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Jainism

Jainism

from Mathura]] Jainism (pronounced in English as //), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म) , is a classical religion with its origins in the prehistory of India. The Jains, although a small minority in India now, have continued to sustain the shraman (श्रमण) tradition. Jainism is significantly influential in both the ethical and economic spheres in India. Jainism places great stress on compassion to all living beings. Self-control (व्रत, vrata in Sanskrit) forms a central part of being a Jain. A lay Jain is termed a shravaka (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ) has four components: monks (साधु), nuns, lay men and women.

Overview of Jain Dharma

According to Jain beliefs, Jain philosophy is a codification of eternal universal truths which at times lapse among humanity, but later reappear through the teachings of human beings who have gained enlightenment or omniscience (Keval Gnan). According to jain tradition, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ, sometimes pronounced as िरषभ) was the first human to receive the philosophy in this part of the universe, in the present cycle, and more recently Vardhaman Mahavira (599–527 BCE), or Lord Mahavira (महावीर). Jainism teaches that every single living thing is an individual and eternal soul, called jīva, which is responsible for its own actions. Jains see their faith as teaching the individual to live, think and act in ways that respect and honor the spiritual nature of every living being to the best of one's human abilities. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chief among them being Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness ('Ananta Gnana, Darshan, Chaitanya,' and 'Sukh') — but as such does not believe in any single Omnipotent Supreme Being (see Ishvara). The universe itself is seen as being eternal, having no beginning and no end, precluding God from being any creator. The primary figures of Jainism are the Tirthankaras. Jainism has two main variants: Digambar and Shvetambar. Jains believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, samsara, and the jiva. Jain philosophy has many scriptures written over a long period of time. One of the most cited scripture among all Jains is Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Realities written over 18 centuries ago by the monk-scholar Umasvati (also known as Umasvami). The holy Vedas of the orthodox Hindus is not regarded as authoritative, and hence, Jainism (along with Buddhism) is a Shramana Paramparā (monastic tradition) as opposed to orthodox Hinduism which is a Vaidika Paramparā (Vedic tradition). Compassion to all fellow living beings (along with humans) is central to being a Jain. Jainism is the only religion where all followers, both monks and practicing lay persons, are traditionally vegetarian. In regions of India with strong Jain influence, often the majority of the population is vegetarian. In many towns, the Jains run animal shelters. In Delhi, there is a bird hospital run by a Jain temple. Many historians believe that Hinduism adopted vegetarianism as a recommendation (though never a requirement or a dogma) because of the strong influence of Jainism and Buddhism. As part of its stance on nonviolence, Jainism goes even beyond vegetarianism, in that the Jain diet also excludes most root vegetables as Jains believe such vegetables have an infinite number of individual souls, invisible to the naked eye. Jains also do not eat certain other foods believed to be unnecessarily injurious. Observant Jains do not eat, drink or travel after sunset and always rise before sunrise. Anekantavada, meaning simultaneous validity of multiple points of view is an important principle in Jainism. Another foundational principle of Jainism is the theory of relativity of knowledge, ie, Syādvāda. The Jains can be remarkably open minded towards other dharmas. There are several Hindu temples that are administered by Jain individuals. The Jain Heggade family has run the institutions of Dharmasthala including the Manjunath Temple for eight centuries. There are examples of Jains donating money for building churches and mosques. In India the Jains have often helped organize multi-religious discussions and functions. They have also sometimes been involved in activities to promote harmony among followers of rival faiths to help defuse communal tensions. Jains have been an important presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences and the politics of Mohandas Gandhi which led to Indian independence.

Universal History and Jain Cosmology

According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each of these upward or downward cycles is divided into six world ages (yugas). The present world age is the fifth age of one of these "cycles", which is in a downward movement. These ages are known as "Aaro" as in "Pehela Aara" or First Age, "Doosra Aara" or Second Age and so on. The last one is the "Chhatha Aara" or Sixth Age. All these ages have fixed time durations of thousands of years. When this reaches its lowest level, even Jainism itself will be lost in its entirety. Then, in the course of the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders called Tirthankaras (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on. In each of these enormously long alternations of time there are always twenty-four Tirthankaras. In the current world age, the twenty-third Tirthankar was Parshva, an ascetic and teacher, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the passing of the last Tirthankar Lord Mahavira in 527 BC. Jains regard him and all Tirthankars as a reformer who called for a return to beliefs and practices in line with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is said to be based. Hence the epithet Bhagavan is applied to Mahavira and most other Tirathankaras in the sense of the Venerable One. Bhagavan is shelter from ocean of rebirths]] The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of this age is known by his title, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). He too was a wandering ascetic teacher who attempted to recall the Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith. Jains believe that reality is made up of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of an infinite number of identical spiritual units; ajiva (that is, non-jiva) is matter in all its forms and the conditions under which matter exists: time, space, and movement. Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they never came into existence for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, et cetera. Any contact whatsoever of the jiva with the ajiva causes the former to suffer. Thus the Jains believed that existence in this world inevitably means suffering. Neither social reform nor the reform of individuals themselves can ever stop suffering. In every human being, a jiva is trapped, and the jiva suffers because of its contact with ajiva. The only way to escape from suffering is for the jiva to completely escape from the human condition, from human existence. Karma and transmigration keep the jiva trapped in ajiva. Achieving release from the human condition is difficult. The Jains believe that the jiva continues to suffer during all its lives or reincarnations, which are of an indefinite number. They believe that every action that a person performs, be it good or evil, opens up channels of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which an invisible substance, karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of the next reincarnation. The consequence of evil actions is a heavy karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to enter its new life at a lower level in the scale of existence. The consequence of good deeds, on the other hand, is a light karma, which allows the jiva to rise in its next life to a higher level in the scale of existence, where there is less suffering to be endured. However, good deeds alone can never lead to release. karma The way to moksha (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma is the cause-and-effect mechanism by virtue of which all actions have inescapable consequences. Karma operates to keep the jiva chained in an unending series of lifetimes in which the jiva suffers to a greater or lesser extent. Thus the way of escape must involve an escape from karma, the destruction of all karma and the avoidance of new karma. Then, at death, with no karma to weigh it down, the jiva will float free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the top of the universe to a place or state called Siddhashila, where the jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, isolation and noninvolvement. It will be totally free. The way to burn up old karma is to withdraw from all involvement in the world as much as possible, and close the channel of the senses and the mind to prevent karmic matter from entering and adhering to the jiva. Such kind of an eternal liberation from the unbinding of the Jiva and the Pudgala (ajiva), such that no new reincarnation occurs into the material world, is called as Moksha. Ignorance (ajñāna) is the cause of binding, and true knowledge (kevala jñāna) is the cause of liberation. S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology after the following manner: :"In Jain tradition, the first teacher of the religion, Rishabha, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil had begun to be found, a teacher called a Tirthankara was needed in order for people to cope with the problems of life. In the fourth period, evils proliferated such that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve mokasha. The present time, part of the fifth period, is 'wholly evil.' Now, men live no longer than 125 years, but the sixth epoch will be even worse. 'Man's life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to the size of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the world cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man's needs will be fulfilled by wishing trees, and man's height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.' However, eventually things will degenerate again, with a repeat of Avasarpini; Usarpini will come again afterwards, in a neverending cycle, according to Jain cosmology." (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu, Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)

