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J.C. Watts

J.C. Watts

Julius Caesar J.C. Watts (born November 18, 1957) is a former Representative from Oklahoma in the U.S. Congress. He was born in Eufaula, Oklahoma. After graduating from high school in 1976, Watts attended the University of Oklahoma. As quarterback, he led the Sooners to consecutive Big Eight Conference titles and Orange Bowl championships. He graduated in 1981 with a B.A. in journalism. Between 1981 to 1986, he played in the Canadian Football League, receiving the Most Valuable Player award of the Grey Cup during his rookie season. He served as a Southern Baptist youth minister and associate pastor in Del City, Oklahoma from 1987 to 1994. He was elected to the Oklahoma State Corporation Commission in 1990. Watts was elected to the United States Congress in 1994. He was the first black Republican elected in a Southern state to a federal office in 120 years. He garnered attention soon after his election by declining to join the Congressional Black Caucus. He was selected in 1997 to deliver the Republican response to President Bill Clinton's State of the Union Address. Later that year, Watts stirred up controversy when he branded some unnamed black Democrats and civil rights leaders "race-hustling poverty pimps." [http://www.alternet.org/story.html?StoryID=13545]. In 1998, he was chosen as the chairman of the House Republican Conference. Although elected on a pledge to serve no more than three terms, Watts sought and won a fourth term in 2000. In 2002 he decided not to run for re-election, citing a desire to spend more time with his family. He is chairman of the J.C. Watts Companies, which works with clients on strategies for business development, communications and public affairs. He serves on the boards of the Boy Scouts of America, the United States Military Academy, Burlington Northern Santa Fe, Clear Channel Communications, Dillard's and Terex Corporation. He writes a monthly column for The Sporting News and is a commentator on The Tavis Smiley Show.

External links


- [http://www.jcwatts.com/ J.C. Watts Companies website]
- [http://www.odl.state.ok.us/usinfo/congress/107cong/watts107.htm Biography from Oklahoma state site]
- [http://www.thedartmouth.com/article.php?aid=2005040801010 Speech Watts gave at Dartmouth College] Watts, J.C. Watts, J.C. Watts, J.C. Watts, J.C. Watts, J.C. Watts, J.C. Watts, J.C. Watts, J.C. Watts, J.C.

November 18

November 18 is the 322nd day of the year (323rd in leap years), with 43 remaining.

Events


- 326 - The old St. Peter's Basilica is consecrated.
- 1095 - The Council of Clermont, called by Pope Urban II to discuss sending the First Crusade to the Holy Land, begins.
- 1302 - Pope Boniface VIII issues the Papal bull Unam sanctam ("The One Holy").
- 1307 - According to legend, William Tell shoots an apple off his son's head.
- 1421 - A seawall at the Zuider Zee dike breaks, flooding 72 villages and killing about 10,000 people in the Netherlands.
- 1477 - William Caxton produces Dictes or Sayengis of the Philosophres, the first book printed on a printing press in England.
- 1493 - Christopher Columbus first sights what is now Puerto Rico.
- 1626 - St. Peter's Basilica is consecrated.
- 1686 - Charles Francois Felix operates on King Louis XIV's anal fistula after practicing the surgery on several peasants.
- 1865 - Mark Twain's story The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County is published in the New York Saturday Press.
- 1883 - American and Canadian railroads institute five standard continental time zones, ending the confusion of thousands of local times.
- 1903 - The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty is signed by the United States and Panama, giving the Americans exclusive rights over the Panama Canal Zone.
- 1904 - General Esteban Huertas steps down after the government of Panama fears he wants to stage a coup.
- 1905 - Prince Carl of Denmark becomes King Haakon VII of Norway.
- 1909 - Two United States warships are sent to Nicaragua after 500 revolutionaries (including two Americans) are executed by order of José Santos Zelaya.
- 1916 - World War I: First Battle of the Somme ends - In France, British Expeditionary Force commander Douglas Haig calls off the battle which started on July 1, 1916.
- 1918 - Latvia declares its independence from Russia.
- 1926 - George Bernard Shaw refuses to accept the money for his Nobel Prize, saying, "I can forgive Alfred Nobel for inventing dynamite, but only a fiend in human form could have invented the Nobel Prize."
- 1928 - Release of the animated short Steamboat Willie, the first fully synchronized sound cartoon, directed by Walt Disney and Ub Iwerks, featuring the second appearances of cartoon stars Mickey and Minnie Mouse.
- 1929 - 1929 Grand Banks earthquake: Off the south coast of Newfoundland in the Atlantic Ocean, a Richter magnitude 7.2 submarine earthquake, centered on Grand Banks, breaks 12 submarine transatlantic telegraph cables and triggers a tsunami that destroys many south coast communities in the Burin Peninsula area.
- 1938 - Trade union members elect John L. Lewis as the first president of the Congress of Industrial Organizations.
- 1940 - World War II: German leader Adolf Hitler and Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano meet to discuss Benito Mussolini's disastrous invasion of Greece.
- 1943 - World War II: 440 Royal Air Force planes bomb Berlin causing only light damage and killing 131. The RAF lost nine aircraft and 53 air crew.
- 1959 - William Wyler's film Ben-Hur premieres at Loew's Theater in New York City.
- 1970 - US President Richard Nixon asks the U.S. Congress for US$155 million in supplemental aid for the Cambodian government.
- 1970 - Singer Jerry Lee Lewis divorces his third wife, Myra Gail, after 12 years.
- 1978 - Jonestown mass suicide: In Jonestown, Guyana, Jim Jones leads his People's Temple in a mass murder-suicide; 913 die, including 276 children.
- 1982 - Duk Koo Kim dies unexpectedly from injuries sustained during a 14-round match against Ray Mancini in Las Vegas, prompting reforms in the sport of boxing.
- 1985 - Calvin and Hobbes, a comic strip by Bill Watterson, is first published.
- 1985 - Washington Redskins quarterback Joe Theisman breaks his leg, ending his career.
- 1987 - Iran-Contra scandal: The U.S. Congress issues its final report on the Iran-Contra affair.
- 1987 - King's Cross fire: In London, 31 people die in a fire at the city's busiest underground station at King's Cross St Pancras.
- 1988 - War on Drugs: US President Ronald Reagan signs a bill into law providing the death penalty for murderous drug traffickers.
- 1990 - Boxing: Chris Eubank defeats Nigel Benn in their WBO world middleweight championship bout.
- 1991 - Shiite Muslim kidnappers in Lebanon set Anglican Church envoys Terry Waite and Thomas Sutherland free.
- 1991 - After the 3-month siege, the Croatian city of Vukovar is invaded by Serbians
- 1993 - In South Africa, 21 political parties approve a new constitution.
- 1996 - A fire occurs in the Channel Tunnel soon after it opens.
- 1997 - Gary Glitter is arrested in the United Kingdom on child pornography charges.
- 1998 - Alice McDermott wins the National Book Award with her novel Charming Billy.
- 1999 - In College Station, Texas, 12 are killed and 28 injured at Texas A&M University when a huge bonfire under construction collapses.
- 1999 - In Jasper, Texas, 24-year old Shawn Allen Berry is sentenced to life in prison, becoming the third person convicted in the racially-motivated death of James Byrd, Jr..
- 2001 - The Nintendo GameCube is released in North America
- 2002 - Iraq disarmament crisis: United Nations weapons inspectors led by Hans Blix arrive in Iraq.
- 2003 - In the UK the Local Government Act 2003, repealing the controversial anti-gay amendment Section 28, becomes effective.
- 2003 - The congress of the Communist Party of Indian Union (Marxist-Leninist) decides to merge the party into Kanu Sanyal's CPI(ML).
- 2004 - Russia officially ratifies the Kyoto Protocol.
- 2005 - The film Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire is released.
- 2005 - Two policewomen in Bradford, UK are shot, one fatally, causing gridlock in and out of the city

