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Isthmus Of Panama

Isthmus of Panama

The Isthmus of Panama is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, linking North and South America. It was formed some 3 million years ago during the Pliocene epoch. It lies in the nation of Panama, and is cut by the Panama Canal. Like many isthmuses, it is a location of great strategic value due to its importance in both land and sea transportation. Category:Geography of Panama Panama ko:파나마 지협 ja:パナマ地峡

Isthmus

An isthmus (from Greek ισθμός, isthmos; plural isthmuses or isthmi; pronounced ) is a narrow strip of land that is bordered on two sides by water and connects two larger land masses. It is the inverse of a strait (which lies between two land masses and connects two larger bodies of water). Isthmuses are a naturally good place to build canals. The Panama Canal, which connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, drastically reduces the naval travel time between the east and west coasts of the Americas. The Suez Canal is another example - it allows ship transportation between Europe and Asia without the circumnavigation of Africa.

List of isthmuses

- the Isthmus of Panama - the most famous isthmus. Connects North America and South America.
- the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece - the first isthmus to bear that name
- the Isthmus of Dubrovnik - today's Stradun, (main center street), which connected Laus and Dub into a single city unit
- the Isthmus of Suez - the isthmus between North Africa and Southwest Asia, in Egypt where the Suez Canal is located
- the Isthmus of Kra, which joins the Malay Peninsula with mainland Asia
- the Isthmus of Avalon in Canada - separates the main island of Newfoundland from the Avalon Peninsula (where the capital, St. John's, is located)
- the Isthmus of Chignecto - connects the mainland portion of Nova Scotia with North America
- the Isthmus of Tehuantepec - connects Yucatan and Central America with the rest of Mexico
- the Isthmus of Perekop between Crimea and Ukraine proper
- the Karelian Isthmus between Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga
- the Madison Isthmus, between Lake Mendota and Lake Monona in Madison, Wisconsin

Caribbean Sea

The Caribbean Sea is a tropical body of water adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean and southeast of the Gulf of Mexico. It covers most of the Caribbean Plate and is bounded on the south by Venezuela, Colombia, and Panama, to the west by Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, and the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico, to the north by the Greater Antilles islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico, and to the east by the Lesser Antilles. The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest salt water seas and has an area of about 2,754,000 km² (1,063,000 square miles). The sea's deepest point is the Cayman Trench, between Cuba and Jamaica, at 7,686 m (25,220 feet) below sea level. The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, especially the numerous islands, is known as the Caribbean.

Pacific Ocean

:For other meanings of Pacific, see Pacific (disambiguation). The Pacific Ocean (from the Latin name Mare Pacificum, "peaceful sea", bestowed upon it by the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan) is the world's largest body of water. It encompasses a third of the Earth's surface, having an area of 179.7 million km² (69.4 million sq miles). Extending approximately 15,500 km (9,600 miles) from the Bering Sea in the Arctic to the icy margins of Antarctica's Ross Sea in the south (although the Antarctic regions of the Pacific are sometimes described as part of the circumpolar Southern Ocean)the Pacific reaches its greatest east-west width at about 5°N latitude, where it stretches approximately 19,800 km (12,300 miles) from Indonesia to the coast of Colombia. The western limit of the ocean is often placed at the Strait of Malacca. The lowest point on earth—the Mariana Trench—lies some 10,911 m (35,797 ft) below sea level. The Pacific contains about 25,000 islands (more than the total number in the rest of the world's oceans combined), the majority of which are found south of the equator. (See: Pacific Islands.) Along the Pacific Ocean's irregular western margins lie many seas, the largest of which are the Celebes Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea, Sea of Japan, South China Sea, Sulu Sea, Tasman Sea, and Yellow Sea. The Straits of Malacca joins the Pacific and the Indian Oceans on the west, and the Straits of Magellan links the Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean on the east. As the Pacific straddles the ±180° longitude where East becomes West, the Asian side of the ocean (where latitudes are E) is correctly referred to as East Pacific and the opposite side (eastwards) where latitudes are W is the West Pacific. To retain the popular "left is western" and "right is eastern" means of reference, the Western Pacific is thus the East Pacific and the Eastern Pacific the West Pacific. The International Date Line follows the ±180° longitude to the greater part of its North-South demarcation but veers far eastwards around Kiribati (Caroline Island, which, not coincidentally, was renamed Millennium Island) and westwards round the Aleutian Islands as can be seen on the map at International Date Line. For most of Ferdinand Magellan's voyage from the Straits of Magellan to the Philippines, the Portuguese explorer indeed found the ocean peaceful. However, the Pacific is not always peaceful. Many typhoons and hurricanes batter the islands of the Pacific and the lands around the Pacific rim are full of volcanoes and often rocked by earthquakes. Tsunamis, caused by underwater earthquakes, have devastated many islands and wiped out whole towns. Tsunami

Ocean bottom

The ocean floor of the central Pacific basin is relatively uniform, an abyssal plain with a mean depth of about 4270 m (14,000 ft). The major irregularities in the basin are the extremely steep-sided, flat-topped submarine peaks known as seamounts. The western part of the floor consists of mountain arcs that rise above the sea as island groups, such as the Solomon Islands and New Zealand, and deep oceanic trenches, such as the Mariana Trench, the Philippine Trench, and the Tonga Trench. Most of the trenches lie adjacent to the outer margins of the wide western Pacific continental shelf. Along the eastern margin of the Pacific Basin is the East Pacific Rise, which is a part of the worldwide mid-oceanic ridge. About 3000 km (1800 miles) across, the rise stands about 3 km (2 miles) above the adjacent ocean floor. Because a relatively small land area drains into the Pacific, and because of the ocean's immense size, most sediments are authigenic or pelagic in origin. Authigenic sediments include montmorillonite and phillipsite. Pelagic sediments derived from seawater include pelagic red clays and the skeletal remains of sea life. Terrigenous sediments eroded from land masses are confined to narrow marginal bands close to land.

Elevation extremes

- lowest point: -10,924 m (-35,840 ft). at the bottom of the Mariana Trench
- highest point: 0 m (0 ft), sea level.

Water characteristics

Water temperatures in the Pacific vary from freezing in the poleward areas to about 29°C (84°F) near the equator. Salinity also varies latitudinally. Water near the equator is less salty than that found in the mid-latitudes because of abundant equatorial precipitation throughout the year. Poleward of the temperate latitudes salinity is also low, because little evaporation of seawater takes place in these frigid areas. The surface circulation of Pacific waters is generally clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (the North Pacific Gyre) and anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The North Equatorial Current, driven westward along latitude 15°N by the trade winds, turns north near the Philippines to become the warm Japan or Kuroshio Current. Turning eastward at about 45°N, the Kuroshio forks and some waters move northward as the Aleutian Current, while the rest turn southward to rejoin the North Equatorial Current. The Aleutian Current branches as it approaches North America and forms the base of an anti-clockwise circulation in the Bering Sea. Its southern arm becomes the chilled slow, south-flowing California Current. The South Equatorial Current, flowing west along the equator, swings southward east of New Guinea, turns east at about 50°S, and joins the main westerly circulation of the Southern Pacific, which includes the Earth-circling Antarctic Circumpolar Current. As it approaches the Chilean coast, the South Equatorial Current divides; one branch flows around Cape Horn and the other turns north to form the Peru or Humboldt Current.

