangerous that Article 5 can be invoked. There are two further groups who are not protected by GCIV: # Nationals of a State which is not bound by the Convention are not protected by it. # Nationals of a neutral State in the territory of a combatant State, and nationals of a co-belligerent State, cannot claim the protection of GCIV if their home state has normal diplomatic representation in the State that holds them (article 4). Since nearly every state has diplomatic recognition of every other state, most citizens of neutral countries in a war zone are not able to claim any protection from GCIV.

Geneva Conventions' Additional Protocols

In addition, there are two additional protocols to the Geneva Convention: Protocol I (1977), relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts and Protocol II (1977), relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts. These clarify and extend the definitions in some areas, but to date many countries, including the United States, have either not signed them or have not ratified them. Protocol I does not explicitly mention torture but it does clarify one or two points which effect the treatment of POWs and Protected Persons. The first is that it explicitly involves "the appointment of Protecting Powers and of their substitute" to monitor that the Conventions are being enforced by the Parties to the conflict. It also broadens the definition of a lawful combatant in occupied territory to include those who carry arms openly but are not wearing uniforms, so that they are now lawful combatants and protected by the Geneva Conventions. It also defines who is a mercenary and therefore an unlawful combatant and not protected by the same conventions. Protocol II "develops and supplements Article 3 [relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts] common to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 without modifying its existing conditions of application" . It states in Article 4.a "Violence to the life, health and physical or mental well-being of persons, in particular murder as well as cruel treatment such as torture, mutilation or any form of corporal punishment;", Article 4.b "Outrages upon personal dignity, in particular humiliating and degrading treatment, rape, enforced prostitution and any form of indecent assault;" and Article 4.h "Threats to commit any of the foregoing acts". There are other clauses in other articles which entreat humane treatment of enemy personnel in an internal conflict, which have a bearing on the use of torture, but there are no other clauses which explicitly mentions torture.

Other conventions

During the Cold War, in Europe a treaty called European Convention on Human Rights was signed. The treaty was based on the UDHR. It included the provision for a court to interpret the treaty and Article 3 "Prohibition of torture" stated "No one shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment". In 1978 the European Court of Human Rights ruled that the five techniques of "sensory deprivation" were not torture but were "inhuman or degrading treatment". See Accusations of use of torture by United Kingdom for details. This case was 9 years before the UNCAT came into force and had an influence on States thinking about what constitutes torture ever since.

Supervision of anti-torture treaties

In times of armed conflict between a signatory of the Geneva conventions and another party, delegates of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) monitor the compliance of signatory to the Geneva Conventions, which includes monitoring the use of torture. The Istanbul Protocol, an official UN document, is the first set of international guidelines for documentation of torture and its consequences. It became a United Nations official document in 1999. The European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CPT) "shall, by means of visits, examine the treatment of persons deprived of their liberty with a view to strengthening, if necessary, the protection of such persons from torture and from inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment." as stipulated in Article 1 of the European Convention for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment Human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, are actively involved in working to stop the use of torture throughout the world and publish reports on any activities they consider to be torture.

Domestic and national law

Countries which have signed the "United Nations Convention Against Torture", have a treaty obligation to include the provisions into domestic law. The laws of many countries therefore formally prohibit torture. However, such de jure legal provisions are by no means a proof that, de facto, the signatory country does not use torture. To prevent torture, many legal systems have a right against self-incrimination or explicitly prohibit undue force when dealing with suspects. Torture was abolished in England about 1640 (except peine forte et dure which was only abolished in 1772), in Scotland in 1708, in Prussia in 1740, in Russia in 1801. The French 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, of constitutional value, prohibits submitting suspects to any hardship not necessary to secure his person. Statute law explicitly makes torture a crime. In addition, statute law prohibits the police or justice from interrogating suspects under oath. The United States includes this right in the fifth amendment to its constitution, which in turn serves as the basis of the Miranda warning that is issued to individuals upon their arrest. Additionally, the US Constitution's eighth amendment expressly forbids the use of "cruel and unusual punishments", which is widely interpreted as a prohibition of the use of torture. However, there has been some debate over the interpretation of U.S. and international law. In 2002 a controversial Justice Department memo, since repudiated, defined torture as "intentionally causing permanent damage to vital organs or permanent emotional trauma" (so techniques such as electric shocks are considered acceptable). Principal Deputy Associate Attorney General Brian Boyle acknowledged that confessions obtained under duress would be acceptable as evidence in Guantanamo Bay. As of November 5, 2005: US Congress is considering attaching Senator John McCain's amendment banning torture to the 2006 Defense appropriations bill; McCain has himself experienced torture as a prisoner of the Viet Cong. The amendment would ensure an end to the U.S. use of torture, inhuman and degrading treatment, and extraordinary rendition, which have become common practice since September 11, 2001. However, Vice President Dick Cheney and other Republicans are asking for exemptions for the CIA in the torture ban.

Use of torture

Recent times in the context of this article is from December 10, 1948 when the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly.

Torture in the past

United Nations General Assembly during the Spanish Inquisition. Circa 1700 AD. According to Herrera Puga the authorities:
"placed no limits on the means; in this way they used the rack, the lash, fire, etc. In some cases... they applied padlocked irons to the flesh which even led to the amputation of a hand..." ]] Torture was used by many governments and countries in the past. In the Roman Republic, for example, a slave's testimony was admissible only if it was extracted by torture, on the assumption that slaves could not be trusted to reveal the truth voluntarily. In much of Europe, medieval and early modern courts freely inflicted torture, depending on the accused's crime and the social status of the suspect. Torture was seen as a legitimate means for justice to extract confessions, or obtain the names of accomplices or other information about the crime. Often, defendants sentenced to death would be tortured prior to execution, so as to have a last chance that they disclose the names of their accomplices. Torture in the Medieval Inquisition was used starting in 1252. In the Middle Ages especially and up into the 18th century, torture was considered a legitimate way to obtain testimonies and confessions from suspects for use in judicial inquiries and trials. The torture methods used by inquisitors were mild compared to secular courts, as they were forbidden to use methods that resulted in bloodshed, mutilation or death. One of the most common forms of medieval inquisition torture was known as strappado. The hands were bound behind the back with a rope, and the accused was suspended this way, dislocating the joints painfully in both arms. Weights could be added to the legs dislocating those joints as well. Other torture methods could include the rack (stretching the victim’s joints to breaking point), the thumbscrew, the boot (crushing the foot and leg), water (massive quantities of water forcibly ingested), and the medieval red-hot pincers, although it was technically against church policy to mutilate a person's body. If stronger methods were needed, or death, the person was handed over to the secular authorities who were not bound by any restrictions. In 1613 Anton Praetorius described the situation of the prisoners in the dungeons in his book "Gründlicher Bericht über Zauberey und Zauberer" (Thorough Report about Sorcery and Sorcerers). He was one of the first to protest against all means of torture.