Births


- 1522 - Lamoral, Count of Egmont, Flemish general and statesman (d. 1568)
- 1647 - Pierre Bayle, French philosopher (d. 1706)
- 1785 - David Wilkie, British artist (d. 1841)
- 1786 - Carl Maria von Weber, German composer (d. 1826)
- 1787 - Louis-Jacques Daguerre, French inventor and photographer (d. 1851)
- 1804 - Alfonso Ferrero la Marmora, Italian general and statesman (d. 1878)
- 1832 - Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, Swedish explorer (d. 1901)
- 1836 - Sir William S. Gilbert, British dramatist (d. 1911)
- 1836 - Cesare Lombroso, Italian psychiatrist and founder of criminology (d. 1909)
- 1839 - August Kundt, German physicist (d. 1894)
- 1856 - Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov, Grand Duke of Russia (d. 1929)
- 1861 - Dorothea Dix, American activist (d. 1887)
- 1870 - Dorothy Dix, pseudonym of US journalist, Elizabeth Meriwether Gilmer (d. 1951)
- 1874 - Clarence Day, American author (d. 1935)
- 1882 - Jacques Maritain, French philosopher (d. 1973)
- 1883 - Carl Vinson, U.S. Congressman (d. 1981)
- 1897 - Patrick Blackett, British physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974)
- 1898 - Joris Ivens, Dutch filmmaker (d. 1989)
- 1899 - Eugene Ormandy, Hungarian-born conductor (d. 1985)
- 1901 - George Gallup, American statistician and opinion pollster (d. 1984)
- 1906 - Klaus Mann, German writer (d. 1949)
- 1906 - George Wald, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1997)
- 1907 - Compay Segundo, Cuban musician (Buena Vista Social Club) (d. 2003)
- 1908 - Imogene Coca, American actress and comedienne (d. 2001)
- 1909 - Johnny Mercer, American lyricist (d. 1976)
- 1916 - Amelita Galli-Curci, Italian soprano (d. 1963)
- 1919 - Jocelyn Brando, American actress (d. 2005)
- 1922 - Luis Somoza Debayle, Nicaraguan president (d. 1967)
- 1923 - Alan Shepard, American astronaut (d. 1998)
- 1925 - Gene Mauch, American baseball manager (d. 2005)
- 1927 - Hank Ballard, American musician (d. 2003)
- 1935 - Rudolf Bahro, German dissident (d. 1997)
- 1939 - Margaret Atwood, Canadian writer
- 1939 - Brenda Vaccaro, American actress
- 1940 - Qaboos ibn Sa’id, Sultan of Oman
- 1941 - David Hemmings, British actor (d. 2003)
- 1942 - Linda Evans, American actress
- 1944 - Susan Sullivan, American actress
- 1946 - Alan Dean Foster, American author
- 1947 - Jameson Parker, American actor
- 1948 - Andrea Marcovicci, American singer and actress
- 1948 - Jack Tatum, American football player
- 1950 - Eric Pierpoint, American actor
- 1953 - Alan Moore, British comic book writer and novelist
- 1954 - John Parr, British pop singer
- 1956 - Warren Moon, American football player
- 1957 - Seán Mac Falls, Irish-born poet
- 1958 - Laura Miller, Mayor of Dallas, Texas
- 1960 - Kim Wilde, British singer
- 1962 - Kirk Hammett, American guitarist (Metallica)
- 1963 - Dante Bichette, baseball player
- 1963 - Peter Schmeichel, Danish footballer
- 1966 - Jorge Camacho, Spanish poet
- 1968 - Owen Wilson, American actor
- 1969 - Sam Cassell, American basketball player
- 1970 - Peta Wilson, Australian actress
- 1975 - David Ortiz, Dominican Major League Baseball player
- 1978 - Damien Johnson, Northern Irish footballer
- 1983 - Jon Johansen, Norwegian software developer