Climate

Only the interiors of the large land masses of Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand escape the pervasive climatic influence of the Pacific. Within the area of the Pacific, five distinctively different climatic regions exist: the mid-latitude westerlies, the trades, the monsoon region, the typhoon region, and the doldrums. Mid-latitude westerly air streams occur in both northerly and southerly latitudes, bringing marked seasonal differences in temperature. Closer to the equator, where most of the islands lie, steadily blowing trade winds allow for relatively constant temperatures throughout the year of 21-27°C (70-81°F). The monsoon region lies in the far western Pacific between Japan and Australia. Characteristic of this climatic region are winds that blow from the continental interior to the ocean in winter and in the opposite direction in summer. Consequently, a marked seasonality of cloudiness and rainfall occurs. Typhoons often cause extensive damage in the west and southwest Pacific. The greatest typhoon frequency exists within the triangle from southern Japan to the central Philippines to eastern Micronesia. Although more poorly defined than the other climatic regions, two major doldrum areas lie within the ocean, one located off the western shores of Central America and the other within the equatorial waters of the western Pacific. Both areas are noted for their high humidity, considerable cloudiness, light fluctuating winds, and frequent calms.

Geology

The Andesite Line is the most significant regional distinction in the Pacific. It separates the deeper, basic igneous rock of the Central Pacific Basin from the partially submerged continental areas of acidic igneous rock on its margins. The Andesite Line follows the western edge of the islands off California and passes south of the Aleutian arc, along the eastern edge of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuril Islands, Japan, the Mariana Islands, the Solomon Islands, and New Zealand. The dissimilarity continues northeastward along the western edge of the Albatross Cordillera along South America to Mexico, returning then to the islands off California. Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, New Guinea, and New Zealand—all eastward extensions of the continental blocks of Australia and Asia—lie outside the Andesite Line. Within the closed loop of the Andesite Line are most of the deep troughs, submerged volcanic mountains, and oceanic volcanic islands that characterize the Central Pacific Basin. It is here that basaltic lavas gently flow out of rifts to build huge dome-shaped volcanic mountains whose eroded summits form island arcs, chains, and clusters. Outside the Andesite Line, volcanism is of the explosive type, and the Pacific Ring of Fire is the world's foremost belt of explosive volcanism.

Landmasses

The largest landmass entirely within the Pacific Ocean is the island of New Guinea— the second largest in the world. Almost all of the smaller islands of the Pacific lie between 30°N and 30°S, extending from South-east Asia to Easter Island; the rest of the Pacific Basin is almost entirely submerged. The great triangle of Polynesia, connecting Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand, encompasses the island arcs and clusters of the Cook, Marquesas, Samoa, Society, Tokelau, Tonga, and Tuamotu islands. North of the equator and west of the international date line are the numerous small islands of Micronesia, including the Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands, and the Mariana Islands. In the southwestern corner of the Pacific lie the islands of Melanesia, dominated by New Guinea. Other important island groups of Melanesia include the Bismarck Archipelago, Fiji, New Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. Islands in the Pacific Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs, and uplifted coral platforms. Continental islands lie outside the Andesite Line and include New Guinea, the islands of New Zealand, and the Philippines. These islands are structurally associated with the nearby continents. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands. The third and fourth types of islands are both the result of coralline island building. Coral reefs are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia.

History and economy

See the Oceania article for information on one set of the Pacific Island states listed below here. Important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times, most notably those of Polynesians from Tahiti to Hawaii and New Zealand. The ocean was sighted by Europeans early in the 16th century, first by Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1513) and then by Ferdinand Magellan, who crossed the Pacific during his circumnavigation (1519-1522). In 1564 conquistadors crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi who sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. For the remainder of the 16th century Spanish influence was paramount, with ships sailing from Spain to the Philippines, New Guinea, and the Solomons. The Manila Galleons linked Manila and Acapulco. During the 17th century the Dutch, sailing around southern Africa, dominated discovery and trade; Abel Janszoon Tasman discovered (1642) Tasmania and New Zealand. The 18th century marked a burst of exploration by the Russians in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, the French in Polynesia, and the British in the three voyages of James Cook (to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest). Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by Great Britain and France, followed by the United States. Significant contributions to oceanographic knowledge were made by the voyages of the HMS Beagle in the 1830s, with Charles Darwin aboard; the HMS Challenger during the 1870s; the U.S.S. Tuscarora (1873-76); and the German Gazelle (1874-1876). Although the United States took the Philippines in 1898, Japan controlled the western Pacific by 1914, and occupied many other islands during World War II. By the end of that war the U.S. Pacific Fleet was the virtual master of the ocean. Seventeen independent states are located in the Pacific: Australia, Fiji, Japan, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, New Zealand, Palau, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Republic of China (Taiwan), Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. Eleven of these nations have achieved full independence since 1960. The Northern Mariana Islands are self-governing with external affairs handled by the United States, and Cook Islands and Niue are in similar relationships with New Zealand. Also within the Pacific are the U.S. state of Hawaii and several island territories and possessions of Australia, Chile, Ecuador, France, Japan, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The exploitation of the Pacific's mineral wealth is hampered by the ocean's great depths. In shallow waters of the continental shelves off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, petroleum and natural gas are extracted, and pearls are harvested along the coasts of Australia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Nicaragua, Panama, and the Philippines, although in sharply declining volume. The Pacific's greatest asset is its fish. The shoreline waters of the continents and the more temperate islands yield herring, salmon, sardines, snapper, swordfish, and tuna, as well as shellfish. In 1986, the member nations of the South Pacific Forum declared the area a nuclear-free zone in an effort to halt nuclear testing and prevent the dumping of nuclear waste there.