Torture in recent times

Torture remains a frequent method of repression in totalitarian regimes, terrorist organizations and organized crime. In authoritarian regimes, torture is often used to extract confessions from political dissenters, so that they admit to being spies or conspirators, probably manipulated by some foreign country. Most notably, such a dynamic of forced confessions marked the justice system of the Soviet Union (thoroughly described in Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's Gulag Archipelago). Some Western democratic governments have on occasions resorted to torture, or acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, of people thought to possess information perceived to be vital for national security which can not be obtained quickly by other methods. As recently as 1976, the European Commission on Human Rights found the British government guilty of "torture, inhuman and degrading treatment. From 1972 onwards when Amnesty International published its path-breaking "Report of an Enquiry into Allegations of Ill Treatment in Northern Ireland" the organization has maintained a fairly continuous drumbeat of revelations and recommendations about the behaviour of British operatives in Northern Ireland. Many countries find it expedient from time to time to use techniques of a kind used in torture; at the same time few wish to be described as doing so, either to their own citizens or international bodies. So a variety of devices are used to bridge this gap, including state denial, "secret police", "need to know", denial that given treatments are torturous in nature, appeal to various laws (national or international), use of jurisdictional argument, claim of "overriding need", and so on. Torture has been a tool of many states throughout history and for many states it remains so (unofficially and when expedient and desired) today. Despite worldwide condemnation and the existence of treaty provisions that forbid it, torture is still practiced in two thirds of the world's nations. .

Torture by proxy

In 2003, Britain's Ambassador to Uzbekistan, Craig Murray, made accusations that information was being extracted under extreme torture from dissidents in that country, and that the information was subsequently being used by Britain and other western, democratic countries which officially disapproved of torture . The accusations did not lead to any investigation by his employer, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and he resigned after disciplinary action was taken against him in 2004. No misconduct by him was proven. The Foreign and Commonwealth Office itself is being investigated by the National Audit Office because of accusations of victimisation, bullying and intimidating its own staff . Murray later stated that he felt that he had unwittingly stumbled upon what has elsewhere been called "torture by proxy" and with the euphemism of "extraordinary rendition" by the American administration. He thought that Western countries moved people to regimes and nations where it was known that information would be extracted by torture, and made available to them. This he alleged was a circumvention and violation of any agreement to abide by international treaties against torture. If it was true that a country was doing this and it had signed the UN Convention Against Torture then that country would be in specific breach of Article 3 of that convention.

Aspects of torture

The use of torture has been criticized not only on humanitarian and moral grounds, but on the grounds that evidence extracted by torture tends to be extremely unreliable and that the use of torture corrupts institutions which tolerate it. The purpose of torture is often as much to force acquiescence on an enemy, or destroy a person psychologically from within, as it is to gain information, and its effects endure long after the torture itself has ended. In this sense torture is often described by survivors as "never ending". See Psychology of torture to study the pyschological effects associated with torture.

Psychological Torture

Psychological torture is torture directed to the psyche as opposed to the body. It uses (nominally) non-violent torments to damage or destroy the subject's mental, emotional, and psychological well-being. Psychological torture often induces far more lasting and insidious pain, suffering and trauma than its physical counterpart. Forms of psychological torture include:
- Extreme sleep deprivation
- Exposure to extreme temperatures
- 24/7 blindfolding or hooding, to enhance disorientation
- Mock execution
- Being forced to witness atrocities to others.
- Extended solitarity confinement.
- Being forced to commit atrocities to others (including torture).
- Being forced to eat the flesh of a murdered family member.
- Being forced to betray others.
- Re-education with insidious (non-violent) thought-reform techniques.
- Calculated violation of social/sexual taboos.
- Continous calculated humiliations

Incrimination of innocent people

One well documented effect of torture is that with rare exceptions people will say or do anything to escape the situation, including untrue "confessions" and implication of others without genuine knowledge, who may well then be tortured in turn. There are rare exceptions, such as Admiral James Stockdale, Medal of Honor winner, and F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas, G.C., who refused to provide information under torture.

Secrecy/publicity

Depending on the culture, torture has at times been carried on in silence (official denial), semi-silence (known but not spoken about) or openly acknowledged in public (in order to instill fear and obedience). Since torture is in general not accepted in modern times, professional torturers in some countries tend to use techniques such as electrical shock, asphyxiation, heat, cold, noise, and sleep deprivation which leave little evidence, although in other contexts torture frequently results in horrific mutilation or death. Evidence of torture also comes from the testimony of witnesses, such as those that testified about the atrocities committed by British troops in Norther Ireland during the Troubles. Evidence also comes from amateur photographers, like those who photographed the torture at Abu Ghraib prison.

Motivation to torture

It was long thought that "good" people would not torture and only "bad" ones would, under normal circumstances. Research over the past 50 years suggests a disquieting alternative view, that under the right circumstances and with the appropriate encouragement and setting, most people can be encouraged to actively torture others. Stages of torture mentality include:
- Reluctant or peripheral participation
- Official encouragement: As the Stanford prison experiment and Milgram experiment show, many people will follow the direction of an authority figure (such as a superior officer) in an official setting (especially if presented as a compulsory obligation), even if they have personal uncertainty. The main motivations for this appear to be fear of loss of status or respect, and the desire to be seen as a "good citizen" or "good subordinate".
- Peer encouragement: to accept torture as necessary, acceptable or deserved, or to comply from a wish to not reject peer group beliefs. At worst this leads to competition between torturers to produce more pain or harsher results.
- Dehumanization: seeing victims as objects of curiosity and experimentation, where pain becomes just another test to see how it affects the victim.
- Disinhibition: socio-cultural and situational pressures may cause torturers to undergo a lessening of moral inhibitions and as a result act in ways not normally countenanced by law, custom and conscience.
- Organisationally, like many other procedures, once torture becomes established as part of internally acceptable norms under certain circumstances, its use often becomes institutionalised and self-perpetuating over time, as what was once used exceptionally for perceived necessity finds more reasons claimed to justify wider use.

Medical torture

Main article: Medical torture At times, medicine and medical practitioners have been drawn into the ranks of torturers, either to judge what victims can endure, to apply treatments which will enhance torture, or as torturers in their own right. An infamous example of the latter is Dr. Josef Mengele, known then by inmates of Auschwitz as the "Angel of Death".