Deaths


- 1154 - Adélaide de Maurienne, queen of Louis VI of France (b. 1092)
- 1305 - John II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1239)
- 1559 - Cuthbert Tunstall, English churchman (b. 1474)
- 1590 - George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, English statesman (b. 1528)
- 1724 - Bartolomeu de Gusmão, Portuguese naturalist (b. 1685)
- 1785 - Louis Philip I, Duke of Orléans, French soldier and writer (b. 1725)
- 1797 - Jacques-Alexandre Laffon de Ladebat, French shipbuilder and merchant (b. 1719)
- 1814 - William Jessop, British civil engineer (b. 1745)
- 1886 - Chester A. Arthur, 21st President of the United States (b. 1829)
- 1889 - William Allingham, Irish author
- 1922 - Marcel Proust, French novelist (b. 1871)
- 1941 - Walther Nernst, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1864)
- 1941 - Chris Watson, third Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1867)
- 1952 - Paul Eluard, French poet (b. 1895)
- 1953 - Frank Olson, American scientist (suicide)
- 1962 - Niels Bohr, Danish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1885)
- 1965 - Henry A. Wallace, Vice President of the United States (b. 1888)
- 1967 - Luis Somoza Debayle, Nicaraguan president (b. 1922)
- 1969 - Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., American politician (b. 1888)
- 1976 - Man Ray, American artist (b. 1890)
- 1978 - Jim Jones, American cult leader (suicide) (b. 1931)
- 1978 - Leo Ryan, U.S. Congressman (b. 1905)
- 1982 - Duk Koo Kim, Korean boxer (b. 1959)
- 1986 - Gia Carangi, American model (AIDS) (b. 1960)
- 1987 - Jacques Anquetil, French cyclist (cancer) (b. 1934)
- 1991 - Gustáv Husák, President of Czechoslovakia (b. 1913)
- 1994 - Cab Calloway, American bandleader (b. 1907)
- 1999 - Paul Bowles, American novelist (b. 1910)
- 2002 - James Coburn, American actor (b. 1928)
- 2003 - Michael Kamen, American composer (b. 1948)

Holidays and observances


- Roman festivals - day 1 Dios dedicated to the sun god by emperor Licinius
- R.C. Saints - Dedication of the Basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul ; Saint Rose Philippine Duchesne ; also St Mawes, St Odo of Cluny, St Romanus of Antioch
- Also see November 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Latvia - Independence Day (1918)
- Oman - National Holiday
- Venezuela - Feast of the Virgen de Chiquinquirá, also known as la Chinita, in the western state of Zulia

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/18 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051118.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- November 17 - November 19 - October 18 - December 18 -- listing of all days ko:11월 18일 ms:18 November ja:11月18日 simple:November 18 th:18 พฤศจิกายน

1957

1957 (MCMLVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar.

Events

January-February


- January 1 - Saarland joins West Germany
- January 2 - San Francisco and Los Angeles stock exchanges merge to form Pacific Coast Stock Exchange.
- January 3 - Hamilton Watch Company introduces the first electric watch
- January 4 - After 69 years the last issue of Collier's Weekly magazine is published
- January 5 - Russell Endean becomes the first batsman to be dismissed handled the ball in test match cricket
- January 10 - Anthony Eden resigns - Harold Macmillan becomes the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
- January 11 - The African Convention is founded in Dakar.
- January 13 - Wham-O Company produces the first Frisbee
- January 16 - The Cavern Club opens in Liverpool
- January 22 - Israel withdraws from the Sinai Peninsula (they captured it from Egypt in a battle on October 29, 1956)
- January 22 - The New York City "Mad Bomber," George P. Metesky, is arrested in Waterbury, Connecticut and is charged with planting more than 30 bombs.
- January 23 - Ku Klux Klan members force truck driver Willie Edwards to jump off a bridge into the Alabama River - he drowns as a result.
- February 4 - France prohibits UN involvement in Algeria
- February 15 - Andrei Gromyko becomes foreign minister of Soviet Union

March

Soviet Union
- March 1 - U Nu becomes Prime Minister of Burma
- March 1 - Arturo Lezama becomes President of the National Council of Government of Uruguay
- March 1 - Sud Aviation forms from a merger between SNCASE (Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Sud Est) and SNCASO (Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Sud Ouest)
- March 6 - United Kingdom colonies Gold Coast and British Togoland become the independent Republic of Ghana
- March 8 - Egypt re-opens the Suez Canal
- March 10 - Floodgates of The Dalles Dam are closed inundating Celilo Falls and ancient indian fisheries along the Columbia River in Oregon.
- March 13 - The FBI arrests Jimmy Hoffa and charges him with bribery
- March 14 - President Sukarno declares martial law in Indonesia
- March 20 - French newspaper L'Express reveals that the French army tortures Algerian prisoners
- March 25 - Treaty of Rome (patto di Roma) establishes the European Economic Community (EEC); see EU

April-June


- April 1 - The first new conscripts join the Bundeswehr
- April 5 - First elected government of Kerala. CPI won the elections and E. M. S. Namboodiripad became the first chief minister of united Kerala
- April 9 - Egypt reopens Suez Canal for all shipping
- April 12 - United Kingdom announces that Singapore will gain self rule January 1 1958
- April 12 - Allen Ginsberg's poem Howl, printed in England, is seized by U.S. customs officials on the grounds of obscenity
- May 2 - Vincent Gigante fails to assassinate mafioso Frank Costello
- May 2 - Senator Joseph McCarthy of the Red Scare dies.
- May 3 - Walter O'Malley, the owner of the Brooklyn Dodgers, agrees to move the team from Brooklyn, New York, to Los Angeles, California.
- May 15 - Stanley Matthews plays his final international game, ending an English record international career of almost 23 years
- May 16 - Paul-Henri Spaak becomes the new Secretary General of NATO.
- June 9 - First ascent of Broad Peak
- June 15 - Eindhoven University of Technology is founded.
- June 21 - John Diefenbaker becomes Canada's thirteenth prime minister.
- June 25 - United Church of Christ formed in Cleveland, Ohio by merger of Congregational Christian Churches and the Evangelical and Reformed Church.
- June 27 - Hurricane Audrey demolishes Cameron, Louisiana, killing 400 people.