Ports and harbours

- Acapulco (Mexico)
- Anchorage (United States)
- Auckland (New Zealand)
- Brisbane (Australia)
- Callao (Peru)
- Hong Kong (Hong Kong (China (PRC)))
- Honolulu (United States)
- Kobe (Japan)
- Long Beach (United States)
- Los Angeles (United States)
- Panama City (Panama)
- Portland (Oregon) (United States)
- Prince Rupert (Canada)
- San Diego (United States)
- San Francisco (United States)
- Sapporo (Japan)
- Seattle (United States)
- Shanghai (China (PRC))
- Sydney (Australia)
- Taipei (China (ROC))
- Vancouver (Canada)
- Victoria (Canada)
- Vladivostok (Russia)
- Yokohama (Japan)

Bibliography

- Barkley, R.A., Oceanographic Atlas of the Pacific Ocean (1969)
- Cameron, I., Lost Paradise (1987)
- Couper, A., Development in the Pacific Islands (1988)
- Crump, D.J., ed., Blue Horizons (1980)
- Gilbert, John, Charting the Vast Pacific (1971)
- Lower, J. Arthur, Ocean of Destiny: A Concise History of the North Pacific, 1500-1978 (1978)
- Oliver, D.L., The Pacific Islands, 3nd ed. (1989)
- Ridgell, R., Pacific Nations and Territories, 2nd ed. (1988)
- Soule, Gardner, The Greatest Depths (1970)
- Spate, O.H., Paradise Found and Lost (1988)
- Terrell, J.E., Prehistory in the Pacific Islands (1986). :Based on public domain text from US Naval Oceanographer

External links

- [http://www.epic.noaa.gov/epic/ewb/ EPIC Pacific Ocean Data Collection] Viewable on-line collection of observational data
- [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations
- [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/ Map South Pacific]
- [http://www.oscar.noaa.gov/datadisplay/ NOAA Ocean Surface Current Analyses - Realtime (OSCAR)] Near-realtime Pacific Ocean Surface Currents derived from satellite altimeter and scatterometer data
- [http://floats.pmel.noaa.gov/floats/ NOAA PMEL Argo profiling floats] Realtime Pacific Ocean data
- [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/jsdisplay/ NOAA TAO El Nino data] Realtime Pacific Ocean El NIno buoy data
- [http://www.southpacific.org/ South Pacific Organizer] Category:Oceans
- zh-min-nan:Thài-pêng-iûⁿ ko:태평양 ja:太平洋 simple:Pacific Ocean th:มหาสมุทรแปซิฟิก

South America

South America is a continent, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. South America is situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean. Commonly referred to as part of America, like North America, South America is named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered New World. South America has an area of 17,821,601 km² (6,880,959 sq mi), or almost 3.5% of the Earth's surface. As of 2005, its population was estimated at more than 371,200,000. South America ranks fourth in area (after Asia, Africa, and North America) and fifth in population (after Asia, Africa, Europe, and North America).Europe __TOC__

Geography

The classification of its geographic location is subject to dispute, as in some non-English speaking regions of the world, the Americas are a continent and North, Central and South America are its subcontinents. In English-speaking and certain other regions of the world, North and South America are considered to be continents and their union is referred to as the supercontinent of the Americas. The classification given to South America, as a subcontinent in a continent or a continent in a supercontinent, depends entirely on regional preferences. It became attached to North America only recently (geologically speaking) with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama some 3 million years ago, which resulted in the Great American Interchange. The Andes, likewise a comparatively young and seismically restless mountain range, run down the western edge of the continent; the land to the east of the Andes is largely tropical rain forest, the vast Amazon River basin. The continent also contains drier regions such as Patagonia and the extremely arid Atacama desert. The region of South America also includes various islands, most of which belong to countries on the continent. The Caribbean territories are grouped with North America. The South American nations that border the Caribbean Sea – including Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana – are also known as Caribbean South America. Major natural resources are copper, iron ore, tin and oil. The many resources in South America have become useful around the world, but they have failed to diversify their economies. This has lead to major highs and lows in their economy causing instability. South America is home to many interesting species of animals including parrots, tarantulas, snakes, and mammals. The largest country in South America by far, in both area and population, is Brazil followed by Argentina. Regions in South America include the Andean States, the Guianas, the Southern Cone, and Eastern South America.

History

South America is thought to have been first inhabited by people crossing the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering strait, though there are also suggestions of migration from the southern Pacific Ocean.

Chavín

The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by 900 BC, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín de Huantar in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned 900 BC to 300 BC.

Inca

Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tahuantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization.

European colonization

Before arrival of Europeans, an estimated 30 million people lived in South America. brain surgery In 1494, Portugal and Spain, the two great maritime powers of that time, on the expectation of new lands being discovered in the west, signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, by which they agreed that all the land outside Europe should be an exclusive duopoly between the two countries. The Treaty established an imaginary line along a north-south meridian 370 leagues west of Cape Verde Islands, roughly 46° 37' W. In terms of the treaty, all land to the west of the line (which is now known to comprehend most of the South American soil), would belong to Spain, and all land to the east, to Portugal. As accurate measurements of longitude were impossible at that time, the line was not strictly enforced, resulting in a Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. Beginning in the 1530s, the people and natural resources of South America were repeatedly exploited by foreign conquistadors, first from Spain and later from Portugal. These competing colonial nations claimed the land and resources as their own and divided it into colonies. European diseases (smallpox, influenza, measles and typhus) to which the native populations had no resistance, and cruel systems of forced labor, such as the infamous haciendas and mining industry's mita, decimated the American population under Spanish control. After this, African slaves, who had developed immunities to these diseases, were quickly brought in to replace them. The Spaniards were committed to converting their American subjects to Christianity, and were quick to purge any native cultural practices that hindered this end. However, most initial attempts at this were only partially successful, as American groups simply blended Catholicism with their traditional beliefs. On the other hand, the Spaniards did not impose their language to the degree they did their religion, and the Catholic Church's evangelization in , and actually contributed to the expansion of these American languages, equipping them with writing systems. Eventually the Natives and the Spaniards interbred, forming a Mestizo class. These and the original Americans were often forced to pay unfair taxes to the Spanish government and were punished harshly for disobeying their laws. Many native artworks were considered pagan idols and destroyed by Spanish explorers. This included the many gold and silver sculptures found in the Americas, which were melted down before transport to Europe. Mestizo

Independence

The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the South American Wars of Independence. Simon Bolivar and José de San Martín led their independence struggle. In Brazil, a Portuguese colony, Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the War of the Triple Alliance and the War of the Pacific. A few countries did not gain independence until the 20th century:
- Trinidad and Tobago, from the United Kingdom, in 1962
- Guyana, from the United Kingdom, in 1966.
- Suriname, from the Dutch control, in 1975 French Guiana remains part of France as of 2005, and hosts the European Union's principal spaceport, the Centre Spatial Guyanais.

Recent history

The continent, like many others, became a battlefield of the Cold War in the late 20th century. The government of Chile was overthrown in the early 1970s, as a late (and peculiar) development of the U.S. Monroe Doctrine. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from internal conflicts (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Other revolutions and military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is the norm now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century.