Torture murder

Main article: Torture murder Torture murder is a term given to the commission of torture by an individual or small group, as part of a sadistic or murderous agenda. Such murderers are often serial killers, who kill their victims by slowly torturing them to death over a prolonged period of time, and is usually preceded by a kidnapping where the killer will take the victim to a secluded or isolated location.

Effects of torture

Organizations like the Medical Foundation for Care of Victims of Torture try to help survivors of torture obtain medical treatment and to gain forensic medical evidence to obtain political asylum in a safe country and/or to prosecute the perpetrators. Torture is often difficult to prove, particularly when some time has passed between the event and a medical examination. Many torturers around the world use methods designed to have a maximum psychological impact while leaving only minimal physical traces. Medical and Human Rights Organizations worldwide have collaborated to produce the Istanbul Protocol, a document designed to outline common torture methods, consequences of torture and medico-legal examination techniques. Torture often leads to lasting mental and physical health problems. Physical problems can be wide-ranging, e.g. sexually transmitted diseases, musculo-skeletal problems, brain injury, post-traumatic epilepsy and dementia or chronic pain syndromes. Mental health problems are equally wide-ranging; common are post-traumatic stress disorder, depression and anxiety disorder. Treatment of torture-related medical problems might require a wide range of expertise and often specialized experience. Common treatments are psychotropic medication, e.g. SSRI antidepressants, counseling, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, family systems therapy and physiotherapy. Main article, see Psychology of torture for psychological impact, and aftermath, of torture.

Torture devices and methods

It is plainly evident that, since the earliest times, tremendous ingenuity has been devoted to devising ever more effective and mechanically simpler instruments and techniques of torture. That those capable of applying such genius to the science of pain could in future employ their capabilities in other directions was not lost on the authorities: for example, after Perillos of Athens demonstrated his newly invented brazen bull to Phalaris, Tyrant of Agrigentum, Perillos himself was immediately put inside to test it, but he was removed before he died. Torture does not require complex equipment. Several methods need little or no equipment and can even be improvised from innocuous household or kitchen equipment. Methods such as consumption by wild animals (antiquity), impalement (Middle Ages) or confinement in iron boxes in the tropical sun (World War II Asia), are examples of other methods which required little more than readily available items.

Torture using chemicals

Torture victims may be forced to ingest chemicals or other products (such as broken glass, heated water, or soaps) that cause pain and internal damage. Irritating chemicals or products may be inserted into the rectum or vagina, or applied on the external genitalia. Cases of women being punished for adultery by having hot peppers inserted into their vaginas were reported in India. Similar means were used in many instances in African strife. It was widely accepted that during British rule over India, the police would make people confess by inserting chilies in various body orifices.

Electrical torture

A modern method of torture is to apply electrical shocks to the body. For added effects, torturers may apply the shocks to the genitalia or insert the electrode into the mouth, rectum or vagina.

Torture methods

- Bastinado
- Beatings and physical violence
- Boiling
- The boot
- Castration
- Chinese Water Torture
- Denailing
- Disfigurement
- Drowning or Water cure
- Flagellation
- Flaying
- Foot roasting
- Solitary confinement
- Mancuerda
- Mock executions
- Peine forte et dure (Pressing)
- Pitchcapping
- Rape
- Scaphism
- Sensory deprivation
- Shabach technique
- Sleep deprivation
- Sound (Extremely high volumes, dynamic range, low frequency or noise intended to interfere with rest, cognition and concentration)
- The Spanish boot
- Squassation
- Strappado (also known as "reverse hanging" and "Palestinian hanging")
- Ta'liq hanging from a metal bar. "Kentucky Chicken"
- Tickling
- Water boarding
- Whipping

Torture devices

- Brazen bull
- Breaking wheel
- Iron Maiden
- Judas Chair
- Peace breaker's muzzle
- Pear of Anguish
- Pillory
- Rack
- Scavenger's daughter
- Scold's bridle
- Spanish boot
- Stocks
- Tablillas
- Thumbscrew
- Tucker telephone

Methods of execution and capital punishment

Any method of execution which involves, or has the potential to involve, a great deal of pain or mutilation is considered to be torture and unacceptable to many who support capital punishment. Some of these, if halted soon enough, may not have fatal effects.
- Burning at the stake
- Beating
- Boiling to death
- Burial alive
- Roasting in the brazen bull
- Crucifixion
- Crushing
- Disembowelment
- Drawing and quartering
- Eaten alive (eg by wild beasts)
- Electric chair
- Garroting
- Gas chamber
- Hanging (no drop or short drop)
- Impaling
- Lethal injection (supposed to be next to painless, but agonizingly painful if the anaesthetic drugs fail to keep the paralysed victim unconscious as he/she dies (as with John Wayne Gacy))
- Sawing
- Stoning
- "The boats": see Scaphism

Quotes

Philip Limborch, a preacher and able annotator, quotes in his History of the Inquisition, a writer of the name of Julius Clarus, whom it would appear formed a very forcible idea of the powers of imagination, since he allows them four parts in five of the torments decreed by that satanic tribunal. Limborch represents Clarus as saying, "Know that there are five degrees of torture, videlicit, first, the torture of being threatened to be tortured; secondly, the torture of being conveyed to the place of torture; thirdly, the torture of being, and bound for torture; fourthly, the torture of being hoisted on the torturing rack; and fifthly, and lastly, the torture of squassation."

Other meanings of the word

Especially in countries where citizens can expect to be spared routine exposure to real torture, the word "torture" is used loosely (and to some people, inappropriately) for ordinary, even accidental discomforts. For example, "I was stuck in a traffic jam for three hours today, it was torture!" Rather paradoxically the term is also commonly used in BDSM, where similar methods to inflict pain and/or humiliation are used, though generally in mitigated form, as games, i.e. for the inverse purpose of giving the 'players' sexual and/or fetish pleasure from inflicting and/or enduring the 'torturous' discipline. This is even true for techniques such as genitorture, which can only be used in a virtual parody since the real thing implies inacceptable medical risks. The root word of torture is 'to twist'. It means to apply torque, to turn abnormally, to distort, or to strain.

Etymology

The word came from Latin tortura for
- torqu-tura, originally meaning "act of twisting".