July-September


- July - International Geophysical Year begins.
- July 16 - United States Marine Major John Glenn flies an F8U supersonic jet from California to New York in 3 hours, 23 minutes and 8 seconds setting a new transcontinental speed record.
- July 25 - Tunisia becomes a republic.
- July 29 - The International Atomic Energy Agency is established.
- August 4 - Juan Manuel Fangio, driving for Maserati, wins the Formula One German Grand Prix, clinching (with 4 wins that season) his record fifth world drivers championship, including his fourth consecutive championship (also a record); these two records would endure for nearly half a century.
- August 31 - The Federation of Malaya, which does not include Singapore, gains independence from the United Kingdom. Tuanku Abdul Rahman ibni Almarhum Tuanku Muhammad, Yang di-Pertuan Besar of Negeri Sembilan becomes the first Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
- September 4 - American Civil Rights Movement: Little Rock Crisis - Orville Faubus, governor of Arkansas, calls out the US National Guard to prevent black students from enrolling in Central High School in Little Rock.
- September 4 - The Ford Motor Company introduces the Edsel on what the company proclaims as "E Day."
- September 21 - Olav V becomes King of Norway on the death of Haakon VII.

October


- October 4 - Sputnik program: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik I, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth.
- October 9 - Neil H. McElroy was sworn in as the 6th Secretary of Defense of United States.
- October 10 - US President Dwight D. Eisenhower apologizes to the finance minister of Ghana, Komla Agbeli Gbdemah, after he was refused service in a Dover, Delaware restaurant.
- October 11 - Radio telescope of Jodrell Bank, Cheshire, UK, opened.
- October 23 - Morocco begins its invasion of Ifni.
- October 25 - Assassination of a Mafia boss Albert Anastasia in a barber shop in Park Sheraton Hotel.
- October 27 - Celal Bayar re-elected president of Turkey

November-December


- November 1 - Michigan's Mackinac Bridge opened.
- November 3 - Sputnik program: The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 2. On board is the first animal to enter space - a dog named Laika (she was kept alive for several days in space with a sophisticated life-support system).
- November 7 - Cold War: In the United States, the Gaither Report calls for more American missiles and fallout shelters.
- November 13 - Flooding in the Po River valley of Italy leads to the flooding also in Venice
- November 14 - Apalachin Meeting - The leaders of the American Mafia meet at a convention in Apalachin, New York at the house of Joseph Barbara. It is broken up by a curious patrolman.
- November 15 - Plane crash in the Isle of Wight leaves 43 dead.
- November 16 - Serial killer Edward Gein murders his last victim, Bernice Worden of Plainfield, Wisconsin.
- November 30 - Grenade attack against Indonesian president Sukarno in Cikini School in Jakarta. Six children killed, Sukarno survives unscathed.
- December 1 - In Indonesia, Sukarno announces nationalization of 246 Dutch businesses
- December 4 - Lewisham train disaster in UK leaves 92 dead
- December 5 - All 326,000 Dutch nationals are expelled from Indonesia.
- December 6 - First US attempt to launch a satellite fails, the satellite blowing up on the launch pad.

Undated


- Consumers' Association founded (UK)
- Project Orion begins, a U.S. program to build a spacecraft powered by nuclear explosions.
- Civil Rights Commission established under the Civil Rights Act of 1957
- IBM makes FORTRAN scientific programming language available to customers. It becomes the most widely used computer language for technical work.
- Citroën stops production of its Traction Avant motor car (production started in 1934).
- The Piña Colada was invented by Ramon Marrero, a bartender at Puerto Rico's Caribe Hilton. [http://melindalee.com/recipearchive.html?action=124&item_id=698]

Environmental change


- The Africanized bee is accidentally released in Brazil
- The Asian Flu pandemic begins in China

Births

January-February


- January 6 - Nancy Lopez, American golfer
- January 7 - Nicholson Baker, American novelist
- January 7 - Katie Couric, American television host
- January 7 - Julian Solis, Puerto Rican boxer
- January 11 - Robert Earl Keen, American musician and singer
- January 15 - Mario Van Peebles, Mexican actor and director
- January 19 - Katey Sagal, American actress, singer, and writer
- January 22 - Mike Bossy, Canadian hockey player
- January 23 - Princess Caroline of Monaco
- January 30 - Payne Stewart, American golfer (d. 1999)
- February 4 - Don Davis, American composer
- February 6 - Kathy Najimy, American actress and comedian
- February 6 - Robert Townsend, American comedian, actor, director, and producer
- February 8 - Cindy Wilson, American singer (The B-52's)
- February 9 - John Axon GC, British railwayman
- February 16 - LeVar Burton, American actor
- February 16 - James Ingram, American singer
- February 18 - Vanna White, American game show presenter
- February 19 - Falco, Austrian musician (d. 1998)
- February 27 - Viktor Markin, Russian athlete
- February 28 - Ian Smith, New Zealand cricket captains

March-May


- March 5 - Ray Suarez, American journalist
- March 10 - Osama bin Laden, Saudi-born Islamic extremist
- March 12 - Steve Harris, British bassist (Iron Maiden)
- March 20 - Spike Lee, American film director and actor
- March 29 - Christophe Lambert, American-born actor
- March 30 - Paul Reiser, American actor
- March 31 - Marc McClure, American actor
- April 4 - Aki Kaurismäki, Finnish film director
- April 4 - Nobuyoshi Kuwano, Japanese television performer and musician (Rats & Star)
- April 5 - Ivan Corea, Sri Lankan autism campaigner
- April 8 - Henry Cluney, Irish musician
- April 9 - Seve Ballesteros, Spanish golfer
- April 29 - Daniel Day-Lewis, Anglo-Irish actor
- May 3 - William Clay Ford, Jr., American automobile executive
- May 10 - Sid Vicious, English bassist (Sex Pistols) (d. 1979)
- May 22 - Gary Sweet, Australian actor
- May 26 - Margaret Colin, American actress
- May 27 - Siouxsie Sioux, British singer (Siouxsie and the Banshees)
- May 28 - Kirk Gibson, baseball player
- May 29 - Jeb Hensarling, American politician