Economy

As of 2002, South America's gross domestic product declined by 0.3 percent, and its unemployment rate was 10.8 percent. Due to histories of high inflation in nearly all South American countries, interest rates and thus investment remain high and low, respectively. Interest rates are usually double that of the United States. For example, interest rates are about 22 percent in Venezuela and 23 percent in Suriname. The exception is Chile, which had a head start from 1973 under Augusto Pinochet. The South American Community of Nations is a planned continent-wide free trade zone to unite two existing free-trade organizations—Mercosur and the Andean Community. In South America, the gap between the rich and the poor is tremendous. In Venezuela, Paraguay, Brazil, and many other South American countries, the richest 20 percent may own over 60 percent of the nation's wealth, while the poorest 20 percent may own less than 5 percent. This wide gap can be seen in many large South American cities where makeshift shacks and slums lie next to skyscrapers and upper-class luxury apartments.

Culture

Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. French Guiana also has a large number of Protestants. Guyana and Suriname are exceptions, with three major religions: Christianity in general, Hinduism, and Islam. Portuguese and Spanish are the primary languages of the continent. The majority of South Americans (51%) speak Portuguese. However, most South American countries are Spanish-speaking, and nearly all of the continent's lusophones reside in Brazil. Among other languages used by many South Americans are:
- Aymará in Bolivia and Peru.
- Quechua in Bolivia, Ecuador, and Peru.
- Guaraní in Paraguay.
- English in Guyana.
- Hindi in Guyana and Suriname.
- Dutch and Indonesian in Suriname.
- Italian and German in certain pockets across southern South America. South American nations have a rich variety of music. Some of the most famous genres include samba from Brazil and cumbia from Colombia. Because of South America's ethnic mix, South American cuisine takes on African, American Indian, and European influences. Bahia, Brazil, is especially well-known for its West African-influenced cuisine.

People

Ethnic groups of South America include:
- Awá
- Banawa
- Caiapos
- Enxet
- European descendants, especially from Spain, Portugal and Italy.
- Ge
- Guarani
- Incas
- Quechuas
- Juris
- Latin peoples
- Mapuche
- Mestizo
- Xucuru
- Zaparos Indigenous peoples make up the majority of the population in Bolivia and Peru, and are a significant element in most other former Spanish colonies. Exceptions to this include Argentina and Uruguay. At least three of the Amerindian languages (Quechua in Peru and Bolivia, Aymara also in Bolivia, and Guarani in Paraguay) are recognized along with Spanish as national languages. Argentina is 10 percent Indian.

Mestizos

"Mestizo" is a term of Spanish origin used to designate the peoples of mixed European and Amerindian racial strain inhabiting the region spanning the Americas. Mestizos officially make up the majority of the populations of Chile (90%), Colombia (58%), Ecuador (65%), Paraguay (95%) and Venezuela (67%). Figures in other countries are Argentina (about 13%), Bolivia (30%), Brazil (about 12%), Uruguay (8%) and Peru (37%).

African ancestry

Africans first arrived with the Spanish and Portuguese in the 16th century. Most were brought as slaves and delivered to Brazil and the Caribbean. Brazil now has about 60 million black people. Venezuela and Colombia also have significant black population. "Mulato" is a term of Spanish origin (Mulatto in English) describing Latin Americans of mixed African and White racial descent. "Zambo" is a term of Spanish origin describing Latin Americans of mixed African and Amerindian racial descent. The feminine form is zamba.

Territories and divisions

Notes:
¹ La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia; Sucre is the judicial seat.
² Santiago is the administrative capital of Chile; Valparaíso is the site of legislative meetings.
³ Claimed by Argentina.
⁴ The South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands have no permanent population, only hosting a periodic contingent of about 100 researchers and visitors.
- Depending on definitions, Panama and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of South and North America.

External links

News
- [http://www.notisur.com/ NOTISUR -- Political and social news of South America (in Spanish)] Sports
- [http://www.conmebol.com/ CONMEBOL -- Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (The South American Footbal Confederation) in Spanish and Portuguese] Geography
- [http://www.freeworldmaps.net/southamerica/index.html Physical map of South America] South American Community of Nations Category:Continents South America zh-min-nan:Lâm Bí-chiu ko:남아메리카 ja:南アメリカ simple:South America th:ทวีปอเมริกาใต้

Panama

Panama (Spanish: Panamá) is the southernmost country of North America. A transcontinental country, its isthmus constitutes the last part of a natural land bridge between the North American and South American continents. It borders Costa Rica to the west and Colombia to the east, and the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south.

History

Main article: History of Panama Much of Panama's domestic politics and international diplomacy in the 20th century were tied to the Panama Canal and the foreign policy of the United States. At the turn of the 20th century, Theodore Roosevelt pursued United States diplomatic efforts to facilitate a deal with Colombia that would allow it to take over French canal operations started by Ferdinand de Lesseps. In November 1903, a small number of wealthy Panamanian landowners lead by a covert Separatist Junta presided by Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, were encouraged to secede from Colombia with support from the United States. On November 3, Panama declared its independence from Colombia after controlling the Colombian army. The President of the Municipal Council, Demetrio H. Brid[http://www.demetriohbrid.com/Biografia.html], highest authority at the time, became its de facto President, appointing on November 4 a Provisional Government to run the affairs of the new republic. The United States was the first country to recognize the new Republic of Panama and sent troops to protect the nation. The 1904 Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, a prominent member of the Conservative political party, as the first constitutional President of the Republic of Panama. In December 1903 representatives of the republic signed the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty which granted rights to the United States to build and administer indefinitely the Panama Canal, which was opened in 1914. This treaty became a contentious diplomatic issue between the United States and Panama until the signing of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties in 1977. Although the original intent of the founding fathers was to bring harmony amongst the two major political parties (Conservatives and Liberals), the Panamanian government went through periods of political instability and corruption and at various times in its history, the mandate of an elected president terminated prematurely. In 1968, Gen. Omar Torrijos toppled the government of the recently elected Arnulfo Arias Madrid and became the virtual uncontested leader of Panama until his death in an airplane accident in 1981. After Torrijos's death, power eventually became concentrated in the hands of Gen. Manuel Noriega, a former head of Panama's secret police and a former CIA operative. Relations with the United States government soured by the end of the 1980s, with Noriega being accused of drug trafficking. In December 1989, the United States invaded Panama in a large military operation codenamed Operation Just Cause involving 25,000 United States troops. Ostensibly, the death of an unarmed U.S. soldier in plain clothes in Panama at a Panamanian Defence Forces roadblock was one of the precipitating causes for the invasion along with drugtrafficking charges and Noriega's refusal to hand over power after being defeated in elections. However, according to the Panamanian government at the time, the officer's vehicle attempted to drive through the roadblock which was located near a sensitive military location. A few hours after the invasion, in a ceremony that took place inside a US military base in the former Panama Canal Zone, Guillermo Endara was sworn in as the new president of Panama. The invasion occurred just days before the Panama Canal administration was to be turned over to Panamanian control, according to the timetable set up by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. After the invasion, Noriega sought asylum in the Vatican diplomatic mission represented by Monsignior Jose S. Laboa, but after a few days turned himself in to the American military. Noriega was immediately taken to Florida where he was formally charged and arrested by United States federal authorities. He is eligible for parole in 2007. Under the Torrijos-Carter Treaty, on December 31, 1999, the United States returned all canal-related lands to Panama, but reserves the right to military intervention in the interest of its national security. Panama also gained control of canal-related buildings and infrastructure as well as full administration of the canal.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Panama Panama is a republic with three branches of government: executive and legislative branches elected by direct vote for 5-year terms, and an independently appointed judiciary. The executive branch includes a president and two vice presidents (second vice presidential seat will be eliminated in May 2009 elections). The legislative branch consists of a 78-member unicameral Legislative Assembly (legislative branch will decrease to 71 members in May 2009 elections). The judicial branch is organized under a nine-member Supreme Court and includes all tribunals and municipal courts. An autonomous Electoral Tribunal supervises voter registration, the election process, and the activities of political parties. Everyone over the age of 18 is required to vote, although those who fail to do so are not penalized. General elections were held on May 2, 2004; the presidential contest was won by Martín Torrijos, son of the former strongman Omar Torrijos. Martín Torrijos assumed the presidency on September 1, 2004. The former president had been Mireya Moscoso, widow of the political leader Arnulfo Arias.