External links

- Torture in the past
- [http://www.medieval-castles.org/torture.htm Medieval Torture Devices - Information]
- [http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1863/july/whipped-slave.htm Account of Slave Torture] in 1863
- Psychology of torture
- [http://www.torturecare.org.uk Medical Foundation for Care of Victims of Torture]
- [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996727 Everyone Is a Potential torturer], New Scientist, 25 November 2004, reporting on
- Fiske et al., SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Why Ordinary People Torture Enemy Prisoners, Science 2004 306: 1482-1483
- Ethical arguments regarding torture
- [http://montages.blogspot.com/2005/01/when-doctors-go-to-war.html "When Doctors Go to War"]
- [http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/006/400rhqav.asp?pg=1 The Truth About Torture] - A defense of government torture.
- [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/06/opinion/06danner.html?oref=login&oref=login&pagewanted=print&position= We Are All Torturers Now] by Mark Danner New York Times, 6 January 2005 [http://www.markdanner.com/nyt/010605_torturers.htm same article on Danner's website]
- [http://www.slate.com/id/2119122/nav/ais/ What Is Torture? An interactive primer on American interrogation] by Emily Bazelon, Phillip Carter, and Dahlia Lithwick, May 26, 2005 for Slate A Washingtonpost.Newsweek Interactive Company
- [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/30/AR2005063001680.html The Stain of Torture] by Burton J. Lee III, former presidential physician to George W. Bush Washington Post July 1, 2005
- [http://news.cincypost.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051104/EDIT/511040330/1003 Torture is a Crime not a policy] Cincinnati Post, November 4, 2005
- Other
- [http://ariwatch.com/Torture.htm Torture and the Ayn Rand Institute]
- [http://www.serendipity.li/hr/torture.htm Torture] can never be justified.

Footnotes

# [http://www.cpt.coe.int/ European Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT)] # [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/hcc4/htm/i.vi.viii.htm History of the Christian Church, Volume IV: Mediaeval Christianity. A.D. 590-1073. Chapter VI. Morals And Religion: Page 80:The Torture] by Schaff, Philip (1819-1893) # [http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0013250.html Hutchinson's Encyclopaedia: Torture] #[http://www.commondreams.org/news2005/1104-07.htm Organizations, Local Governments, Veterans, and the Public Urge End to US Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment] November 4 2005. On the "Common Dreams a NewsWire" a "Progressive Community NewsWire". #[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/05/AR2005110500410.html Cheney Seeks CIA Exemption to Torture Ban] by David Espo and Liz Sidoti for The Associated Press in the Washington Post November 5 2005 #[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/23/opinion/23HOCH.html?ex=1086315207&ei=1&en=dd8a4b003ac8f504 New York Times, Sunday, May 23, 2004] This link needs fixing. See the references [http://hnn.us/articles/5352.html in this link]. This could be one of two articles. #
- Susan Sontag, "Regarding the Torture of Others: Notes on what has been done – and why – to prisoners, by Americans," New York Times Magazine, Sunday, May 23, 2004, 24-29, 42.[http://www.southerncrossreview.org/35/sontag.htm alternative source] #
- Adam Hochschild, "What’s in a Word? Torture" New York Times, Sunday, May 23, 2004, Week in Review. May 23 may go down as the day on which a number of commentators finally faced up to the practice of torture – on [http://cbsnewyork.com/topstories/topstories_story_065094819.html 60 Minutes the same evening], Andy Rooney echoed both Sontag and Hochschild. [http://www.peaceredding.org/What's%20in%20a%20Word%20Torture.htm alternative source] # [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/10/23/nenv23.xml&s The envoy silenced after telling undiplomatic truths], The Daily Telegraph 23 October 2004 # as reported in the Sunday Times on 20 March 2005 # [http://www.newyorker.com/online/content/?050214on_onlineonly01 Q & A: Torture by Proxy] Jane Mayer answers question asked by Amy Davidson The New Yorker on 14 February 2005 Category:Human rights abuses Category:Violence
- ms:Siksa ja:拷問

Asphyxiation

Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body. In the absence of remedial action it will very rapidly lead to unconsciousness and death. Asphyxia is the same as suffocation. It comes from the Greek roots a-, "without" and sphuxis, "pulse, heartbeat". Anoxia means the pathological state in which tissues do not get (enough of) oxygen. Asphyxia in humans is a medical emergency. Prolonged asphyxia can result in brain damage even when it does not cause death.

Causes

Causes of asphyxia can include:
- Physical obstruction of the passage of air to or from the lungs:
- Crushing or constriction of the chest or abdomen
- Choking
- Drowning
- Strangulation, or external constriction of the neck or throat, e.g. by a rope (as in hanging), hands, or a constrictor snake
- Reduction of the airways due to anaphylaxis or asthma
- Inhalation of vomit
- Positional asphyxia
- The extremely dangerous and frequently deadly practice of erotic asphyxiation, also called "breath control play"
- Breathing in low oxygen environments, for example:
- the filling of cryogenic vessels with liquified, oxygen-free gases such as nitrogen in an enclosed space
- workers climbing down into a fermentation vat in a brewery, not realising the vessel has filled with carbon dioxide gas
- workers climbing down into the holds of ships that contain heavier than air, oxygen-free gases
- the misuse or failure of diving rebreathers where the breathing gas contains insufficient oxygen
- breathing a hypoxic breathing gas mixture while diving in shallow water where the partial pressure of oxygen is too low to support consciousness. A hypoxic "bottom gas" is designed only to be breathed at depth.
- Contact with a pulmonary agent or cyanogenic compound
- A seizure which stops breathing activity
- Sleep apnea
- [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_overdose Drug overdose] Problems during childbirth can lead to the newborn experiencing asphyxia (asphyxia neonatorum).

Use in suicide and execution

Recently, asphyxia by carbon monoxide has become a popular suicide method, especially in Japan where suicide pacts involving several individuals are more common. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3735372.stm] During the period of the Ottoman Empire, strangling with silk rope was a form of capital punishment specified for members of the royal family, who by Ottoman rule could not have their blood spilled.

Nuremberg

Nuremberg (German: Nürnberg) is a city in the German state of Bavaria, in the administrative region of Middle Franconia. It is situated on the Pegnitz river and the (Rhine-)Main-Danube Canal. Population (as of 06/2005) is 497,213.

History

Middle Ages

From 1050 to 1571, the city was a regular stop on the progression of the Holy Roman Emperor, particularly because Reichstage (Imperial Diets) and courts met at Nuremberg Castle. The Diets of Nuremberg were an important part of the administrative structure of the empire. In 1219 Nuremberg became an Imperial Free City under Emperor Frederick II. Nuremberg soon became, with Augsburg, one of the two great trade centers on the route from Italy to Northern Europe. On 14 April 1561, a large number of 'plates', 'blood-coloured crosses', and 'two great tubes' staged an aerial dog-fight, enthralling and frightening the whole population of Nuremberg. Nuremberg is notorious for owning the first (and only during Medieval times) Iron Maiden torturing device.