Beliefs and practices

Moksha." The wheel represents the dharma-chakra. This logo represents halting the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.]] On one hand, there are the monks, who practice severe asceticism and strive to make this birth their last. On the other hand, there are the lay people, who pursue less rigorous practices, striving to attain rational faith and do good deeds in this birth. Due to the strict ethics embedded in Jainism, the laity must choose a profession and livelihood that does not involve violence to self and other living beings. In their effort to attain their highest and most exalted state of being a Siddha, which is the permanent release of the jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, the Jains believe that no spirit or divine being can assist them in any way. The Jains consider that the devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help the jiva to obtain release. This has to be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, the devas cannot even gain their own release until they are reincarnated as humans and undertake the difficult actions of removing the karmas. The ethical code of Jainism is taken very seriously. Summarized in the Five Vows, they are followed by both lay people and monastics. These are: #Nonviolence (ahinsa, or ahimsa) #Truth (satya) #Non-stealing (asteya) #Chastity (brahmacharya) #Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (aparigrah) For lay people, 'chastity' means confining sexual experience to the marriage relationship. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being strictly vegetarian. The Jain is expected to follow the principle of non-violence in all his/her thoughts, words and deeds, not only towards fellow human beings, but also towards all living creature. There are some Jains who wear masks over their mouths and noses to avoid any possibility of breathing in tiny insects. Along with the above 5 traits JAINS also believe in forgiving others and keeping no harm feelings against any one in the heart. There is few more things which they completely believe in like AATMA can lead one to become PARMATMA but voice has to come form inner-self and no one can lead some one to any path but can only show the path. Also they think that one should not become angry as that is the biggest enemy on a human. They completely trust in the belief “JEEYO AUR JEENE DO” (live and let others live). Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by the Jain emphasis on a peaceful, non-harming way of life which is common to the Jain philosophy and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.

Jain Symbols

Jains have few core symbols. One Jain symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of the hand. The holiest one is a simple unadorned swastika or svastika. Major Jains symbols include:
- 24 Lanchhanas for Tirthankaras
- The Ashta-mangalas
- Om
- Triratna and Shrivatsa symbols.
- The dreams of Tirthankara's mother
- Dharma-chakra and Siddha-chakra

Jain Literature

The oldest Jain literature is in Ardha-Magadhi and Maharashtri Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Koshas, Shravakacharas, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Jain literature was also written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars etc), Hindi (Chhah-dhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka etc), Tamil (Jivakachintamani, Kural etc), Kannada (Vaddaradhane etc.). See Jain literature for more details.

Jain Worship and Rituals

Jains have built temples where images of their Tirthankaras are venerated. Jain rituals can be elaborate and include offerings of symbolic objects, with the Tirthankaras being praised in chant. In some Jain sects, temples and images are not required. Every day Jains bow their heads and say their universal prayer, the Namokar-mantra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship. णमो अरिहंताणं - I bow to the Arahantas, the perfected human beings (Tirathankaras), Godmen.
णमो सिद्धाणं - I bow to the Siddhas, liberated bodiless souls, regarded as God.
णमो आयरियाणं - I bow to the Acharyas, the masters and heads of congregations.
णमो उवज्झायाणं - I bow to the Upadhyayas, the spiritual teachers.
णमो लोए सव्व साहुणं - I bow to all the spiritual practitioners in the universe, Sadhus.
एसो पंच णमोकारो - This fivefold obeisance mantra,
सव्व पाप पणासणो - Destroys all sins and obstacles, मंगलाणं च सव्वेसिम - And of all auspicious repetitions,
पढ्मम हवइ मंगलम - Is the first and foremost...
The pronunciation of this great mantra is most important. One who completely knows the pronunciation should only try to rhyme this. The English format of the same is
OM NAMO ARIHANTANAM,
OM NAMO SIDHDHANAM,
OM NAMO AYARIYANAM,
OM NAMO UVAJZAYANAM,
OM NAMO LOE SAVVA SAHUNAM,
ESO PANCH NAMOKKARO,
SAVVA PAV PPANHA SANHO,
MANGALANAM CHA SAVVASIM,
PADHAMAM HAVAI MAMGALAM.,
In the above prayer, Jains salute the virtues of their five benevolent. They do not pray to a specific Tirthankar or monk by name. By saluting them, Jains receive the inspiration from the five benevolent for the right path of true happiness and total freedom from the misery of life. Jain prayers do not ask for any favors or material benefits from their gods, the Tirthankaras or from sadhus and sadhvis. Jain worship may or may not involve temples. The sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains and the followers of Shrimad Rajachandra sect do not have temples. The Taranpanthi Jains have temples, but have books in place of idols. Jain rituals include:
- Pancha-kalyanaka Pratishtha
- Pratikramana
- Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc. The Jain rituals for marriage and other family rites are distinct and uniquely Indian, usually minor variants of those in orthodox Hinduism.

Digambar and Shvetambar Traditions

It is generally believed that the Jain sangha became divided two major sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, about 200 years after the nirvana of Mahāvīr. Bhadrabahu, chief of the Jain monks, foresaw a period of famine and led about 12,000 people, to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find that the Svetambar sect had arisen. The followers of Bhadrabahu became known as the Digambar sect. The Digambar monks do not wear any clothes, the Svetambar monks wear white clothes. The sadhvis (lady religiuos persons) of both sects wear white clothes. There are also minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's Agama (sacred) literature. However historians have noted that there was no clear division until the 5th century. The Valabhi council of 453 resulted in editing and compilation of scriptures of the Svetambar tradition. Excavations at Mathura have revealed many Kushana period Jain idols. In all of them the Tirthankaras are represented without clothes. Some of them show monks with only one piece of cloth which is wrapped around the left arm. They are identified as belonging to the ardha-phalaka sect mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniaya sect is believed to have have originated from the Ardha-phalakas. They followed Digambara practice of nudity, but held several beliefs like the Svetambaras. Both traditions are further subdivided into several sects. In recent decades, attempts have been made to bring the sects together. In 1974, a new religious text Samana Suttam was compiled by a committee consisting of representatives of all the sects.

Geographical spread and influence

Samana Suttam] It has been advanced that the pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism. The Buddhists always maintained that by the time Buddha and Mahavira were alive, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism. At 4 to 5 million adherents, Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more significant than the numbers would suggest. The Jains live throughout India, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Other states of India with relatively large Jain populations among its residents are Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. Jainism has a large following in the Indian region of Punjab, especially the town of Ludhiana and Patiala. There were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947. Many then fled to the Indian section of Punjab. It is practiced by adherents in all the metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai as well as Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad. There are 85 Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They speak local languages and sometimes follow different rituals. However they all follow essentially the same principles. Outside of India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Australia etc. Jainism as a religion was at various times found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, and Afghanistan, though in much minority as compared to Buddhism. Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in South Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a growing faith in the United States as well, where several Jain temples have been built. American Jainism tends to accommodate all the sects in its institutions. Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion have been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals can be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.

Jain Contributions to Indian Culture

While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India have been considerable. The Jains are among the wealthiest of the Indians. They are also among the most philanthropic, they run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals. They have been the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat. Jains have greatly influenced the cuisine of Gujarat. Gujarat is dominantly vegetarian, and its dishes all have pleasing and soothing aromas due to the lack of foods with pungent odors, such as onions garlic etc. According to the 2001 census, the Jains are the most literate community in India. India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer have been preserved by Jain institutions. The Jains have contributed writings in many of the India's classical and popular languages. Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. In Kannada almost entire early literature is of Jain origin. Many of the Tamil classics are also Jain. Practically all of the known texts of Apabhramsha language are Jain works.