Administrative subdivisions

Main article: Provinces of Panama Panama is divided into 9 provinces (provincias) and 3 provincial-level indigenous territories (comarcas indígenas). There are also 2 sub-provincial comarcas. The provinces are:
- Bocas del Toro
- Chiriquí
- Coclé
- Colón
- Darién
- Herrera
- Los Santos
- Panamá
- Veraguas The provincial-level comarcas are:
- Emberá
- Kuna Yala
- Ngöbe-Buglé The sub-provincial comarcas are Kuna de Madugandí and Kuna de Wargandí, which are part of Panamá and Darién provinces, respectively. :See also List of cities in Panama

Geography

List of cities in Panama Main article: Geography of Panama Panama is located in both North and South America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. Its location on the eastern end of the isthmus forming a landbridge connecting Central and South America is strategic. By 1999, Panama controlled the Panama Canal that links the North Atlantic Ocean via the Caribbean Sea with the North Pacific Ocean.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Panama Because of its key geographic location, Panama's economy is service-based, heavily weighted toward banking, commerce, and tourism. The handover of the canal and military installations by the US has given rise to new construction projects. The Moscoso administration inherited an economy that is much more structurally sound and liberalized than the one inherited by its predecessor. However, Moscoso was criticized for several failed or halted schemes to develop the former Canal Zone area, including the Ciudad del Saber. The economy also experienced a downturn with the departure of thousands of expatriate Canal professionals.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Panama Demographics of Panama Demographics of Panama] Demographics of Panama Demographics of Panama The culture, customs, and language of the Panamanians are predominantly Caribbean Spanish. Ethnically, the majority of the population is mestizo or mixed Spanish, Indian, Chinese, and West Indian. Spanish is the official and dominant language; English is a common second language spoken by the West Indians and by many in business and the professions. More than half the population lives in the Panama City–Colón metropolitan corridor. The majority of Panamanians are Roman Catholic, accounting for over 80% of the population. Although the Constitution recognises Catholicism as the religion of the majority, Panama has no official religion. Evangelical Christians are now estimated to be around 10% of the population. Other major religions in Panama are Islam (5%), the Bahá'í Faith (1%), Judaism (0.4%), and Hinduism (0.3%). The Jewish community, with over 10,000 members, is by far the biggest community in the region (including Central America, Colombia and the Caribbean). Jewish immigration began in the late 19th Century, and at present there are three synagogues in Panama City, as well as two Jewish schools. Within Latin America, Panama has one of the largest Jewish communities in proportion to its population, surpassed by Uruguay and Argentina. Also in regards to the Bahá'í Faith, Panama hosts one of only seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship in the world. Completed in 1972 in Panama City, it is perched on a high cliff overlooking the canal, and is constructed of local stone laid in a pattern reminiscent of Native American fabric designs. Panama, because of its historical reliance on commerce, is above all a melting pot. This is shown, for instance, by its considerable population of Chinese origin, who number around 150,000, or about 5% of the population. (See main article at Chinatowns in Latin America—Panama). Many Chinese immigrated to Panama to help build the Panama Canal more than 100 years ago. A term for "corner store" in Panamanian Spanish is el chino, reflecting the fact that many corner stores are owned and run by Chinese immigrants. (Other countries have similar social patterns, for instance, the "Arab" corner store of France.) The country is also the smallest in Latin America in terms of population, with Uruguay as the second-smallest (by almost 400,000). However, since Panama has a faster birth rate, it is likely that in the coming years its population will surpass Uruguay's.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Panama
- Music of Panama

External links

- [http://www.thepanamanews.com Panama News in English]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/viviendo_en_panama/ Viviendo en Panama]
- [http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/panamaforum The Panama Forum]
- [http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/cascoviejo UNESCO World Heritage site, El Casco Antiguo]
- [http://www.chiriquichatter.net/blog Chiriqui Chatter - Blog in the Chiriqui Province]
- [http://www.mef.gob.pa/ Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas]-(In Spanish)
- [http://www.mire.gob.pa/ Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores]-(In Spanish)
- [http://www.info-panama.com/panama-gallery/index.php?lang=english Panama Pictures]
- [http://www.presidencia.gob.pa/ Presidencia de la República]-(In Spanish)
- [http://www.up.ac.pa/ Universidad de Panamá]
- [http://www.demetriohbrid.com/ Demetrio H. Brid First de facto President 1903]-(Spanish) Category:Central American countries ko:파나마 ms:Panama ja:パナマ th:ประเทศปานามา

Panama Canal

The Panama Canal bisects the continents of North and South America, cutting through the isthmus of Panama, and connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in Central America. The canal, whose building was one of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, has an enormous impact on shipping, as it removes the need for ships to travel the long and treacherous route via the Drake Passage and Cape Horn at the southernmost tip of South America. A ship sailing from New York to San Francisco via the Canal travels a distance of 5,264 miles (8,472 km), a savings of more than 7,800 miles (12,500 km) — or approximately 20 days — over the 13,100 mile (21,000 km) route around Cape Horn. Although the concept of a canal in Panama dates back to the early 1500s, the first attempt to construct a canal began in 1880, under French leadership. The building of the 51 mile (82 km) canal was plagued by problems, including disease (particularly malaria and yellow fever), and massive landslides. As many as 27,500 workers are estimated to have died during construction; around 22,000 during the French period (1881 to 1889), and 5,609 during the American construction (1904 to 1914). The work was finally completed by the United States, and the canal opened in 1914. The canal has been enormously successful, and continues to be a key factor in world shipping. Each year the canal accommodates the passage of over 14,000 ships, carrying over 203 million tonnes of cargo. Approximately 800,000 ships have passed through the Panama Canal since its completion .