Early Modern

Iron Maiden torturing device The cultural flowering of Nuremberg in the 15th and 16th centuries made it the center of the German Renaissance. In 1525, Nuremberg accepted the Reformation, and in 1532, the religious Peace of Nuremberg, by which the Lutherans gained important concessions, was signed there. During the Thirty Years War, in 1632, Gustavus II was besieged in Nuremberg by Wallenstein. The city declined after the war and recovered its importance only in the 19th century, when it grew as an industrial center. In 1806, Nuremberg passed to Bavaria. The first German railway, from Nuremberg to nearby Fürth, was opened in 1835.

20th century

Because of its relevance to the Holy Roman Empire, in line with the connotations raised by the term Third Reich, the Nazis chose the city as the site of their large NSDAP party conventions. A number of premises were specially constructed for these assemblies, as well as other buildings, some of which were not finished. To this date, many examples of Nazi architecture can be seen in the city, making it an interesting visit for those interested in the History of Germany overall. After Adolf Hitler came to power, Nuremberg was made a national shrine by the National Socialists, who held their annual party congresses nearby from 1933 through 1938. The city was the home of the Nazi leader Julius Streicher and became a center of anti-Semitic propaganda, including the famous Nuremberg rallies captured in Leni Riefenstahl's 1934 film Triumph of the Will. During World War II, Nuremberg was the Headqurters of Military District/Wehrkreis XIII, and an important site for the production of airplane, submarine, and tank engines. The industrial areas of the city were severely damaged in air raids (1943/44). On January 2nd, 1945, the medieval city center was systematically bombed by the British and Americans and was largely (90%) destroyed in only one hour, with 1 800 residents killed and roughly 100 000 left homeless. In February 1945, additional attacks followed. All in all, 6 000 residents of Nuremberg are estimated to have been killed in air raids. Despite this, the city was rebuilt after the war and was to some extent restored to its pre-war appearance, down to the replication of some of its medieval buildings. However, the pre-war splendour of the city seems to be lost forever. After the end of World War II, the city became famous for the trials of Nazi officials for war crimes, the Nuremberg Trials. In order to come to terms with the role Nuremberg played during the Third Reich, the city established the "Nuremberg International Human Rights Award" in 1995, which is awarded every second year to individuals or groups defending human rights worldwide.

Economy

A notable industrial center, Nuremberg is still associated with its traditional gingerbread (Lebkuchen) products, sausages and handmade toys. The first pocket watches, the Nürnberg eggs, were made here in the 16th century. Items manufactured include electrical equipment, mechanical and optical products, motor vehicles, chemicals, textiles, and printed materials. A third of the German consumer research companies are located in Nuremberg. The Nuremberg Toy Fair is the biggest worldwide. Nuremberg has an airport with flights to major German cities and selected European destinations as well as connecting flights worldwide via Frankfurt International Airport. The city's location next to numerous highways, railways and a waterway has contributed to its rising importance for trade with Eastern Europe.

Culture

Frankfurt International Airport Nuremberg was an early center of humanism, science, printing, and mechanical invention. The city contributed much to the science of astronomy. In 1471 Johannes Mueller of Königsberg (Bavaria), later called Regiomontanus, built an astronomical observatory in Nuremberg and published many important astronomical charts. In 1515, Albrecht Dürer, a native of Nuremberg, mapped the stars of the northern and southern hemispheres, producing the first printed star charts, which had been ordered by Johann Stabius. Around 1515 Dürer also published the "Stabiussche 'Weltkarte', the first perspective reproduction of the terrestrial globe. Perhaps most famously, the main part of Nicolaus Copernicus' work was published in Nuremberg in 1543. Printers and publishers have a long history in Nuremberg. Many of these publishers worked with well-known artists of the day to produce books that could also be considered works of art. Others furthered geographical knowledge and travel by mapmaking. Two of these were navigator and geographer Martin Behaim, who made the first world globe, and Hartmann Schedel, who wrote his World Chronicles (Schedelsche Weltchronik) in the local Franconian dialect. Sculptors like Veit Stoss and Peter Vischer are also associated with Nuremberg. Composed of prosperous artisans, the guilds of the Meistersingers flourished here. Richard Wagner made their most famous member, Hans Sachs, the hero of his opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. Baroque composer Johann Pachelbel was born here and was organist of St. Sebald church. Johann Pachelbel

Arts and Architecture

The following churches are located inside the city walls: St. Sebald, St. Lorenz, Frauenkirche (Our Lady's Chapel), St. Klara, St. Martha, St. Jakob, St. Egidien, and St. Elisabeth. The church of the previous Katharienkloster is preserved as a ruin, the Cartause is integrated in the building of the Germanisches Nationalmuseum and the choir of the previous Franzikanerkirche is part of a modern building. The Walburga Chapel and the romanic "Doppelkapelle" (Chapel with two floors) are part of Nuremberg Castle. The "Johanniskirchhof" contains many old graves (Albrecht Dürer, Willibald Pirckheimer, etc.), the "Rochuskirchhof", or the Wöhrder Kirchhof are near the Old Town.

Sister cities

Worldwide, Nuremberg is twinned with the following cities:
- Glasgow, Scotland since 1985
- San Carlos, Nicaragua since 1985
- Skopje, Macedonia since 1982
- Kraków, Poland since 1979
- Nice, France since 1954
- Venice, Italy since 1999
- Atlanta, USA since 1998
- Kavala, Greece since 1998
- Shenzhen, China since 1997
- Antalya, Turkey since 1997
- Hadera, Israel since 1995
- Prague, Czech Republic since 1990
- Kharkov, Ukraine since 1990

Nuremberg Districts

Several old villages now belong to the he city of Nuremberg, for example Großgründlach, Kraftshof, and Neunhof in the north-west; Altenfurt and Fischbach b. Nürnberg in the south-east; and Katzwang and Kornburg in the south. Langwasser is a modern suburb.

Famous denizens

Other famous denizens of the city include: Albrecht Dürer, Adam Kraft, Hans Behaim the Elder (architect), Anton Koberger, Conrad Paumann, Johann Philipp von Wurzelbauer, and Hans Sachs.