June-October


- June 2 - King Lizzard, American entertainer
- June 3 - Horst-Ulrich Hänel, German field hockey player
- June 8 - Scott Adams, American cartoonist
- June 10 - Hidetsugu Aneha, Japanese one class authorized architect and builder
- June 11 - Jamaaladeen Tacuma, American musician
- June 12 - Javed Miandad, Pakistani cricketer
- June 19 - Anna Lindh, Swedish politician (d. 2003)
- July 13 - Cameron Crowe, American writer and film director
- June 13 - Frances McDormand, American actress
- July 23 - Theo van Gogh, Dutch film director (d. 2004)
- July 26 - Nana Visitor, American actress
- July 29 - Nelli Kim, Russian gymnast
- August 6 - Jim McGreevey, Governor of New Jersey
- August 7 - Mark Bagley, American comic book artist
- August 9 - Melanie Griffith, American actress
- August 11 - Richie Ramone, American drummer (The Ramones)
- August 18 - Carole Bouquet, French actress
- August 18 - Denis Leary, American comedian and actor
- August 24 - Stephen Fry, British comedian, author, and actor
- August 27 - Bernhard Langer, German golfer
- August 28 - Daniel Stern, American actor
- September 1 - Gloria Estefan, Cuban-born singer
- September 12 - Rachel Ward, British actress
- October 14 - Kenny Neal, American guitarist
- October 21 - Wolfgang Ketterle, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- October 26 - Bob Golic, American football player
- October 27 - Jeff East, American actor

November-December


- November 6 - Klaus Kleinfeld, German business executive
- November 7 - Christopher Knight, American actor November 9 - Spiro Agnew, American politician
- November 15 - Kevin Eubanks, American jazz guitarist
- November 24 - Denise Crosby, American actress
- November 30 - Colin Mochrie, Scottish-born comedian
- December 6 - Thomas Brinkman, American politician
- December 8 - Phil Collen, British singer and guitarist (Def Leppard)
- December 9 - Donny Osmond, American singer
- December 10 - Michael Clarke Duncan, American actor
- December 13 - Steve Buscemi, American actor
- December 13 - Morris Day, American musician (The Time (Band))
- December 13 - Jean-Marie Messier, French businessman
- December 20 - Billy Bragg, British singer
- December 20 - Joyce Hyser, American actress
- December 21 - Tom Henke, baseball player
- December 21 - Ray Romano, American actor and comedian
- December 30 - Matt Lauer, American newscaster

Unknown date


- Walter Moers, German comic artist and writer
- Eugene Spafford, American computer scientist

Deaths

January-March


- January 10 - Gabriela Mistral, Chilean writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1889)
- January 14 - Humphrey Bogart, American actor (b. 1899)
- January 16 - Arturo Toscanini, Italian conductor (b. 1867)
- February 8 - Walther Bothe, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1891)
- February 8 - John von Neumann, Hungarian-born mathematician (b. 1903)
- February 9 - Miklós Horthy, Hungarian admiral and regent (b. 1868)
- February 10 - Laura Ingalls Wilder, American author (b. 1867)
- February 18 - Henry Norris Russell, American astronomer (b. 1877)
- February 25 - George "Bugs" Moran, American gangster (b. 1893)
- March 11 - Admiral Richard E. Byrd, American explorer (b. 1888)
- March 16 - Constantin Brancusi, Romanian sculptor (b. 1876)
- March 17 - Ramon Magsaysay, President of the Philippines (b. 1907)
- March 25 - Max Ophüls, German film director and writer (b. 1902)
- March 29 - Joyce Cary, Irish author (b. 1888)

April-June


- May 2 - Joseph McCarthy, U.S. Senator (b. 1908)
- May 9 - Ezio Pinza, Italian bass (b. 1892)
- May 14 - Marie Vassilieff, Russian artist (b. 1884)
- May 16 - Eliot Ness, American Federal Bureau of Investigation agent (b. 1903)
- May 31 - Leopold Staff, Polish poet (b. 1878)
- June 17 - Dorothy Richardson, English feminist writer (b. 1873)
- June 21 - Johannes Stark, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1874)
- June 26 - Alfred Döblin, German writer (b. 1878)
- June 27 - Malcolm Lowry, English novelist (b. 1909)

July-September


- July 4 - Judy Tyler, American actress (b. 1933)
- July 24 - Sacha Guitry, Russian-born French playright, actor, and director (b. 1885)
- July 28 - Edith Abbott, American social worker, educator, and author (b. 1876)
- August 5 - Heinrich Otto Wieland, German chemist, Nobel Prize larueate (b. 1877)
- August 7 - Oliver Hardy, American actor (b. 1892)
- August 16 - Irving Langmuir, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)
- August 19 - David Bomberg, English painter (b. 1890)
- September 1 - Dennis Brain, English French horn player (b. 1921)
- September 20 - Jean Sibelius, Finnish composer (b. 1865)
- September 21 - Haakon VII of Norway (b. 1872)
- September 22 - Toyoda Soemu, Japanese admiral (b. 1885)

October-December


- October 25 - Edward Plunkett, Baron Dunsany, Irish author (b. 1878)
- October 26 - Gerty Cori, Austrian-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1896)
- October 29 - Louis B. Mayer, American film producer (b. 1885)
- November 4 - Shoghi Effendi, Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith (b. 1897)
- November 4 - Laika, first Russian dog to orbit the earth
- November 24 - Diego Rivera, Mexican painter (b. 1886)
- November 29 - Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Austrian composer (b. 1897)
- November 30 - Beniamino Gigli, Italian tenor (b. 1890)
- December 21 - Eric Coates, English composer (b. 1886)

Nobel Prizes


- Physics - Chen Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee
- Chemistry- Lord Alexander R. Todd
- Physiology or Medicine - Daniel Bovet
- Literature - Albert Camus
- Peace - Lester Bowles Pearson Category:1957 als:1957 ko:1957년 ms:1957 ja:1957年 simple:1957 th:พ.ศ. 2500

Oklahoma

Oklahoma is a Midwest state of the United States (with strong Southern, Western, and Midwestern influences) and its U.S. postal abbreviation is OK; others abbreviate the state's name Okla. As of 2000, the population is 3,450,654.