Description

tonne The Panama Canal connects the Gulf of Panama, in the Pacific Ocean, with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Due to the S-shape of the Isthmus of Panama, the canal actually runs from south-east, at the Pacific end, to north-west at the Atlantic; to avoid confusion, the canal authorities classify transits of the canal as northbound, meaning from Pacific to Atlantic, or southbound meaning Atlantic to Pacific. The canal can accommodate vessels from small private yachts up to fairly large commercial ships; the maximum size of vessel which can use the canal is known as Panamax. An increasing number of modern ships are larger than this size, and known as post-Panamax vessels. A passage through the canal by ship takes around nine hours. Canal traffic in 2004 consisted of 14,035 vessels carrying 203 million tonnes of cargo, an average of almost 40 vessels per day . The Pacific end of the canal is on average 24 cm (9 inches) higher than the Atlantic end, and has a much greater tidal range.

Layout

The canal consists of two man-made lakes, several improved and man-made channels, and three sets of locks. The layout of the canal, as seen by a ship transiting from the Pacific end to the Atlantic, is as follows:
- from the beginning of the buoyed entrance channel in the Gulf of Panama, ships travel 13.2 km (8.2 miles) up the channel to the Miraflores locks, passing under the Bridge of the Americas
- the 2-stage Miraflores lock system, including the approach wall, is 1.7 km (1.1 miles) long, with a total lift of 16.5 m (54 ft) at mid-tide Bridge of the Americas
- the artificial Miraflores Lake is the next stage, 1.7 km (1.0 mile) long, and 16.5 metres (54 feet) above sea level
- the single-stage Pedro Miguel lock, which is 1.4 km (0.8 miles) long, is the last part of the ascent, with a lift of 9.5 m (31 ft), up to the main level of the canal
- the Gaillard (Culebra) Cut slices 12.6 km (7.8 miles) through the continental divide at an altitude of 26 m (85 ft), and passes under the Centennial Bridge
- the Chagres River (Río Chagres), a natural waterway enhanced by the damming of Lake Gatún, runs west about 8.5 km (5.3 miles), merging into Lake Gatun
- Lake Gatún itself, a man-made lake formed by the building of the Gatun Dam, carries vessels 24.2 km (15.0 miles) across the isthmus
- the Gatún locks, a 3-stage flight of locks 1.9 km (1.2 miles) long, drops ships back down to sea level
- a 3.2 km (2.0 mile) channel forms the approach to the locks from the Atlantic side
- Limón Bay (Bahia Limón), a huge natural harbour, provides an anchorage for some ships awaiting transit, and runs 8.7 km (5.4 miles) to the outer breakwater The total transit, from the Pacific entrance channel to the Atlantic breakwater, is 76.9 km (47.8 miles). The maximum tidal range on the Pacific side is from +3.35 metres (+11.0 feet) to -3.20 metres (-10.5 feet); hence the lift at Miraflores is actually from 13.1 metres (43 feet) at extreme high tide to 19.7 metres (64.5 feet) at extreme low tide. The tidal range on the Atlantic side does not exceed 60 cm (24 inches) .

The locks

: Gatun Dam The most visually impressive feature of the canal is its locks. The lock chambers are 33.53 meters (110 ft) wide by 320.0 meters (1050 ft) long, with a usable length of 304.8 metres (1000 ft). These dimensions determine the maximum size of ships which can use the canal; this size is known as Panamax. All of the locks on the canal are paired; that is, there are two parallel flights of locks at each of the three lock sites. This, in principle, allows ships to pass in opposite directions simultaneously; however, large ships cannot cross safely at speed in the Gaillard Cut, so in practice ships pass in one direction for a time, then in the other, using both "lanes" of the locks in one direction at a time. Each lock chamber requires 101,000 cubic meters of water (26.7 million U.S. gallons) to fill. Water enters the chamber through a system of culverts, the largest of which are 6.7 metres (22 feet) in diameter (almost double the diameter of the London Underground's deep lines); from these main culverts, smaller lateral culverts extend under the lock chamber to 100 openings in the chamber floor. Water enters the chamber by gravity when the upper valves are opened, filling a lock chamber in approximately eight minutes; there is significant turbulence in the lock chamber during this process. The massive steel gates of the triple locks at Gatun are 21 metres (70 feet) high and weigh 745 tonnes each, but are so well counterbalanced that a 30-kilowatt (40 hp) engine suffices to open and close them. The largest gates are at the Pacific end of the canal, to cope with the extreme tidal range there. The end gates on each set of locks are doubled for safety in case of a gate failure (such as a ship running into a gate), which could otherwise release a devastating flood of water downstream. Each chamber also contains a pair of auxiliary gates which can be used to divide the chamber in two; this is designed to allow for the transit of smaller vessels — such as canal tugs — without using the full quantity of water. In practice, though, these gates are rarely used; instead, small boats such as tour boats, tugs, and yachts are passed in groups. Ships are hauled through the locks with small railway engines called mulas (mules), running on tracks on the lock walls. These have powerful winches which are used to keep the ship centred in the lock while moving it from chamber to chamber; with as little as 60 cm (2 feet) of space on each side of a ship, considerable skill is required on the part of the operators.

Lake Gatún

mula Lake Gatún, and the enhanced Chagres River (Río Chagres), are a key component of the canal, carrying ships a significant part of the way across the isthmus. The lake also acts as a reservoir, storing water to allow the locks to continue operation during the dry season. The lake was formed, and the river widened and deepened, by the construction of the Gatun Dam on the Chagres River in 1906–1910. This flooded the originally wooded valley; the stumps of old mahogany trees can still be seen rising from the water, and submerged snags form a hazard for any small vessels that wander off the marked channels. A small "shortcut" channel, the "Banana Cut", exists in the lake, providing a slightly shorter route through the lake. This is used by canal launches and yachts to cut a little time off the crossing, and to avoid the heavy ship traffic. Several islands are located within the Lake Gatún portion of the Panama Canal, including Barro Colorado Island, home of the world famous Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI).

Alhajuela Lake

The volume of water used by ships passing through the locks, combined with the seasonal nature of the rainfall in Panama, makes it difficult to maintain the level of Lake Gatun, particularly in the dry season. An additional dam, the Madden Dam, was therefore built across the Chagres above Lake Gatun. This created Alhajuela Lake (also known as Madden Lake), which acts as additional water storage for the canal.

The anchorages

Limón Bay, on the Atlantic side, is an excellent anchorage protected by a huge seawall; this is an impressive structure 5.6 km (3.5 miles) long. However, the space inside the bay is no longer adequate for the quantity and size of ships using the canal, and many ships wait at anchor in the open sea outside the bay. The bay continues to be a major base of operations for the canal authority, and also provides an anchorage for small boats, as well as being home to the Panama Canal Yacht Club. The anchorage on the Pacific side is open, though it is protected by the enclosed nature of the Gulf of Panama; since the main winds are trade winds blowing over from the Atlantic, the isthmus itself makes the Pacific side fairly sheltered.