Jainism and Indian Archaeology

Decipherment of Brahmi James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism. Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, and Rajput and later period. Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan migration India.

Holy sites

Indo-Aryan migration ]] There are many Jain tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India.
- Shravanabelagola, monumental statue of the Jain saint Gomateshwara in Hassan District, Karnataka.
- Dilwara Temples, complex of white marble Jain temples on Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
- Ranakpur Temples, extensive complex of white marble Jain temples in Ranakpur, Rajasthan.
- Palitana, most visited Jain temple in Gujarat.
- Bawangaja, a complex of Jain temples and monumental statues in Barwani District, Madhya Pradesh.
- Gwalior's fort is home to dozens of Jain rock-cut sculptures.
- Shikharji in Madhuban, Bihar has a series of temples on mountains where the Tirthankaras attained Keval Gyan
- The Bhagwan Adinath derasar at Vataman near Ahmedabad
- Bajrangarh, Atisaya-kshetra in Guna district in Madhya Pradesh, India
- Kundalpur, Siddha-kshetra having 63 temples, famous for beautiful statue of Bade Baba in Damoh district in Madhya Pradesh, India

Jain Temples Outside India

- UK
- The [http://www.jaincentre.com/ Jain Centre ]in Leicester, England, the first Jain Temple consecrated in the western world
- USA
- The [http://www.jcgb.org/ Jain Center of Greater Boston ] in Norwood, Massachusetts is the first Jain Center in North America.
- The [http://www.jsmconline.org/ Jain Society of Metropolitan Chicago] in Barlett, Illinois
- The [http://www.jcnc.org/ Jain Center of Northern California ] in Milpitas, California
- The [http://www.nyjaincenter.org/ Jain Center of America] in Elmhurst, New York
- The [http://www.jsgatemple.org/ Jain Center of Greater Atlanta] in Atlanta, Georgia Find more links at http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html

Holy days

- Paryushan Parva, 10/8 (Digambar/Shwetambar) day fasts, to observe, 10/8 important principles to follow.
- Mahavir Jayanti, birthday of Mahavir.
- Diwali, day of attaining nirvana by Mahavir.
- Kshamavaani, The day of asking forgiveness from all. The [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/calendar.html Jain Calendar] gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vratas and fairs.

Jainism and other religions

India has a rich history of diverse philosophies. The term Hindu includes followers of Vedic, Vaishnava, Shaiva and other traditions. These traditions share a common cultural background with Jainism. Buddhism, like Jainism, represents the ancient Shramana tradition of India. Along with Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism share the concept of dharma (hence these are called Arya Dharma, ie, noble religions). Connections among these are discussed at:
- Jainism and Hinduism
- Jainism and Buddhism
- Jainism and Sikhism Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:
- Jainism and Christianity
- Jainism and Judaism
- Jainism and Islam

References

Introductory:

- Duli C. Jain (Editor), Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
- Vastupal Parikh Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002. Detailed Introduction:

- Natubhai Shah, Jainism : The World of Conquerors, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004.
- Padmanabh S. Jaini, Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
- Kurt Titze, Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
- Kristi Wiley, Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
- Mamta Mishra, Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000. Specialized Sources:

- Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
- Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
- Campbell, Joseph, Oriental Mythology, 1962.
- Nakamura, Hajime, Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
- Ramachandran, T.N., Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
- Subramaniyam, Ka Naa, Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
- Thomas, Edward, Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
- [http://www.iep.utm.edu/j/jain.htm#H2 Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen]

External links

- [http://www.jaina.org Federation of Jain Associations in North America ]
- [http://www.garamchai.com/jains.htm Listings of Jain Temples and places of worship in North America ]
- [http://www.yja.org Young Jains of America ]
- [http://www.yjponline.org Young Jains Professionals ]
- [http://www.yja.org/blog Jain Diaries: The Jain Blog ]
- [http://www.flickr.com/photos/yja Jain Photos (By YJA) ]
- [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainhlinks.html Jainism: Jain Principles, Tradition and Practices] Jainism resources on the web
- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/index.htm Jaina Sutras], Translated from the Prakrit by Hermann Jacobi, 1884
- [http://www.AtmaDharma.com AtmaDharma.com - Collection of Original Jain Texts]
- [http://www.shubhlabh.net Jain Samaj Europe ]
- [http://www.jainworld.com Jainworld ] ja:ジャイナ教
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Dharma

Dharma (Sanskrit, roughly law or way) is the way of the higher Truths. Beings that live in harmony with Dharma proceed more quickly towards moksha, nirvana, or personal liberation. Dharma forms the basis for philosophies, beliefs and practices originating in India. The oldest of these, widely known as Hinduism, is Sanatana Dharma or Eternal Dharma. Buddhism, Ayyavazhi, Jainism and Sikhism also retain the centrality of Dharma. For the followers of these traditions, Dharma also refers to the teachings and doctrines of their founder, such as Gautama Buddha or Mahavira Jain. As the religious and moral doctrine of the rights and duties of each individual, Dharma therefore can generally refer to religious duty, as also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue.

Meanings and origins of the word Dharma

The word Dharma (Sanskrit; "धर्म" in the Devanagari script) or dhamma (Pali) is used in most or all philosophies and religions of Indian origin, the dharmic faiths, namely Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma), Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Dharma also is practiced in the Surat Shabda Yoga traditions. In its oldest form, dharman, it first appears in the Vedas. It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for Dharma (life fails to convey its connoted complexity). The word has a long and varied history and complex set of meanings and interpretations. Certain Westerners and Orientalists have proposed a number of possible translations, from "justice" to "religion", however these definitions have evolved with their associated usage in Western culture. "Dharma" derives from the verbal root dhri, which simply means "manner of being." The term must therefore be understood in its original (i.e. metaphysical) context, that of a conformity to a divine or creative principle at work in an individual and in nature. It represents the individual's internal law, to which obedience must be given if that individual life is to live in accordance with a Divine Will. This is what Hindus consider the sole or primary purpose of life. It explains how justice finds its place among the many modern definitions of the word dharma. Rene Guenon, father of the 20th century school of Perennial Philosophy, defines it as such:

It [dharma] is, so to speak, the essential nature of a being, comprising the sum of its particular qualities or characteristics, and determining, by virtue of the tendencies or dispositions it implies, the manner in which this being will conduct itself, either in a general way or in relation to each particular circumstance. The same idea may be applied, not only to a single being, but also to an organized collectivity, to a species, to all the beings included in a cosmic cycle or state of existence, or even to the whole order of the Universe; it then, at one level or another, signifies conformity with the essential nature of beings… (from Guenon's "Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines")

This said, certain Western definitions of the word must be considered in the light of this original definition—that is, as branches from a single root. Monier Monier-Williams, for example (while covering the entire scope it would seem), gives its primary definition as:

that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, ordinance, law; usage, practice, customary observance or prescribed conduct, duty; right, justice (often as a synonym of punishment); virtue, morality, religion, religious merit, good works,

of which the first, "that which is established or firm" seems to be the most ancient and etymological. Dharma is cognate with the Latin firmus, the origin of the word firm. Meanings related to law, morality, scripture, and teachings were probably acquired through analogy, by being regarded as firm and called as such. For the phenomenological or psychological meaning, see below. Dr. David Frawley, an expert on Hindu philosophy and religion, describes Dharma as:

a universal tradition has room for all faiths and all religious and spiritual practices regardless of the time or country of their origin. Yet it places religious and spiritual teachings in their appropriate place relative to the ultimate goal of Self-realization, to which secondary practices are subordinated. Sanatan Dharma also recognizes that the greater portion of human religious aspirations has always been unknown, undefined and outside of any institutionalized belief. Sanatan Dharma thereby gives reverence to individual spiritual experience over any formal religious doctrine. Wherever the Universal Truth is manifest; there is Sanatan Dharma—whether it is in a field of religion, art or science, or in the life of a person or community. Whereever the Universal Truth is not recognized, or is scaled down or limited to a particular group, book or person, even if done so in the name of God, there Sanatan Dharma ceases to function, whatever the activity is called.