Geography

Oklahoma is bounded on the east by Arkansas and Missouri, on the north by Kansas and northwest by Colorado (both at 37°N), on the far west by New Mexico (at 103°W), and on the south and near-west by Texas. The panhandle's southern boundary is at 36.5°N, then turning due south along 100°W to the southern fork of the Red River), completing the round trip back to Arkansas. Oklahoma City is the capital and largest city. Oklahoma's natural terrain is very diverse, ranging from oak and hickory mixed forest in the wetter eastern part of the state, to the post oak and blackjack oak savannah territory of the Cross Timbers, to the plains and semi-arid regions of western Oklahoma and the panhandle. The state is one of the six states on the Frontier Strip. Frontier Strip

Oklahoma regions

There have been several schemes used to breakdown Oklahoma into regions. The Oklahoma Tourism Department divides the state down into six "countries" for tourism promotion purposes: Red Carpet Country (Northwestern Oklahoma and The Panhandle), Great Plains Country (Southwestern Oklahoma), Frontier Country (Central Oklahoma, including the Oklahoma City Metropolitan area), Green Country (Northeastern Oklahoma, including the Tulsa Metropolitan area), Kiamichi Country (Southeastern Oklahoma), and Lake & Trail Country (South Central Oklahoma). Popular but "unofficial" regional designations include Green Country (most often used to refer to Northeastern Oklahoma but used by some to refer to all of Eastern Oklahoma), Little Dixie (Southeastern Oklahoma), Western Oklahoma, and the Oklahoma Panhandle. From a bioregional perspective, Oklahoma is recognized by the EPA as having 11 different ecoregions (one of only four U.S. states to have more than 10 ecoregions). These ecoregions are: Western high plains, Southwestern Tablelands, Central Great Plains, Tall Grass Prairie, Cross Timbers, Caves & Prairie, Ozark Highlands, Ozark Forest, Hardwood Forest, Ouachita Mountains, and Cypress Swamps & Forests. Oklahoma has some of the strongest thunderstorms in the entire world, because of the cold and warm airmasses colliding east of the Rocky Mountains, making the state the heart of Tornado Alley.

Interstate Highways


- Interstate 35
  - Interstate 235
- Interstate 40
  - Interstate 240
- Interstate 44
  - Interstate 244
  - Interstate 444 (unsigned)

U.S. Highways

History

Pre-European Amerindian cultures

Oklahoma was inhabited by Native American tribes including the Kitikiti'sh (Wichita) Quapaw, Caddo and Osage. Descendants of these peoples still live in the state. In the 16th century Spanish explorers became the first documented Europeans to visit the area (there is evidence to suggest that viking explorers passed through in the 6th century, but this has yet to be accepted widely by the scientific and historical community).Later, Oklahoma was part of the vast territorial swapping between European powers France and Spain.

"Five Civilized Tribes"

In the 1830s Oklahoma, as the Indian Territory, served as the relocation area for the policy of Indian Removal started by Andrew Jackson. The end of the Trail of Tears (Tsa La Gi) was "Indian Territory". There were already many tribes living in the territory, whites, and escaped slaves as well. The "Five Civilized Tribes," so named due to their early adaptations to Christianity and European clothing, technology, and trade, were not the only ones forced to Oklahoma. Nations such as the Delaware, from the northeast U.S., Kiowa, Comanche, and others were forced to move to Oklahoma. The name Oklahoma comes from the language of the Choctaw people, who were removed from Mississippi to "Indian Territory" by the United States Government in the early to mid-1800s. "Oklahoma" is a combination of two Choctaw words: okla which means "people," (as in the term "Miliki okla," which means "American people"), and homa, "homma," or "humma," various spellings of the Choctaw word which means, among other denotations, "red." The name was suggested by Allen Wright, Principal Chief of the Choctaw Nation from 1866 to 1870. The "Five Civilized Tribes" set up towns such as Tulsa, Tahlequah, and Muskogee, which became some of the larger towns in the state. They also brought their African slaves to Oklahoma, which added to African-American population in the region. During the American Civil War many tribes were internally split between Confederates and the United States. However, in 1861 the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles, Quapaws, Senecas, Caddos, Wichitas, Osage Nation, and Shawnees signed treaties of alliance with the Confederacy. There were several battles fought in Oklahoma.

Cowboys and Indians

After the Civil War, in 1866, the federal government forced the tribes into new treaties. Most of the land in central and western Indian Territory was ceded to the government. Some of the land was given to other tribes, but the central part, the so-called Unassigned Lands, remained with the government. Another concession allowed railroads to cross Indian lands. Furthermore the practice of slavery was outlawed. Some nations were integrated racially and otherwise with their slaves, but other nations were extremely hostile to the former slaves and wanted them exiled from their territory. In the 1870s a movement began by people wanting to settle the government lands in the Indian Territory under the Homestead Act of 1862. They referred to the Unassigned Lands as Oklahoma and to themselves as Boomers. In the 1880s, early settlers of the state's very sparsely populated Panhandle region tried to form the Cimarron Territory, but lost a lawsuit against the federal government, prompting a judge in Paris, Texas, to unintentionally create a moniker for the area. "That is land that can be owned by no man," the judge said, and after that the panhandle was referred to as No Man's Land until statehood arrived decades later. In 1884, in United States vs. Payne, the United States District Court in Topeka, Kansas, ruled that settling on the lands ceded to the government by the Indians under the 1866 treaties was not a crime. The government at first resisted but the Congress soon enacted laws authorizing settlement. Congress passed the Dawes Act, or General Allotment Act, in 1887 requiring the government to negotiate agreements with the tribes to divide Indian lands into individual holdings. Under the allotment system, tribal lands left over would be surveyed for settlement by non-Indians. Following settlement, many whites accused Republican officials of giving preferential treatment to ex-slaves in land disputes.

Land runs

On March 231889, President Benjamin Harrison signed legislation by the U.S. Congress which would open up the Unassigned Lands (some 2 million acres (8,000 km²), for settlement on April 22nd. It was to be the first of a number of "Land runs" (due to widespread cheating later land openings were conducted by means of a lottery). Some of the settlers were called "Sooners" because they had already staked their land claims before the land was officially opened for settlement. The Organic Act of 1890 created the Oklahoma Territory out of the Unassigned Lands and No Man's Land. In 1893 the government purchased the rights to settle the "Cherokee Outlet," or "Cherokee Strip," from the Cherokee Nation. The Cherokee Outlet was part of the lands ceded to the government in the 1866 treaty but with the Cherokees retaining access. Chicago meat-packing plants had leased it from the Cherokees for huge cattle ranches. The Cherokee Strip was opened to settlement by land run in 1894. Also, in 1893, Congress set up the Dawes Commission to negotiate agreements with each of the Five Civilized Tribes for the allotment of tribal lands to individual Indians. Finally, the 1898 Curtis Act abolished tribal jurisdiction over all of Indian Territory.