External links

- [http://www.nuernberg.de/english/index.html English website of the city]
- [http://www.panorama-cities.net/nuremberg/nuremberg.html Nuremberg City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views and virtual Tours
- [http://www.oopper.de/tn/panorama-nuernberg.htm more Nuremberg Panoramas]
- [http://germany.archiseek.com/bavaria/nuremberg/index.html Architecture of Nuremberg]
- [http://worldfacts.us/Germany-Nuremberg.htm Nuremberg]
- Category:Cities in Germany Category:Towns in Bavaria ko:뉘른베르크 ja:ニュルンベルク

Execution (legal)

Color Key:

Blue: Abolished for all crimes
Green: Abolished for crimes not committed in exceptional circumstances (such as crimes committed in time of war)
Orange: Abolished in Practice
Red: Legal Form of Punishment

]] Execution is a term used to refer to the termination of life pursuant to a judgment at law (see Capital punishment), and more broadly to killings with legal or quasi-legal justifications given, and to extrajudicial killings. Once used in referring to the execution of any legal sentence ("execute" meaning "to carry out fully : put completely into effect"), and applied as such to the execution of a death sentence (by an executioner), it has come to be used to refer to the act of killing itself. Formal military executions are typically by firing squad (for violations of orders in wartime or the laws of war) or by hanging (typically for cowardice, or commission of atrocities or other crimes). Methods of execution which involve, or have the potential to involve, a great deal of pain or mutilation are considered to be torture and unacceptable to many who support capital punishment. The term is also used to refer to illegal killings, such as the killing of prisoners of war (see Summary execution) and hostages, political assassinations and gang murders.

Execution through history

- Crushing by elephant was a common sentence for those condemned to death throughout south and southeast Asia, particularly India, for over 4,000 years.
- From 600 BC through the 20th Century crucifixion has been used as a method of execution.
- The execution of criminals was a form of entertainment in ancient Rome. Usual forms of execution included burning at the stake, crucifixion, or ad bestias (when the prisoner is left alone in the ring with one or more wild animals).
- Between 1283 and 1871, men convicted of treason in England were hanged, drawn and quartered, while women found guilty of treason were burnt at the stake.
- The headman's axe was used in Germany and England in the 16th and 17th Centuries.
- The French Revolution is famous for its pioneering of the guillotine.

Books

- Geoffrey Abbott - Execution: A Guide to Ultimate Penalty (2004)

External links

- [http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution.htm Before the Needles, Executions in America Before Lethal Injection, Details of thousands of historic executions and lynchings]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2365751.stm Account of an execution]
- [http://www.soundportraits.org/on-air/execution_tapes/ Full execution Tapes]

Civil law

In the context of civil law, execution is the process of enforcing a judgment for money damages. Processes available for execution include garnishment, attachment, and levy. Category:Death penalty Category:Human rights abuses Category:Violence ja:刑罰の一覧 simple:Execute

Forger

Forgery is the process of making or adapting objects or documents (see false document), with the intention to deceive. The similar crime of fraud is the crime of deceiving another, including through the use of objects obtained through forgery. Copies, studio replicas, and reproductions are not considered forgeries, though they may later become forgeries through knowing and willful mis-attributions. In the 16th century imitators of Albrecht Dürer's style of printmaking improved the market for their own prints by signing them "AD", making them forgeries. In the 20th century the art market made forgeries highly profitable. There are widespread forgeries of especially valued artists, such as drawings meant to be by Picasso, Klee, and Matisse. This usage of 'forgery' does not derive from metalwork done at a 'forge', but it has a parallel history. A sense of "to counterfeit" is already in the Anglo-French verb forger "falsify." Forgery is one of the techniques of fraud, including identity theft. Forgery is one of the threats that have to be addressed by security engineering. A forgery is essentially concerned with a produced or altered object. Where the prime concern of a forgery is less focused on the object itself— what it is worth or what it "proves"— than on a tacit statement of criticism that is revealed by the reactions the object provokes in others, then the larger process is a hoax. In a hoax, a cultural meme, such as a rumor, or a genuine object "planted" in a concocted situation, may substitute for a forged physical object.

Topics in forgery

- Archaeological forgery
- Discoveries of Shinichi Fujimura
- James Ossuary
- Piltdown Man
- Moses Shapira
- Tiara of Saitapharne, Louvre
- Lady of Elx
- See also Kensington Runestone controversy
- Drake's Plate of Brass
- Sinaia lead plates
- Art forgery
- Tom Keating
- Eric Hebborn
- Elmyr de Hory
- Dürer's imitators
- Camille Corot's imitators
- Han van Meegeren's Vermeers
- Michelangelo's Cupid
- 'Etruscan' warriors, Metropolitan Museum of Art
- The 'Cellini Cup'
- Samson ceramic forgeries
- Furniture faking
- Literary forgery - these literary forgeries all had some effect on the course of cultural history. Other literary forgeries, such as the Hitler diaries, briefly achieve wide notoriety, without affecting subsequent history; they are brought together as literary hoaxes.
- Epistle to the Laodiceans
- Theology of Aristotle
- Ademar of Chabannes' forged Life of St. Martial
- Thomas Chatterton's pseudo-medieval poetry
- Ossianic poems
- Manuscript of Dvůr Králové and Manuscript of Zelená Hora
- The Salamander Letter, which offered an alternative account of Joseph Smith's finding of the Book of Mormon, written by master forger Mark Hofmann.
- Relic forgery - It is not the efficacy of a relic that is in question, but only its provenance.
- cf True Cross
- cf Shroud of Turin
- Biblical Archaeology - Ancient artifacts
- Moses Shapira
- Political forgery - false documents used for purposes of black propaganda.
- The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
- Zinoviev Letter
- Tanaka Memorial

References

- Robert Cohon, Discovery & Deceit: archaeology & the forger's craft Kansas: Nelson-Atkins Museum, 1996
- Oscar Muscarella, The Lie Became Great: the forgery of Ancient Near Eastern cultures, 2000

External links

- [http://www.caslon.com.au/forgeryprofile4.htm Wide-ranging bibliographies of archaeological forgeries, art forgeries etc.]
- [http://www.museum-security.org/forgery2.htm Museum security Network: sources of information on art forgery; gives encyclopedic links.]
- [http://www.cycleback.com Cycleback: information resource about authentication and forgery detection]
- [http://www.paper-shredder-expert.com/Why-do-I-need-a-shredder.htm Why do I need a paper shredder] Category:Illegal occupations
- Category:Deception

1515

Events

- June - Invasion of Persia by Sultan Selim I of the Ottoman Empire.
- August 23 - Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I crushes the Persian army of Shah Ismail I.
- September 5 - Selim captures the Persian capital of Tabriz without encountering any resistance, but is unable to hold it.
- September 13 - September 14 - Battle of Marignano - The army of Francis I of France defeats the Swiss, thanks to the timely arrival of a Venetian army. Francis restores French control of Milan
- November 15 - Thomas Cardinal Wolsey invested as a Cardinal
- Sweden declared independence.
- Ottoman Empire conquers Kurdistan.
- The Manchester Grammar School founded