According to the Natchintanai Scripture:

By the laws of Dharma that govern body and mind, you must fear sin and act righteously. Wise men by thinking and behaving in this way become worthy to gain bliss both here and hereafter.

Yama, the lord of death, is also known as Dharma, since he works within the laws of karma and morality, regulated by divine principles. More familiar is the embodiment of Dharma in Lord Rama, an avatar of Vishnu. The eldest Pandava, Yudhishthira was referred to as DharmaRaj owing to his steadfastness to Truth & Dharma. The teachings, doctrines, philosophies and practices associated with furthering Dharma are also referred to as such. Sometimes, specific qualifiers are used - viz. Bauddha-Dharma and Jain-Dharma to distinguish them from Sanatana_Dharma. For many Buddhists, the Dharma most often means the body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The word is also used in Buddhist phenomenology as a term roughly equivalent to phenomenon, a basic unit of existence and/or experience. In scripture translations dharma is often best left untranslated, as it has acquired a lively life of its own in English that is more expressive than any simplistic translation. Common translations and glosses include "right way of living," Divine Law, Path of Righteousness, order, faith, "natural harmony," rule, fundamental, and duty. Dharma may be used to refer to rules of the operation of the mind or universe in a metaphysical system, or to rules of comportment in an ethical system.

Dharma in Hinduism

Within Indian philosophy "dharma" also means "property" and "dharmin" means "property-bearer". In a Sanskrit sentence like "zabdo 'nityaH" (Sanskrit transliterated according to the Kyoto-Harvard convention), "sound is impermanent", "sound" is the bearer of the property "impermanence". Likewise, in the sentence "iha ghataH", "here, there is a pot", "here" is the bearer of the property "pot-existence" - this just goes to show that the categories property and property-bearer are closer to those of a logical predicate and its subject-term, and not to a grammatical predicate and subject.

Origin and development in Hinduism

A common manner of describing Hinduism among its adherents is as a way of life, as "Dharma." It defies dogma and thus seeks to instead align the human body, mind, and soul in harmony with nature. Our very limitation is guided under a universal understanding, that of Dharma. The Atharva Veda, the last of the four books of the Vedas, utilizes symbolism to describe dharma's role. Thus we are bound by the laws of time, space and causation according to finite reality, which itself is a limitation imposed by the self-projection of the infinite Brahman as the cosmos. Dharma is the foundation of this causal existence, the one step below the infinite. Indeed, dharma is the projection of divine order from Brahman, and as such: ::::: "Prithivim Dharmana Dhritam" ::::: "This world is upheld by Dharma" :::::-- (Atharva Veda)

Proto-dharma: rta in the Vedas

To assess a concept whose explication is bewildering in range, it is useful to trace its nascence and subsequent development in Vedic culture. In the Vedas, which span back to 2000 BCE (and much further in oral tradition), the first concept that is strikingly dharmic is that of rta. Rta literally means the "course of things." At first, the early Hindus (or followers of the "Sanatan Dharma") were notably confused as to the inscrutable order of nature, how the heavenly bodies, the rushing winds and flowing waters, the consistent cycling of the seasons, were regulated. Thenceforth sprang rta, whose all-purpose role it was to signify this order, the path that was always followed. Through all the metamorphoses and permutations of nature, of life in general, there was one unchangeable fact: rta. Soon it transcended its passive role as a mere signifier and took on a greater one, that of an active imposition of order. Not only the natural principles, but the gods and goddesses themselves, were obliged to abide by rta. Rta became the father, the law of justice and righteousness, unyielding but eminently fair. It grew, as Radhakrishnan states, from "physical" to "divine" in its purvey. The world's seeming mess of altercating fortune, the caprice of the divinities, was now intelligible. Indeed, there was a single, unchanging harmony working 'behind the scenes.' A right path existed, ready to be taken by the righteous ones. Rta signifies the way life ought to be, shifting from physical to divine, from natural to moral order. Rta was morality, the equitable law of the universe. The conception of this all-transcending, supramental force that is, practically, the same concept as later understandings of dharma, is captured in this early Vedic prayer, preempting the liturgical strains of classical Hindu mantras involving dharma: :::::"O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils." :::::--(Rig Veda Book X, Chapter CXXXIII, Verse 6) Thus we see the logical progression of an early 'course of things' into an all-encompassing moral order, a path and way of righteousness, an all-encompassing harmony of the universe, in the Vedic idea of Rta. (1)

Developing conceptions

An earlier and insightful demonstration of the continuity of thought from rta to dharma is a brief but "pregnant definition" ((3) of dharma given in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, a pre-Buddhist work dating back to between 1000 to 700 BCE. Founded upon the Hindu ideas of, as R. H. Hume's "intelligent monism," with Brahman the monad, the Upanishads saw dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the universe. It is sat, truth, a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda" (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma has imbibed the highest principles of Truth, and as such is the central guiding principle in the Hindu conception of existence. Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka's own words: :::::" Verily, that which is Dharma is truth. :::::Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, 'He speaks the Dharma,' :::::or of a man who speaks the Dharma, 'He speaks the Truth.' :::::Verily, both these things are the same." :::::(Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) (2)

Dharma as a Purushartha

In moving through the four stages of life, viz. Brahmachaaryaashram, Grihasthaashram, Vanprasthaashram, Sanyaasaashram, a person also seeks to fulfill the four essentials (purushaartha) of Dharma, Artha (worldly gain{{{

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above the age of eighteen are eligible to vote. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature. India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are eighteen appellate High Courts, having jurisdiction over a large state or a group of states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.

Politics

Chief Justice of India For most of its independent history, India's national government has been controlled by the Indian National Congress Party. Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, Congress, usually led by a member of the Nehru-Gandhi family, dominated national politics for over forty years. In 1977, a united opposition, under the banner of the Janata Party, won the election and formed a non-Congress government for a short period after the unpopular 'emergency rule' imposed by Indira Gandhi in the previous Congress regime. In 1996, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a political party with a right wing nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established for the first time a serious opposition to the largely centre-left Congress. But power was held by two successive coalition governments, who stayed on with the support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) along with smaller parties and became the first non-Congress government to sustain the full five year term after it returned to power in 1999. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by short-lasting governments, with seven separate governments formed within that period. One however, a Congress government formed in 1991, lasted the full five years and initiated significant economic reforms. In the 2004 Indian elections the Congress party returned to power after winning the largest number of seats, by a narrow margin. Congress formed a government in alliance with the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and with several mostly-regional parties called the United Progressive Alliance. The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments formed since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single majority party, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.

States and union territories

India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into districts), six Union Territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government, though some have elected governments. India has had two scientific bases in Antarctica – the Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri, but has made no territorial claims so far.