Statehood

On November 161907, Oklahoma Territory combined with Indian Territory to become the 46th U.S. state. In the early 1900s the oil business began to get underway. Huge pools of underground oil were discovered in places like Glenpool. Many whites flooded into the state to make money. Many of the "old money" elite families of Oklahoma can date their rise to this time. The prosperity of the 1920s can be seen in the surviving architecture from the period, including one mansion which was converted into the Philbrook Museum of Art. For Oklahoma, the early 1900s were also somewhat turbulent politically. Many different groups had flooded into the state and were trying to figure out how to live. There were also "black towns", in which blacks tried to make a life of their own, separate from whites. The white towns were also segregated. Northern Tulsa was known as Black Wall Street because of the vibrant business, cultural, and religious community that had sprung up there. The Oklahoma Socialist Party did achieve a fair degree of success in this era (the party had its highest per-capita membership in Oklahoma at this time with 12,000 dues paying members in 1914), including the publication of dozens of party newspapers and the election of several hundred local elected officials. Much of their success came from their willingness to reach out to Black and American Indian voters (they were the only party to continue to resist Jim Crow laws), and their willingness to alter traditional Marxist ideology when it made sense to do so (the biggest changes were the party's support of widespread small-scale land ownership, and their willingness to use religion positively to preach the "Socialist gospel"). The state party also delivered Presidential candidate Eugene Debs some of his highest vote counts in the nation. The party was later crushed into virtual non-existence during the "white terror" that followed the ultra-repressive environment following the Green Corn Rebellion and the World World I era paranoia against anyone who spoke against the war or capitalism. The Industrial Workers of the World tried to gain headway during this period, but achieved little success. The Ku Klux Klan was also active, denouncing Blacks, Catholics, and Jews. There were several race riots, including the Tulsa Race Riot, one of the worst in American history.

Dust Bowl Era

During the height of the Great Depression, drought and non-ecologically-friendly agricultural practices led to the Dust Bowl, when massive dust storms blew away the soil from large tracts of arable land and deposited it on nearby farms and ranches, distant states, the Atlantic Ocean, and even occasionally Great Britain. The resulting crop failures forced many small farmers to flee the state altogether. Although the most persistent dust storms primarily affected the Panhandle, much of the state experienced occasional dusters, intermittent severe drought, and occasional searing heat. Towns as far-flung as Alva, Altus, and Poteau each recorded temperatures of 120 °F during the epic summer of 1936. Advances in agro-mechanical technology simultaneously enabled less labor-intensive crop production. Many large landowners and planters had more labor than they needed with the new technology, and the federal Agricultural Adjustment Act paid them to reduce production. Plantation owners throughout the American South and much of eastern and southern Oklahoma released their sharecroppers of their debts and evicted them. With few or no local opportunities available for them, many emancipated but destitute blacks and whites fled to the relative prosperity of California to work as migrant farm workers and, after the onset of World War II, in factories. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck, photographs by Dorothea Lange, and songs of Woody Guthrie tell tales of woe from the era. The negative images of the "Okie" as a sort of rootless migrant laborer living in a near-animal state of scrounging for food greatly offended many Oklahomans. These works often mix the experiences of former sharecroppers of the western American South with those of the exodusters fleeing the fierce dust storms of the High Plains. Although they primarily feature the extremely destitute, the vast majority of the people, both staying in and fleeing from Oklahoma, suffered great poverty in the Depression years. Some Oklahoma politicians denounced The Grapes of Wrath (often without reading it) as an attempt to impugn the morals and character of Oklahomans. The term "Okie" in recent years has taken on a new meaning in the past few decades, with many Oklahomans (both former and present) wearing the label as a badge of honor (as a symbol of the Okie survivor attitude). Others (mostly alive during the Dust Bowl era) still see the term negatively because they see the "Okie" migrants as quitters and transplants to the West Coast.

Urbanization

Major trends in Oklahoma history after the Depression era included the rise again of tribal sovereignty (including the issuance of tribal automobile license plates, and the opening of tribal smoke shops, casinos, grocery stores, and other commercial enterprises), the building of Tinker Air Force Base, the rapid growth of suburban Oklahoma City and Tulsa, the drop in population in Western Oklahoma, the oil boom of the 1980s and the oil bust of the 1990s. The constitution of Oklahoma said it will be dry. In this century came the gradual elimination of the prohibition of alcoholic beverages, first through defining non-alcoholic beverages containing 3.2% alcohol or less (this effectively eliminated the Federal government prohibition from the 20's), then through the legalization of stronger alcoholic beverages sold only in bottles, and finally in the legalization of "liquor by the drink" in the 1980s. Currently, Oklahoma's liquor laws are still fairly unusual in that only 3.2% alcohol by weight drinks can be sold in grocery/convenience stores, while higher-alcohol-content beverages must be sold at room temperature in liquor stores with limited hours of operations 10 a.m. to 9 p.m. Monday through Saturday. In 1995 Oklahoma became the scene of the Oklahoma City bombing, in which a Gulf War veteran named Timothy McVeigh bombed the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, killing 168 people. Oklahoma City has also been the home of Spiritual Walk for Peace, an ongoing series of peaceful peace demonstrations in downtown Oklahoma City conducted by members of the city's religious/peace communities.

Demographics

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2003, Oklahoma's population was estimated at 3,511,532 people.