Year in topics

- 1515 in art

Births

- March 28 - Saint Teresa of Avila, Spanish Carmelite nun and poet (died 1582)
- July 21 - Philip Neri, Italian churchman (died 1595)
- September 8 - Alfonso Salmeron, Spanish Jesuit biblical scholar (died 1585)
- September 22 - Anne of Cleves, fourth queen of Henry VIII of England (died 1557)
- October 4 - Lucas Cranach the Younger, German painter (died 1586)
- October 8 - Margaret Douglas, Countess of Lennox (died 1578)
- November 22 - Mary of Guise, queen of James V of Scotland and regent of Scotland (died 1560)
- Cristobal Acosta, Portuguese doctor and natural historian (died 1580)
- Sebastian Castello, rector of the College of Geneva (died 1563)
- Valerius Cordus, German physician (died 1544)
- Sebastian Franck, German freethinker (died 1543)
- Pierre de la Ramée, French humanist scholar (died 1572)
- Mikolaj Czarny Radziwill, Polish magnate (died 1565)
- Cypriano de Rore, Flemish composer and teacher (died 1565)
- Thomas Seckford, Master of Requests for Elizabeth I of England (died 1587)
- John Sheppard, English composer and organist (died 1560)
- Francisco de Toledo, third Count of Oropesa (died 1584)
- Johann Weyer, German physician (died 1588)

Deaths

- January 1 - King Louis XII of France (born 1462)
- January 15 - Diebold Schilling the Younger, Swiss chronicler
- February 6 - Aldus Manutius, Venetian printer
- November 5 - Mariotto Albertinelli, Italian painter (born 1474)
- December 2 - Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, Spanish general and statesman (b. 1453)
- December 16 - Afonso de Albuquerque, Portuguese naval general (born 1453)
- Antoine Brumel, Flemish composer (born 1460)
- Nezahualpilli, Aztec philosopher (born 1464)
- Alonso de Ojeda, Spanish conquistador (born 1466) Category:1515 ko:1515년 simple:1515

Mary, the mother of Jesus

:Saint Mary and Saint Mary the Virgin both redirect here. See Saint Mary's for entities named after St. Mary. See Blessed Virgin Mary for a discussion of the Catholic Veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus. In Christianity according to the New Testament, Mary (Judeo-Aramaic מרים Maryām "Bitter"; Septuagint Greek Μαριαμ, Mariam, Μαρια, Maria; Arabic: Maryam, مريم) was the mother of Jesus of Nazareth and at the time of his conception was the betrothed wife of Joseph (cf. Matt 1:18-20, Luke 1:35). Most Christians and Muslims understand the Gospel accounts in this respect to mean that Mary was a virgin when she conceived Jesus through a miracle of God. Mary is the subject of much veneration in the Christian faith, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodox Church, and is also highly regarded by Muslims. The area of Christian theology concerning her is Mariology. The feast of the nativity of Mary is celebrated both in the Orthodox and in the Roman Catholic (and also Anglican) churches on 8 September.

Titles given to Mary

Mary's most common titles include the Blessed Virgin Mary or Our Lady (this latter, in French, Spanish, and Italian, is rendered Notre Dame) or "La Virgen de Guadalupe" in Mexico.

Historical records

Christian Scriptures

Blessed Virgin Mary to Mary. Painting by El Greco (1575)]] Little is known of Mary's personal history from the New Testament. She was a relative of Elizabeth, wife of the priest Zechariah of the priestly division of Abijah, who herself was of the lineage of Aaron (Luke 1:5; 1:36). By tradition, she was the daughter of Anne and Joachim. Mary resided at Nazareth in Galilee, presumably with her parents, while betrothed to Joseph of the House of David (Luke 1:26). It has sometimes been argued that she, too, must have been a descendant of King David. During their betrothal – the first stage of a Jewish marriage, during which the couple are not ever permitted to be alone together under one roof, hence may not yet cohabit, despite already being husband and wife in legal terms – the angel Gabriel announced to her that she was to be the mother of the promised Messiah by conceiving him through the Holy Spirit, the power of the Most High (the Annunciation, Luke 1:35). When Joseph was told of her conception by the Holy Spirit, he was afraid; but "an angel of the Lord" commanded him in a dream to be unafraid and take his wife to his home, which Joseph obediently did, thereby formally completing the wedding rites (Matthew 1:18-25). Since the angel had told Mary that Elizabeth, having previously been barren, was now herself pregnant by the power of the word of God, Mary then hurried to visit her relation, who was living with her husband Zechariah in a city of Judah in the hill country (probably at Juttah, Joshua 15:55; 21:16, in the neighbourhood of Maon), at a considerable distance (about 160 km) from Nazareth (Luke 1:39). Immediately on entering the house she was saluted by Elizabeth as the mother of her Lord, and then forthwith gave utterance to her hymn of thanksgiving (Luke 1:46-56; comp. 1 Samuel 2:1-10) commonly known as the Magnificat. After three months Mary returned to her house. Shortly before her own confinement a decree of Augustus (Luke 2:1) required that Mary and Joseph should proceed to Bethlehem (Micah 5:2), some 80 or 90 miles (about 130 kilometers) from Nazareth; and while there they found shelter in the inn (a shelter-place provided for strangers, cf. Luke 2:6,7). But as the inn was crowded, Mary had to retire to a place among the cattle. There Mary gave birth to her son, whom Joseph in accordance with the angel's instruction called Jesus, because he was to save his people from their sins (Matthew 1:21). This was followed by Jesus's circumcision, his presentation to the Lord, the visit of the Magi, the family's flight into Egypt, their return after the death of King Herod the Great about 2/1 BCE and taking up residence in Nazareth (Matthew 2). Mary apparently remained in Nazareth for thirty uneventful years. She is involved in an incident during the only event in Jesus's early adult life that is recorded: his going up to Jerusalem when twelve years of age, where he was found among the teachers in the temple (Luke 2:41-52). Probably some time between this event and the opening of Jesus's public ministry Mary was widowed, for Joseph is not mentioned again. After Jesus's baptism by His cousin, John "the Baptist" (in which the Holy Spirit came down and rested upon Jesus "like a dove"), and His temptations by the Devil in the desert wilderness, Mary was present at the marriage in Cana, where Jesus worked his first public miracle, at her intercession (John 2:1-11). After this event, there are some events with Mary present along with her other sons (James, Joseph, Simon and Judas) and sometimes her daughters (never named)[Matthew 13:54-56; Mark 6:3; Acts 1:14; Roman Catholics do not believe these to be Mary's children, but perhaps some relatives or some others.] We find her at the Cross along with her sister Mary, and Mary Magdalene, Salome and other women (John 19:26). Mary, cradling the dead body of her Son, is a common motif in art, called a "pietà" or "piety". After the Ascension, of about 120 people gathered in the Upper Room on the occasion of the election of Matthias to the vacancy of Judas, Mary is the only person mentioned by name other than the eleven Apostles and the candidates (Acts 1:12-26, especially v. 14 though it is said that Jesus's brothers were there as well in this verse). From this time, she wholly disappears from the historical, Biblical accounts, although it is held by some Christian groups that she is again portrayed as the heavenly Woman of Revelation (Revelation 12:1). Her death is not recorded in Scripture.