Geography

Maitri in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]] India's entire north and northeast states are made up of the Himalayan Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile Indo-Gangetic plain. Towards western India, bordering southeast Pakistan, lies the Thar Desert. The southern Indian peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan plateau. The plateau is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. India is home to several major rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, and the Krishna. The rivers are responsible for the fertile plains in northern India which are conducive to farming. The Indian climate varies from a tropical climate in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalaya have a tundra climate. India gets most of its rains through the monsoons.

Economy

monsoon India has an economy ranked as the tenth largest in the world in terms of currency conversion and fourth largest in terms of purchasing power parity. It recorded one of the fastest annual growth rates of 6.9% for the year ending March 2005. India's per-capita income by purchasing power parity is US$ 3,262, ranked 125th by the World Bank. India's foreign exchange reserves amount to over US$ 143 billion. Mumbai serves as the nation's financial capital and is also home to both the headquarters of the Reserve Bank of India and the pre-eminent Bombay Stock Exchange. While a quarter of Indians still live below the poverty line, a large middle class has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the IT industry. The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on agriculture, which now contributes to less than 25 % of GDP. Other important industries are mining, petroleum, diamond polishing, films, textiles, information technology services, and handicrafts. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in software and business process outsourcing services, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005. Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages. business process outsourcing While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3 % of India's GDP. The actual employment generation, both direct and indirect, is estimated to be 42 million, or about 10 % of India's work force. In monetary terms, it contributes about US$4 billion in foreign exchange. India's major trading partners are the United States, Japan, China and the United Arab Emirates. India's main exports items include agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellry, software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals and leather products while its main import commodities are crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion while the imports were worth at US $89.33 billion.

Demographics

India is the second most populous country in the world, with only China having a larger population. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China with the world's largest population, estimated at 1.6 billion. Language, religion, and caste are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse Indian population today. Its biggest metropolitan agglomerations are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Chennai (formerly Madras). Chennai]] India's literacy rate is 64.8 % with 53.7 % of females and 75.3 % of males being literate. The sex ratio is 933 females for every 1000 males. Work Participation Rate (WPR) (the percentage of workers to total population) stands at 39.1 % with male WPR at 51.7 % and female WPR at 25.6 % inote|eu{inote|demostats{inote|religion{ref|languages{inote|tongues{see2|Christianity in India|Jews in India{seealso3|List of Indian languages by total speakers|List of cities in India|Religion in India{main|Culture of India{seealso4|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India{main|Sports in India{main|Holidays in India{Official Holidays of India{Topics related to India{portal{sisterlinks|India{wikitravel{wikicities|india|India{explain-inote{Web reference | title=India facts and figures | work=Embassy of India| URL= http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Forex reserves up by $1bn | work=Economic Times| URL= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India Economy | work=Travel Document Systems |URL= http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Services | work=India in Business| URL= http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work=Times of India | URL= http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= US, UAE, UK, China, Japan among India's top trade partners | work=Indian Express| URL= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/business/20050102-0.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= CIA Factbook : India | work=CIA Factbook | URL= http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census| work=Census of India| URL=http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Debating India & India's literacy rate | work=Debating India | URL= http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India – Country profiles | work=indexmundi.com | URL= http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work=Census of India | URL= http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Languages of India | work=India image | URL= http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm| date=August 14 | year=2005{Book reference | Author=K.M. Matthew | Title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 | Publisher= Malaya Manorama | Year=2003 | ID=ISBN 8190046187{mnb|afgh|1{mnb|LoC|2{South Asia{Asia{Commonwealth of Nations{SAARC{Life in India{Link FA|sv{Link FA|sv

Shraman

A Shramana (Sanskrit) is a wandering monk in India's shramana traditions, including :
- Jainism :
- Buddhism :
- Ajivikas, now extinct Mahavira, the 24th Jina, and Gautam Buddha were leaders of their shramana orders. According to Buddhist and Jain literature, there were other shramana leaders at that time. They are referred to as Titthiyas of Tirthakas in the Buddhist Pali literature. Mahavira is referred to as Niggantha Nataputta, one of the Titthiyas. For the six Tirthikas see [http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AD%E5%B8%AB%E5%A4%96%E9%81%93 六師外道] Siddhartha (Gautam Buddha) regarded rigorous asceticism extreme and decided to give them up, and thus adapted the "middle way," while the followers of Mahavira continued to practice asceticism. Devadatta, the cousin of Siddhartha, caused a split in the Buddhist sangh by demanding more rigorous practices. The shramana ideal of wandering was compromised early in Buddhism, when the bhikkhus started living in viharas. In mediaeval Jainism also, the tradition of wandering nearly became extinct, but was revived in the 19th century. Similar reforms have also occurred in Buddhism. Some of the terms are common between Jainism and Buddhism, including :
- Symbols: chaitya, stupa, dharma-chakra :
- Terms: arhat, nirvana, sangha, acharya, Jina etc. The term pudgala is used by both but with completely different meanings. Because both Jainism and Buddhism represent closely related traditions, they are often mistaken.

References

- A L Basham, History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, 1951

Also see

- Shramans as mentioned by ancient Western authors Category:Jainism Category:Buddhism

Shravaka

Sravaka (Sanskrit śrāvaka; Tibetan nyan thos; Pali sāvaka) is a hearer, a term applied to the personal disciples of the Buddha, distinguished as mahā-śrāvaka; it is also applied to hearers, or disciples in general; but its general connotation relates it to Nikaya Buddhist disciples who understand the four dogmas, rid themselves of the unreality of the phenomenal, and enter nirvāṇa; it is the initial stage. Sravaka (श्रावक) in Jainism is a lay Jain. He is the hearer of Jinavani i.e. discourses of Jain Munis (Jain monks) and scholars. The Jain chaturvidha sangha includes monks, nuns, lay men and women.

External links

- [http://www.acmuller.net/cgi-bin/search-ddb4.pl?Terms=聲聞 Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in with userID "guest") Category: Buddhist terms Category:Jainism

Sangha

:See also the Sangha Region of the Republic of the Congo and Sangha River and Sanga for the town in Mali. Sangha is a word in Indian languages that can be translated roughly as "association" or "assembly". It is commonly used in several senses to refer to Buddhist or Jain groups. Traditionally, in Buddhism almost always has one of two meanings: most commonly, sangha means the order of ordained Buddhist monks or nuns (that is, there is one sangha of monks and one of nuns). In a stricter sense, sangha can mean the assembly of all beings possessing some degree of enlightenment, such as arhats and bodhisattvas; this is referred to as the arya-sangha or noble sangha. In modern Western countries, sangha is often used much more loosely to refer to any group of Buddhist laypeople, with a meaning similar to "congregation." In Jainism, Sangha can mean the assembly of monks, nuns, lay men and women (termed chatrividha sangha) of a region. It can also mean an order of monks and nuns, along with its branches. For example Mula Sangha represents practically all the branches of the Digambar Jain monks and nuns. Sanghapati (Sanghavi or Singhai) is a title given to a lay leader who makes a major contribution like building a temple or organizing a mass pilgrimage. In Sikhism, sangha is a Punjabi Jat Sikh community and there are two kinds. One is Ludh Sanghas and the second is Asees Sangha. This article deals primarily with the subject of the monastic sangha. Buddhists traditionally consider monastic life to provide the environment most conducive to advancing toward enlightenment, and the sangha is responsible for maintaining, translating, advancing, and spreading the teachings of the Buddha.