Race and ancestry

The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census: The five largest ancestry groups in Oklahoma are German (14.5%), American (13.1%), Irish (11.8%), English (9.6%), Native American (7.9%, with Cherokees as the largest tribe). Southeastern and south-central Oklahoma are inhabited principally by Southerners of American ancestry. German-Americans are present in the state as well, especially in the northwestern part of the state. American Indians predominate in eastern Oklahoma. Oklahomans of British ancestry dominate Tulsa and some other areas. Blacks are a plurality in Lawton and Oklahoma City, while Pittsburg county has many Irish-Americans. Oklahoma City has the largest Asian and Asian American populations. A few western counties have significant Mexican American populations. 6.8% of Oklahoma's population were reported as under 5, 25.9% under 18, and 13.2% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.9% of the population. Descendants of these people still live in Oklahoma today. Counties with the names of these tribes also exist. Oklahoma has the second highest number of Native Americans/Amerindians in the country estimated at 395,219 as of 2003. Only California has a higher Amerindian population at 682,720 [http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/states/ST-EST2002-ASRO-04.php]. Oklahoma also has the second highest concentration of Native Americans/Amerindians in the nation with 11.4% of the state's population, topped only by Alaska at 19% of that state's population. [http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/c2kbr01-15.pdf].

Rural flight

Oklahoma, in common with five other Midwestern states (Nebraska, Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota and Iowa), is feeling the brunt of falling populations in many communities. 89% of the total number of cities in those states have fewer than 3000 people; hundreds have fewer than than 1000. Between 1996 and 2004 almost half a million people, nearly half with college degrees, left the six states. "Rural flight" has led to offers of free land and tax breaks as enticements to newcomers in some of these states. The effects of rural flight in Oklahoma have mostly been felt in Western Oklahoma (those areas west of Interstate 35).

Religion

Oklahoma is an overwhelmingly Protestant Christian state. The religious affiliations of the people of Oklahoma are:
- Christian – 85%
  - Protestant – 77%
    - Baptist (mostly Southern) – 32%
    - Methodist – 12%
    - Churches of Christ – 4%
    - Pentecostal – 4%
    - Presbyterian – 3%
    - Assemblies of God – 3%
    - Other Protestant – 19%
  - Roman Catholic – 7%
  - Other Christian – 1%
- Other Religions – 1%
- Non-Religious – 14%

Economy

Oklahoma is a major fuel and food-producing state. Thousands of oil and natural gas wells dot the Oklahoma landscape. Millions of white-faced beef cattle graze on Oklahoma's flat plain and low hills. Fertile fields produce vast crops of wheat. Its agricultural outputs are cattle, wheat, milk, poultry, and cotton. Its industrial outputs are transportation equipment, machinery, electric products, rubber and plastic products, and food processing. Its 1999 total gross state product was $86 billion, placing it 29th in the nation. Its 2000 per capita personal income was $23,517, 43rd in the nation. Oklahoma City suburb Nichols Hills is ranked first on Oklahoma locations by per capita income at $73,661. Oklahoma City is the principal economic engine of the state, centered on the finance, retail, governance, entertainment, and tourism sectors. The city has numerous manufacturing and processing plants as well as a growing biotech research and health center. Oklahoma City has a large aviation market and its location at the intersection of I-35, I-40, and I-44 makes Oklahoma City an important distribution and shipping point. Oklahoma City is home to many corporate and regional headquarters including Devon, Chesapeake Energy, Kerr-McGee, Six Flags, Sonic, SBC, The Hertz Corporation, BancFirst, OGE Energy, Bank of Oklahoma, Hobby Lobby, Dobson Communications, Express Personnel Services, Oklahoma Publishing Company, Globe Life and Accident Insurance, AOL, and Big Daddy's BBQ Sauce. Tulsa is centered around energy, aerospace and telecommunications and the city has the nation's most inland waterport. Companies based in Tulsa include Williams, Oneok, Wiltel, QuikTrip, Mazzio's Corporation, Dollar-Thrifty, and Vanguard. Other employers include MCI, TV Guide, SBC Communications, Dish Network, DirecTV, USCellular, Cingular, and Onex. Tulsa is also home to an American Airlines maintenance center, the largest airline maintenance base in the world.

Law and government

State government

The capital of the state is Oklahoma City and its governor is Brad Henry (Democrat). Other Executive Branch elected officials include Lieutenant Governor Mary Fallin (Republican), State Auditor and Inspector Jeff McMahan (Democrat), Attorney General Drew Edmondson (Democrat), State Treasurer Scott Meacham (Democrat), Superintendent of Public Instruction Sandy Garrett (Democrat), Labor Commissioner Brenda Reneau (Republican), Insurance Commissioner Kim Holland (Democrat), and the three member State Corporation Commission which currently consists of Bob Anthony (Republican), Jeff Cloud (Republican), and Denise Bode (Republican). Oklahoma's state legislature consists of a Senate and a House of Representatives. The Senate has 48 members serving four-year terms, while the House has 101 members with two year terms. The state has term limits for their legislature that restrict any one person to a total of twelve years service in both the house and senate. In the 2005–2006 state legislature, control is split between the major parties, the Democrats control the Senate (26 to 22) while the Republicans control the House (57 to 44). This changes the government's make-up since before the 2004 election the Democrats controlled both chambers since 1921. The state's judicial branch consists of the Oklahoma Supreme Court, the Court of Criminal Appeals, and 77 District Courts which serve one county apiece. Oklahoma is unusual in that it has two courts of last resort, the state Supreme Court hears civil cases, and the state Court of Criminal Appeals hears criminal cases (the state of Texas uses a similar system). Judges of those two courts, as well as the Court of Civil Appeals are appointed by the Governor upon the recommendation of the state Judicial Nominating Commission, and are subject to a non-partisan retention vote on a six-year rotating schedule. Due to Oklahoma's restrictive ballot access laws (deemed by many to be the most restrictive in the nation), no third parties have access to the primary ballots, however the state does have the following active third parties: Oklahoma Libertarian Party, Green Party of Oklahoma, Oklahoma Constitution Party. There are also organizers from the Communist Party USA working in the state.

Local governance

The state is divided into 77 counties which deliver local government. Each is governed by a three member commission. Other county elected officials are the tax assessor, clerk, court clerk, treasurer, and sheriff. Cities and towns are established under the rights granted in the Oklahoma statutes (in comparison, Oklahoma gives municipal governments a great deal of latitude in chartering new governments). Towns are municipalities of under 1000 residents, while cities have more than 1000 residents. Major cities are also allowed to form "charter governments," in which the voters choose the form of government they want to use in place of the statutory forms. Other local government units in Oklahoma include independent and dependent school districts, Technology Center Districts (once known as VOTECH), community college districts, rural fire dep