Later Christian writings and traditions

According to the Gospel of James, which, though not part of the New Testament, contains biographical material about Mary considered "plausible" by some Orthodox and Catholic Christians, she was the daughter of Joachim and Anna. Before Mary's conception, Anna had been barren, and her parents were quite old when she was conceived. They took her to live in the Temple in Jerusalem when she was three years old, much like Hanna took Samuel to the Tabernacle, as recorded in the Old Testament (Tanakh, Hebrew Bible). Old Testament]] According to Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradition, between three and fifteen years after Christ's Ascension, in either Jerusalem or Ephesus, Mary died; while surrounded by the apostles. Later, when the apostles opened her tomb, they found it empty, and concluded that she had been bodily assumed into Heaven. ("Mary's Tomb" - a tomb in Jerusalem is attributed to Mary, but it was unknown until the 6th century.)

Mary in The Qur'an

And We Made son of Mary and his mother a Sign ... (23.50)

Mary, mother of Jesus, enjoys a singularly distinguished and honored position amongst women in The Qur'an: She is the only woman directly named in The Book; declared (uniquely along with Jesus) to be a Ayat Allah or Sign of The God to mankind (23.50); as one who "guarded her chastity" (66.12); an obedient one (66.12); chosen of her mother and dedicated to Allah whilst still in the womb to the-God (3.36); uniquely (amongst women) Accepted into service by Allah (3.37); cared for by (the High Priest) Zakariya (Zecharias) (3:37); that in her childhood she resided in the Temple and uniquely had access to Al-Mihrab (understood to be the Holy of Holies), and was provided with heavenly 'provisions' by Allah (3:37); a Chosen One (3.42); a Purified One (3.42); a Truthful one (5.75); a fulfillment of Prophecy (66.12); a vessel for the Spirit of The-God breathed into her (66.12); her child conceived through "a Word from The-God" (3.45); and "exalted above all women of The Worlds/Universes" (3.42). The Qur'an relates detailed narrative accounts of Maryam (Mary) in two places: 3:35-47 and 19:16-34. The account given in (Sura 19 of) The Qur'an is nearly identical with that in The Gospel according to Luke, and it should be noted that both of these (Luke, Sura 19) begin with an account of the visitation of an angel upon Zakariya (Zecharias) and Good News of the birth of Yahya (John), followed by the account of the annunciation. It should also be noted that the account in (Sura 3 of) The Qur'an tracks the accounts in Apocrypha, namely the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and infancy gospel of James the Just, regarding the use of 'rods' to determine a guardian/husband after she reached the age of puberty (3.44), and, the account of the scandal caused upon the discovery of her with child (19.27-28), both of which are not recorded in the canonical Gospels. Finally, the Qur'an describes Mary (Maryam) as "sister of Harun" (19.28-29) and "daughter of Imran" (66.12). Harun is the Arabic form of the Hebrew Aaron, while Imran is an Arabic form of the Hebrew Amram. Amran was the father of "Aaron, Moses and Miriam" in the Old Testament (Numbers 26.59). The title "sister of Aaron" is further given to Miriam in the Old Testament. Based on this, some commentators have posited a confusion in the Qur'an between Mary, mother of Jesus and Miriam, sister of Moses. This is denied by other commentators, who argue that the similarity in family names is either coincidental or metaphorical.

Christian and Muslim beliefs about Mary

Immaculate Conception of Mary

: Main article: Immaculate Conception The Immaculate Conception is the doctrine that states that Mary was filled with grace from the very moment of her conception in her mother's womb. While it might be permitted for Orthodox Christians to believe the doctrine, only the Roman Catholic Church has officially adopted this teaching, and the title "Immaculate Conception" is one used only by Catholics. Most Protestants reject the idea that Mary was saved by God from her very first moment, since they consider it unscriptural. While it is technically true to say that Orthodox believe Mary was conceived immaculate, Orthodox do not believe in the same idea of original sin as the West, and they believe all babies are born immaculate. Sin is not considered ontological in Orthodoxy, only the tendency toward it. (This tendency is referenced by the phrase, "ancestral curse," which sometimes leads to confusion on the Orthodox view of the fall.) Mary is considered sinless in the Orthodox Church because it is believed that the grace of God allowed her not to sin, thereby remaining immaculate. So in the Orthodox view, it seems Mary was conceived immaculately but her conception was not out of the ordinary in any way.
Mary's age
Whilst the teaching of the Catholic Church that Mary was a virgin is not accepted by a number of liberal Christian scholars who argue that the Greek term parthenos in Luke 1:27 does not necessarily have to mean "virgin [intacta]" but that there is also evidence for it signifying any "young woman", it is generally agreed that Mary was very young when she conceived Jesus. On the other hand, the "young woman" evidence is based on the Isaiah prophecy hundreds of years prior and is taken from the Hebrew language. Other Christian scholars point out that Joseph "kept her a virgin until she gave birth to a Son" in Matthew 1:25, and it is difficult for the meaning to be "young woman" and not "virgin," as well as the fact that a young woman conceiving would not be much of a sign as a virgin conceiving. Some insight into traditions concerning her later life, e.g., that she died between three and 15 years after the crucifixion of Jesus, can be found in the New Testament Apocrypha. Assuming that Jesus died in his 30s, there is also little reason to doubt that his mother could still be alive at the time of his death, or that she could have witnessed it (cf. Jn 19:25).
Virgin birth of Jesus
Virgin birth, Egypt, 16th century.]] : Main article: Nativity The Apostles' Creed and Nicene Creed both refer to Mary as "the Virgin Mary". This alludes to the belief that Mary conceived Jesus through the action of God the Holy Spirit, and not through intercourse with Joseph or anyone else. That she was a virgin at this time is affirmed by Eastern Christianity, Roman Catholicism and by many (though not all) Protestants. Denial of this is considered heretical by Catholics and Eastern Orthodox (and Evangelicals) alike. Historic Christianity, including modern-day Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, teaches that she was a virgin before, during, and after giving birth to Jesus. Islam also takes this