Ordination process

When a young man aspires to join the sangha of monks, a bhikkhu will first ordain him as a samanera (novice) either for a year or until the age of 20. If the samanera is deemed acceptable and able by the order, he will then receive a full ordination and will now live by the monastic rules of the patimokkha (227 rules for Theravada monks), which are stated in the Tripitaka. A young woman should be ordained, according to Theravada tradition, by both a monk and a nun, first as a samaneri. Then, after a year or at the age of 20, she will be ordained as a full bhikkhuni. The Theravada vinaya has 311 rules of discipline for bhikkhunis. Within Chinese society, as an example, members of the Sangha are expected to renounce family connections and accept the Sangha as their family. The Chinese term for becoming a monk or nun is to "leave the family" and the Chinese term for renouncing one's membership in the Sangha is to "return the books."

Women's role in the Sangha

Although always maintaining that women were just as capable to attain enlightenment as men, Buddha originally neither permitted women to join the Sangha of monks nor to form an independent Sangha of nuns. After several entreaties from his aunt and foster-mother, Mahapajapati Gotami, who wished to become ordained, and from his cousin and aide Ananda, who supported her cause, the Buddha relented and ordained Mahapajati and several others as nuns. The Buddha established the condition that each new ordination would be sanctioned by at least five bhikkhunis. There have been several speculative theories regarding the Buddha's reluctance to ordain women, including the possibility that it was due to fears that a community of women would not be safe in the society of his day. It is interesting to note that this was one of the few issues about which the Buddha is recorded to have changed his mind. Before the modern era, the Bhikkhuni Sangha spread to most Buddhist countries, with the notable exceptions being Tibet and Thailand. However, in Sri Lanka, it died out in the 11th century during a civil war. Even after Theravada Buddhism spread to Thailand and Burma, its monastic sangha consisted only of monks. In recent decades, there has been a serious attempt to revive the Theravada Bhikkhuni Sangha with the assistance of east Asian Mahayanist bhikkhunis. This has resulted in a small but thriving community of nuns in Sri Lanka, who in turn ordained the first Theravada Buddhist nun in the history of Thailand, Ven. Dhammananda. However, the validity of these ordinations is strongly disputed by the conservative Theravada establishment. Meanwhile, a similar process has produced the first fully ordained bhikkhunis in Tibetan Buddhism. In the west, where feminism has been a strong influence, there have been many remarkable Buddhist nuns: two notable examples are Pema Chodron and Ayya Khema.

External links

- [http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.]
- [http://www.e-sangha.com "E-Sangha Buddhist Community"]
- [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/modern/ariyesako/layguide.html "The Bhikkhus' Rules, A Guide for Laypeople" by Bhikkhu Ariyesako.]
- [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/modern/bmc/intro.html "The Buddhist Monastic Code: The Patimokkha Training Rules Translated and Explained" by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (Geoffrey DeGraff)]
- [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/lee/duties.html "Duties of the Sangha" by Ajaan Lee Dhammadharo]
- [http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in with userID "guest") Category:Buddhist terms ja:僧伽

Lord Rishabha

Lord Rişhabha Rişhabh, Rişhabhanāth or Rushabh who was the first Tirthankar of Jainism. Lord Rishabha was the first Tirthankar of what the Jains call the present Age, and hence is also called Adi-nath, the First Lord. It is to be noted that Rişhabhanātha is an Arhat or a venerable liberated human, but must not be confused with God, because Jainism does not believe in any Supreme and Omnipotent God. According to Jain texts, Lord Rishabh has been known to exist at the time civilization were yet to form in its proper state. Legend talks of him being the son of chief of the 'Ishavaku' clan, who taught people agriculture, tending of animals, cooking, etc. He has been known to father a hundred sons. The first being 'Bharath', after whom India got its name 'Bharat'. Another son of his was named 'Bahubali'. A statue of whoes exist in 'Shravanbelgola', Karnataka. According to Trilokasara: :धम्मो वि दयामूलो विणिम्मियो आदिबह्मेण :(The "first Brahmā" (Lord Rishabha) established the (ordinary) dharma based on compassion.) Brahmā In Jain tradition, he is more than a Tirthankar. As a king, he is credited with development of several innovations affecting the society, as transition was being made from a simple to a more complex society. According to Vrihat-svayambhuu stotra: :प्रजापतिर्यः प्रथमं जिजीविषुः शशास कृष्यादिसु कर्मसु प्रजाः :(As first Prajapati, he taught people, who wanted to earn a living, various professions.) He attained salvation or 'Keval gyan' or infinite knowledge and while giving sermons, his mother came riding on an elephant top to see the glory of her son. She was so emotionally moved by her son's image that she attained her 'Moksh' at that precise moment. Lord Rishabh's grandson 'Marichi' (Bharath's son) whoes soul was later came to be known as Lord Mahavira.

Sculptures and mentions

Lord Rişhabha is venerated by many Jains through his statutes. Some features of his statues are:

Long Hair

The ancient idols of lord Rishaba all show him long shoulder length hair. This is referred to by Acharaya RavisheNa in Padma-PuraNa: :वातोद्धूता जटास्तास्य रेजुराकुलमूर्तयः. धूमल्व इव सद्ध्यान वह्निसक्तस्य कर्मणः :(Blowing in the wind, the locks of his hair looked, as if they were smoke coming out the fire buring the karmas.) The Vaishnava text Bhāgavata-Puraņa also mentions the locks of hair of Lord Rishaba: :कुटिल जटिल कपिशकेशभूमिभारा

Lord Rishbha in Brahmanical books

Rishabaha is described as the son of King Nabhi and Queen Marudevi. He is mentioned in all the Vaishnava/Shaiva Puraņas, as well as in some other texts. The Bhāgavata says: :अष्टमे मेरुदेव्यां तु नाभेर्जात उरूक्रमः. दर्शयन वर्म धीराणां सर्वाश्रमनमस्कृतम् :(In the womb of Merudevi, wife of Nabhi, the lord had his eighth avatara. He showed himself in a form that is to be worshipped by all Shramanas.) Bhagavata calls him "शरीर मात्र परिग्रह " (body his only possession), "गगन परिधानः " (wearing the sky), वातरशना (wearing the wind). It is to be noted that Jainism is a Shramana Paramparā, ie, a monastic tradition, as opposed to orthodox Hinduism, which is a Vedic Paramparā; this also is what the Bhāgavata Purana mentions above. Some of the attributes of Lord Adinath are similar to Shiva of Hinduism, long hair, association with bull (the mark of Lord Adinath), meditation in the Himalayas (Ashtapad in Jain tradition is identified with Kailash), etc.

Bharata Chakravarti and Bahubali

The oldest son of Lord Rishabha was Bharata. He was a chakravarti king. In the later part of his life he retired as a monk and attained nirvana. Since he became a siddha, he is occasionally worshipped. According to the Jain tradition, India was named Bhārata-varsha after him. According to Kalidas, India was named Bhaarata due to Bharata the son of Dushyanta and Shakuntala. This view is supported by the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The other son of Lord Adinath was Bahubali, who is a popular deity in South Indian Jainism.. The two famous statues of Bahubali are at Shravanabelagola and Karkala.