Crossings

Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute There are several crossings over the canal. From south to north:
- the Bridge of the Americas, a major road bridge, opened in 1962 in Balboa, near the Pacific end of the canal
- a swinging road/rail bridge crosses at the Miraflores locks, although it is now rarely used
- a small service road bridge is built in to the lock structure at Miraflores, but is rarely used
- the Centennial Bridge crosses over the Gaillard Cut; this major 6-lane road bridge opened in 2004
- a small service road bridge is built in to the lock structure at Gatún Locks; this bridge is only usable when the lock gates are closed, and has a very small capacity In addition, canal workers can walk across the lock gates when they are closed.

History

2004 : The earliest mention of a canal across the isthmus of Central America dates back to 1524, when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain, suggested that a canal in Panama would ease the voyage for ships travelling to and from Ecuador and Peru, particularly for ships loaded with gold. Although a survey of the isthmus and a working plan for a canal were drawn up in 1529, the European political situation and level of technology available made the scheme impossible. Given the strategic situation of Central America as a narrow land dividing two great oceans, other forms of trade links were tried through the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was an attempt launched by Scotland in 1698 to set up an overland trade route, but was defeated by the generally inhospitable conditions, and abandoned in 1700. Finally, the Panama Railway was built across the isthmus, opening in 1855. This overland link greatly facilitated trade, and until the opening of the canal, it carried the heaviest volume of freight per unit length of any railroad in the world. This vital piece of infrastructure was key in the selection of the later canal route. An all-water route between the oceans was still seen as the ideal solution, and so the idea of a canal was revived at various times, and for various routes; a route through Nicaragua was investigated several times. Finally, enthused by the success of the Suez Canal, the French under Ferdinand de Lesseps began construction on a sea-level canal (i.e. without locks) through Panama on January 1, 1880. After a great deal of work, this scheme was defeated by disease and the sheer difficulty of a sea-level canal, and the French effort collapsed in 1893. The United States under Theodore Roosevelt bought out the French equipment and work to date, and began work in 1904, after helping Panama to declare independence from Colombia in exchange for control of the Canal Zone. A great investment was made in eliminating disease from the area, particularly yellow fever and malaria, and construction of an elevated canal with locks began in earnest. The canal was formally opened on August 15, 1914, with the transit of the cargo ship Ancon. The canal and the zone surrounding it were originally administered by the United States. However, on 7 September 1977, U.S. President Jimmy Carter signed the Torrijos-Carter Treaty, which set in motion the process of handing over the canal to Panamanian control. Although controversial within the United States, the treaty came into force on 31 December 1999, since when the canal has been run by the [http://www.pancanal.com/ Panama Canal Authority (ACP)].

Current issues

There is no question that the Panama Canal continues to be one of the most successful engineering projects of all time. Even though world shipping — and the size and design of ships themselves — have changed beyond recognition since the canal was designed, it not only continues to be a vital link in world trade, but is in fact carrying more cargo than ever before, and with less overhead. Nevertheless, the canal certainly faces a number of potential problems.

Efficiency and maintenance

There were widespread fears that efficiency and maintenance would suffer following the U.S. withdrawal. However, this does not appear to be the case, and the canal's efficiency appears to be improving under Panamanian control . Canal Waters Time (CWT), the average time it takes a vessel to navigate the canal including waiting time for passage, is a key statistic relating to efficiency; according to the ACP, CWT is decreasing while the number of transits handled is increasing. At the same time, the rate of accidents is at a record low . In fact, increasing volumes of imports from Asia which previously landed in the U.S. west coast ports are now travelling through the canal to the east coast . Canal traffic increased between 2002 and 2004 from 191 million tonnes to 203 million tonnes, while the number of transits increased from 13,183 to 14,035 . The canal set a traffic record on March 16 2004 with 1,005,551 tons of cargo transited in a single day . 2004 The canal administration has invested nearly $1 billion in widening and modernizing the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20 percent . Significant improvements cited by the canal authority include:
- widening and straightening the Gaillard Cut to reduce restrictions on crossing vessels
- deepening the navigational channel in Gatun Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply
- deepening of the Atlantic and Pacific Entrances of the Canal
- increased and improved tug locomotive fleet and the replacement of more than 16 kilometers of locomotive track
- replacing and modernising equipment, including the construction of a new drill barge, launch and suction dredger, new lock machinery controls, and an increase of the tugboat fleet by 20 percent
- improvements and modernisations to the traffic management system In addition, the withdrawal of the U.S. allows Panama to sell excess electricity produced by the canal's dams, which was previously prohibited by the U.S. government. Only 25% of the hydroelectric power produced in the canal system is required to run the canal.

Capacity

When the Canal was built in 1914, it was designed to be large enough to accommodate any vessel in the world. Shipbuilding technology has advanced rapidly since then, and many vessels today are too large to pass through the canal. It is estimated that half of all canal transits will be by Panamax vessels by the year 2006; that 60% of ships being planned for construction in 1999 were post-Panamax and 30% of the global shipping fleet is projected to be post-Panamax size by 2020. Despite this, the Panama canal presently experiences congestion due to the large amounts of traffic travelling through. In 2004, 14,035 vessels passed through the canal (an average of 38.3 vessels/day), and it is expected that the canal will soon approach its maximum capacity. In 2004, the ACP estimated that canal was operating at about 93 percent of capacity. 2004

Competition

Despite having enjoyed a priviledged position for many years, the canal is increasingly facing competition from other quarters. Speculation continues over a possible new canal that will be capable of accommodating post-Panamax vessels, through Mexico, Colombia or Nicaragua. There are at least three current proposals for cargo routes across Nicaragua: a major, post-Panamax canal proposed by the government, and two private proposals for a railway linking ports on the two coasts. (See: Nicaragua Canal) Critics have also voiced their concerns over the planned increase in canal tolls, suggesting that the Suez Canal may become a viable alternative for cargoes from Asia to the U.S. East Coast. Nevertheless, demand for the Panama Canal is so far continuing to rise.

Water issues

A significant problem is the decreasing average amount of water in Gatún Lake, due largely to deforestation. 52 million gallons of fresh water from the lake are dumped into the sea by the locks every time a ship transits the canal. The issue is the seasonal nature of rainfall in Panama; the rainforest plays a role by absorbing this rain, and then releasing it at a steady rate into the lake. With the reduction in vegetation, rain flows quickly down the deforested slopes into the lake, from where the excess is spilled out into the ocean; this results in a shortfall of water during the dry season, when there is comparatively little water flowing to the lake to replenish it. Deforestation also causes silt to be more easily eroded from the area around Gatún Lake and collect at its bottom, reducing its capacity.