Famous temples dedicated to Lord Rishabha

- Adishwar Temple, Ranakpur, Rajasthan
- Adishwar temple, Palitana, Gujarat
- Adinath temple, Khajuraho, MP
- Adinath temple, Ayodhya, UP
- Adinath at Rikhabdeo near Udaipur, Rajasthan
- Adinath Bhagvan Temple, Mahrauli, Delhi
- Bhagawan Adinath Temple, Hirehattihole, Karnataka
- Adinath Bhagvan Temple, Ponnur Hill, Tamilnadu

Archaeology: Notable Pratimas of Lord Rishabha

- Pre-Kushana Mathura sculpture
- Kushana images from Mathura
- Bronze from Chausa hoard, 1st cent CE
- Bronze from Akota hoarde, 6th cent CE
- Monumental figure at Bavangaja, Badvani, 10th cent Rishabha

599 BCE

Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC 600s BC - 590s BC - 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC 550s BC 540s BC ----

Events and trends

- 598 BC - Jehoiachin succeeds Jehoiakim as King of Judah
- March 16, 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoaichin with Zedekiah as king.
- 595 BC - Psammetichus II succeeds Necho II as king of Egypt
- 594 BC - Solon appointed archon of Athens; institutes democratic reforms.
- 590 BC - Egyptian army sacks Napata, compelling the Cushite court to move to a more secure location at Meroe near the sixth cataract. (Early history of Sudan)

Births

- Mahavira Founder of Jainism Category:590s BC

Soul

:For other meanings, see Soul (disambiguation) The soul, according to many religious and philosophical traditions, is the ethereal substance — spirit (Hebrew:rooah or nefesh) — particular to a unique living being. Such traditions often consider the soul both immortal and innately aware of its immortal nature, as well as the true basis for sentience in each living being. The concept of the soul has strong links with notions of an afterlife, but opinions may vary wildly, even within a given religion, as to what happens to the soul after death. Many within these religions and philosophies see the soul as immaterial, while others consider it possibly material. :Note: This article uses the word "soul" in the common form, and deals largely with varied concepts from which the concept originates, and to which it relates. The use of the word soul often does not explicitly correspond to usage associated with any particular view or belief, including usage in Western and Eastern religious texts, and in the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Heraclitus, or Plotinus.

Etymologies

The current English word "soul" may have originated from Old English sawol, documented in 970 AD, which has possible etymological links with a Germanic root from which we also get the word "sea". The old German word is called 'se(u)la', what means: belonging to the sea (ancient Germanic conceptions involved the souls of the unborn and of the dead "living" being part of a medium, similar to water), or perhaps, "living water". Ancient Greeks sometimes referred to the soul as psyche (as in modern English psychology). Aristotle's works in Latin translation, used the word anima (as in animated), which also means "breath". In the New Testament, the original word may sometimes better translate as "life", as in : : "For what profit is it to a man if he gains the whole world, and loses his own soul?" (Matthew 16:26) If you exchange the word "soul" for "life" in the sentence above, the statement may seem less profound. Also, Jesus said, "He who saves his life will lose it", which means that a faithful believer must be ready to sacrifice his life in order to preserve his soul. The Latin root of the related word spirit, like anima, also expresses the idea of "breath". The various origins and usages demonstrate not only that what people call "soul" today has varied in meaning during history, but that the word and concept themselves have changed in their implications.

Philosophical views

The Ancient Greeks used the same word for 'alive' as for 'ensouled'. So the earliest surviving Western philosophical view might suggest that the soul makes living things alive.

Socrates and Plato

Plato, drawing on the words of his teacher Socrates, considers the soul as the essence of a person, as that which decides how we act. He considered this essence as an incorporeal occupant of our being. The Platonic soul comprises three parts: # the reason (mind or logos) # the appetite (body or passion) # spirit (emotion or pathos). Each of these has a function in a balanced and peaceful soul. The reason equates to the mind. It corresponds to the charioteer, directing the balanced horses of appetite and spirit. It allows for logic to prevail, and for the optimisation of balance. The appetite drives humankind to seek out its basic bodily needs. Yet when the passion controls us, master passion drives us to hedonism in all forms. This is the basal and most feral state. The spirit comprises our emotional motive, that which drives us to acts of bravery and glory. If left unchecked, it will lead to hubris -- the most fatal of all flaws in the Greek view.

Aristotle

Aristotle, following Plato, defined the soul as the core essence of a being, but argued against its having a separate existence. For instance, if a knife had a soul, the act of cutting would be that soul, because 'cutting' is the essence of what it is to be a knife. Unlike Plato and the religious traditions, Aristotle did not consider the soul as some kind of separate, ghostly occupant of the body (just as we cannot separate the activity of cutting from the knife). As the soul, in Aristotle's view, is an activity of the body, it cannot be immortal (when a knife is destroyed, the cutting stops). More precisely, the soul is the "first activity" of a living body. This is a state, or a potential for actual, or 'second', activity. "The axe has an edge for cutting" was, for Aristotle, analogous to "humans have bodies for rational activity," and the potential for rational activity thus constituted the essence of a human soul. Aristotle used his concept of the soul in many of his works; the Nicomachean Ethics provides a good place to start to gain more understanding of his views. Aristotle's view appears to have some similarity to the Buddhist 'no soul' view (see below). For both, there is certainly no 'separable immortal essence'. It may simply become a matter of definition, as most Buddhists would agree, surely, that one can use a knife for cutting. They might, perhaps, stress the impermanence of the knife's cutting ability.

Religious views

Bahá'í beliefs

The Bahá'í Faith affirm that "the soul is a sign of God, a heavenly gem whose reality the most learned of men hath failed to grasp, and whose mystery no mind, however acute, can ever hope to unravel." Concerning the soul or spirit of human beings and its relationship to the physical body, Bahá'u'lláh explained: Know thou that the soul of man is exalted above, and is independent of all infirmities of body or mind. That a sick person showeth signs of weakness is due to the hindrances that interpose themselves between his soul and his body, for the soul itself remaineth unaffected by any bodily ailments. ... When it leaveth the body, however, it will evince such ascendancy, and reveal such influence as no force on earth can equal ... consider the sun which hath been obscured by the clouds. Observe how its splendor appeareth to have diminished, when in reality the source of that light hath remained unchanged. The soul of man should be likened unto this sun, and all things on earth should be regarded as his body. So long as no external impediment interveneth between them, the body will, in its entirety, continue to reflect the light of the soul, and to be sustained by its power. As soon as, however, a veil interposeth itself between them, the brightness of the light seemeth to lessen.... The soul of man is the sun by which his body is illumined, and from which it draweth its sustenance, and should be so regarded. The soul not only continues to live after the physical death of the human body, but is, in fact, immortal. Bahá'u'lláh wrote: Know thou of a truth that the soul, after its separation from the body, will continue to progress until it attaineth the presence of God, in a state and condition which neither the revolution of ages and centuries, nor the changes and chances of this world, can alter. It will endure as long as the Kingdom of God, His sovereignty, His dominion and power will endure. Heaven can be seen partly as the soul's state of nearness to God; and hell as a state of remoteness from God. Each state follows as a natural consequence of individual efforts, or the lack thereof, to develop spiritually. Bahá'u'lláh taught that individuals have no existence previous to their life here on earth. The soul's evolution is always towards God and away from the material world. A human being spends nine months in the womb in preparation for entry into this physical life. During that nine-month period, the fetus acquires the physical tools (e.g., eyes, limbs, and so forth) necessary for existence in this world. Similarly, this physical world is like a womb for entry into the spiritual world. Our time here is thus a period of preparation during which we are to acquire the spiritual and intellectual tools necessary for life in the next world. The crucial difference is that, whereas physical development in the mother's womb is involuntary, spiritual and intellectual development in this world depend strictly on conscious individual effort

Buddhist beliefs

According to Buddhist teaching, all things are impermanent, in a constant state of flux; all is transient, and no abiding state exists. This applies to humanity, as much as to anything else in the cosmos; thus, there is no unchanging and abiding self. Our sense of "I" or "me" is simply a sense, belonging to the ever-changing entity, that (conventionally speaking) is us, our body, and mind. This expresses in essence the Buddhist principle of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman). Buddhists hold that the delusion of a permanent, abiding self is one of the main root causes for human conflict on the emotional, social and political levels. They add that understanding of anatta (or "not-self") provides an accurate description of the human condition, and that this understanding allows "us" to go beyond "our" mundane desires. Nirvana is solely recognized as being distinct. Buddhists can speak in conventional terms of the soul or of "self" as a matter of convenience, but only under the conviction that ultimately "we" are changing "entities". In death, the body and mind disintegrate; if the disintegrating mind contains any remaining traces of karma, it will cause the continuity of the consciousness to bounce back an arising mind to an awaiting being, that is, a fetus developing the ability to harbor consciousness. Thus, in Buddhist teaching, a being that is born is neither entirely different, nor exactly the same, as it was prior to rebirth. It helps if one remembers that buddhism holds that there are 3 minds: Very-Subtle-Mind, which isn't disintegrated in incarnation-death, Subtle-Mind, which is disintegrated in death, and is "dreaming-mind" or "unconscious-mind", and Gross-Mind. Gross-Mind doesn't exist when one is sleeping, so it is more impermanent even than Subtle-Mind, which doesn't exist in death. Very-Subtle-Mind, however, does continue, and when it "catches-on"/coincides-with phenomena again, a new Subtle-Mind emerges, with its own personality/assumptions/habits and that someone/entity experiences the karma on that continuum that is ripening then. However, scholars such as Shirō Matsumoto have argued that a curious development occurred in Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, stemming from the Cittamatra and Vijnanavada schools in India: although this school of thought denies the permanent personal selfhood, it affirms concepts such as Buddha-nature, Tathagatagarbha, Rigpa, or "original nature". Matsumoto argues that these concepts constitute a non- or trans-personal self, and almost equate in meaning to the Hindu concept of Atman, although they differ in that Buddha-nature does not incarnate. One should note the polarity in Tibetan Buddhism between shes-pa (the principle of consciousness) and rig-pa (pure consciousness equal to Buddha-nature). The concept of a person as a tulku provides even more controversy. A tulku has, due to heroic austerities and esoteric training ( or due-to innate talent combined with great subtle-mind-commitment in the moment-of-death ), achieved the goal of transferring personal "identity" ( or nature/commitment ) from one rebirth to the next (for instance, Tibetans consider the Dalai Lama a tulku). The mechanics behind this work as follows: although Buddha-nature does not incarnate, the individual self comprises skandhas, or components, that undergo rebirth. For an ordinary person, skandhas cohere in a way that dissolves upon the person's death. So, elements of the transformed personality re-incarnate, but they lose the unity that constitutes personal selfhood for a specific person. In the case of tulkus, however, they supposedly achieve sufficient "crystallization" of skandhas in such a manner that the skandhas do not entirely "disentangle" upon the tulku's death; rather, a directed reincarnation occurs. In this new birth, the tulku possesses a continuity of personal identity/commitment, rooted in the fact that the consciousness or shes-pa (which equates to a type of skandha called vijnana) has not dissolved after death, but has sufficient durability to survive in repeated births. The compatiblility of these concepts with Buddhist orthodoxy remains in dispute. Since, however, subtle-mind emerges in incarnation, and gross-mind emerges in periods-of-sufficient-awareness within some incarnations, there isn't really any contradiction: very-subtle-mind's original-nature, that-is irreducible mind / clarity / whose function is knowing, doesn't have any "body", and the coarser minds that emerge "on" it while it drifts/wanders/dreams aren't continuous. Any continuity-of-awareness achieved by tulku is simply a greater continuity than is achieved by/in a normal-incarnation, as it continues across several, is all. . . only a difference of degree. . . Many modern Buddhists, particularly in Western countries, reject the concept of rebirth or reincarnation as incompatible with the concept of anatta. They take the view that if there is no abiding self, and no soul, then nothing remains to be reborn. Stephen Batchelor, notably, discusses this issue in his book Buddhism Without Beliefs. However, the question arises: if a self does not exist, who thinks/lives now? Buddhists hold the view that thought itself thinks: if you remove the thought, there's no thinker (self) to be found. A detailed introduction to this, and to other basic buddhist teachings, appears in What the Buddha taught by the Buddhist monk Walpola Rahula. Gurdjieff taught that man has no soul. Rather, man must create a soul while incarnate, whose substance could withstand the shock of death. Without a soul, Gurdjieff taught, man will "die like a dog."

Christian beliefs

Various opinions

Most Christians regard the soul as the immortal essence of a human, and that after death, God either rewards or punishes the soul. Different Christian groups dispute whether this reward/punishment depends upon doing good deeds, or merely upon believing in God and in Jesus. The imagery that Jesus used to describe the soul includes the "beautiful garments" of Revelation ("they [the saints] will be clothed in white"), which are "more beautiful than Solomon in all his glory" (Matthew). Jesus said, "Do not let anyone steal your garments" (Revelation). And in a parable about the master's feast, Jesus (the master) has a guest thrown out by His servants (the holy angels) for showing up without his feast-garments. Jesus said, "And what will a man give in exchange for his soul?", warning him that he could lose it (Matthew). The message is: don't show up for the Judgement without your beautiful garments (the soul). The soul represents righteousness. The reward that the faithful Christian receives at the moment of his death, is the privilege to receive his soul, which was kept safe by Jesus, and to appear before God's feast clothed in one's soul. "Be thou faithful unto death, and I shall give you the crown of life" (Revelation). The labor is to remain faithful, and the reward is to keep one's soul. And, in the parable of the ten virgins, who are waiting for the return of the master (Jesus) with their lamps lit, Jesus warns them not to be foolish, and let their lamps go out, by pursuing after worldly things at such a critical time. Apparently, the lamp represents the eye, and the oil represents the Holy Spirit of Jesus, from God. The soul is apparently the receptacle for the Holy Spirit; the body, which houses the soul, is the tabernacle, or the "temple of the Holy Spirit". You can't buy the Holy Spirit with money! That is why money is not an accurate measurement of spirituality. You can be very wealthy, and still be "poor, and blind and naked" (Revelation). This determination that salvation cannot be earned by good deeds becomes interesting, then, when the same bible admonishes one to make one's robe clean. . . ( how else, if not by deeds? Even committing faith is a deed, a doing, not an inert-thing ). . . Many Christian scholars hold, as Aristotle did, that "to attain any assured knowledge of the soul is one of the most difficult things in the world". Augustine, one of the most influential early Christian thinkers, described the soul as "a special substance, endowed with reason, adapted to rule the body". The apostle Paul said that the "body wars against" the soul, and that "I buffet my body", to keep it under control. Philosopher Anthony Quinton said the soul is a "series of mental states connected by continuity of character and memory, [and] is the essential constituent of personality. The soul, therefore, is not only logically distinct from any particular human body with which it is associated; it is also what a person is". Richard Swinburne, a Christian philosopher of religion at Oxford University, wrote that "it is a frequent criticism of substance dualism that dualists cannot say what souls are.... Souls are immaterial subjects of mental properties. They have sensations and thoughts, desires and beliefs, and perform intentional actions. Souls are essential parts of human beings..." The origin of the soul has provided a sometimes vexing question in Christianity; the major theories put forwar