The future

Plans have been floated for a major expansion of the canal; a re-incarnation of the 1939 Third Lock Scheme, or something like it, is proposed , in order to allow for a greater number of transits as well as the ability to handle larger ships. Current proposals are for a set of locks capable of handling ships up to 150,000 tons, over twice the size of a Panamax ship . Any such scheme is liable to be hampered by cost, as well as water supply issues (see above). Although the water issue could be addressed by expansion of the reservoir capacity, which would be damaging to the environment of the watershed, it is possible that water recycling could be used instead, where fresh water discharging from the lock chambers would be pumped back up into the lake to limit water wastage.

Toll

The toll for the canal is determined by vessel type, size, and the type of cargo carried . For container vessels, the toll is assessed per "TEU", which is the size of a container measuring 20 ft by 8 ft by 8.5 ft (6 m by 2.4 m by 2.6m). As of May 1, 2005, this toll is $42 per TEU. This is scheduled to rise to $49 on May 1, 2006, and again to $54 on May 1, 2007. (A Panamax container ship may carry over 4,000 TEU.) Most other types of vessel pay a toll per "PC/UMS Net ton", in which one "ton" is actually a volume of 100 cubic feet (2.8 m³). As of July 1, 2003, this toll is $2.96 per ton for the first 10,000 tons, $2.90 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and $2.85 per ton thereafter. Small vessels are assessed tolls based on their length. Effective June 1, 1998, these were: The most expensive toll for canal passage to date was charged on September 25, 2003 to the luxurious passenger vessel Coral Princess, which paid $226,194.25 for passage. The least expensive toll was 36 cents and is not credited to a ship, but to athlete Richard Halliburton who swam the canal in 1928 . The average toll is around $54,000.

External links

- [http://www.pancanal.com Official website of the Panama Canal Authority] — Has a simulation that shows how the canal works
- [http://www.czbrats.com/cz_brats.htm Canal Zone Brats] — Comprehensive information on the canal and the zone
- [http://www.czbrats.com/Menus/Builders_menu.htm History of the Canal Zone] — including much canal information, from CZ Brats
- [http://www.camcentral.com/camviewer.php?item=featurecams&id=971 Panama Canal Webcams]
- [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-9040875966564826702 Time Lapse Video of the Canal] (created using one week of webcam footage).
- [http://www.Alonsoroy.com Dr. Alonso Roy's short essays on Panama Canal History]
- [http://web.archive.org/web/20040604011605/www.judicialwatch.org/1241.shtml Judicial Watch, Inc. v. Panama Canal Commission case] (archived)
- [http://en.structurae.de/projects/data/?id=p00033 Structurae: Panama Canal]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Panama&ll=9.165344,-79.793701&spn=1.005867,1.308540&t=k&hl=en Satellite view in Google Maps]
- [http://panama.america-atlas.com/canal.htm Map of Panama Canal]
- [http://www.eclipse.co.uk/~sl5763/panama.htm General information regarding Panama Canal]
- [http://www.cet.edu/earthinfo/camerica/panama/PCtopic2.html Information on early history]
- [http://www.cet.edu/earthinfo/camerica/panama/PCtopic5.html Current Issues since the return to Panama]
- [http://public.cwpanama.net/~yacht/bottom.htm Panama Canal Yacht Club]

References

# [http://www.cet.edu/earthinfo/camerica/panama/PCtopic1.html The Panama Canal], from Global Perspectives # [http://www.pancanal.com/eng/maritime/reports/table01.pdf Panama Canal Traffic — Fiscal Years 2002–2004], Panama Canal Authority # [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/biogeog/HILD1939.htm The Panama Canal as a Passageway for Fishes], Samuel F. Hildebrand, Zoologica (New York), 1939 # [http://www.czbrats.com/Builders/100years/rockscement.htm Cement And Concrete], from [http://www.czbrats.com/Menus/Builders_menu.htm The Builders of the Panama Canal], [http://www.czbrats.com/ CZ Brats] # [http://www.czimages.com/CZMemories/Photos/photoof366.htm Photo: The Opening of the Miraflores Bridge], [http://www.czbrats.com/ CZ Brats] # [http://gpsinformation.us/CentralAmerica/19-canal/Canal-g.html Costa Rica Tour and Panama Cruise — Photos and text by Jack Yeazel], with detail pictures of the locks # [http://www.canalmuseum.com/canalphotos/gatunlocks-014.html Picture of the Gatún locks road bridge], [http://www.canalmuseum.com/ canalmuseum.com] # [http://www.smithsonianmag.si.edu/smithsonian/issues04/mar04/panama.html A Man, A Plan, A Canal: Panama Rises], Smithsonian Magazine, March 2004 # [http://www.pancanal.com/eng/cgi-bin/news/boletin.cgi?submit=Consulta&item=126 Tonnage Increases; Canal Waters Time and Accidents Drop], Panama Canal Authority, December 09, 2003 # [http://www.colliers.com/Content/Attachments/Corporate/Services/NewYorkTimes112204.htm New York Port Hums Again, With Asian Trade], Eric Lipton, New York Times, November 22, 2004 # [http://www.sname.org/newsletter/PanamaCanal.pdf Panama Canal Sets Historic Record in Tons of Cargo], Panama Canal Authority, March 18, 2004 # [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/panama.canal/stories/operation/ Transfer heavy on symbolism, light on change], Steve Nettleton, CNN Interactive # [http://www.pancanal.com/eng/projects/overview.html Modernization & Improvements], Panama Canal Authority # [http://www.ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=20122 NICARAGUA: Plan for Inter-Ocean Canal Reborn], an analysis of several proposed land and water routes for cargo across Nicaragua, from Inter Press Service # [http://www.businesspanama.com/investing/why_invest/panama_canal.php The Panama Canal], Business in Panama (an article on proposed future development of the canal) # [http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/kqvradio/s_375254.html Enlarging Panama Canal is engineers' chance of lifetime], Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, September 18, 2005 # [http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/sept03/departments/news_notes/news_note.html Pumping Up the Panama Canal], Mechanical Engineering Magazine (an article on recycling lock water) # [http://www.pancanal.com/eng/maritime/tariff/1010-0000.html Maritime Operations — Tolls], Panama Canal Authority # [http://www.pancanal.com/eng/noticiero/canal-faqs/index.html Panama Canal Authority FAQ] Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks Category:100 most endangered sites Category:Coastal construction Category:Theodore Roosevelt ko:파나마 운하 ja:パナマ運河 th:คลองปานามา

Category:Isthmuses

An isthmus is a landform connecting two larger landmasses, and separating a body of water. Main Article: Isthmus Category:Landforms ko:분류:지협

Ocean Waves

This article is about the TV Movie Ocean Waves. For information about waves in the ocean, see ocean surface waves. Ocean Waves (海が聞こえる; Umi ga Kikoeru, also translated as I Can Hear The Sea) is a TV feature film made by Studio Ghibli. It is shown to us in the form of a flashback by the leading character (a university student) on the plane back to his first high school reunion. Category:Anime Category:Japanese films Category:Studio Ghibli ja:海がきこえる

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