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James I

James I

See
- James I of England (James VI of Scotland) (1566–1625)
- James I of Scotland (1394–1437)
- James I of Aragon (1208–1276)
- James I of Sicily (1267–1327)
- James I of Cyprus (1334–1398)

James I of England

James VI of Scotland and James I of England and Ireland (occasionally known as King James the Vain) (Charles James) (19 June 1566–27 March 1625) was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland. He ruled in Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 until his death, and, from the Union of the Crowns, in England and Ireland as James I from 24 March 1603 until his death. He was the first English monarch of the House of Stuart, succeeding the last Tudor monarch, Elizabeth I, who died without children. James was a successful monarch in Scotland, but the same was not true in England. He was unable to deal with a hostile Parliament of England; the refusal on the part of the House of Commons to impose sufficiently high taxes crippled the royal finances. His taste for political absolutism, his mismanagement of the kingdom's funds and his cultivation of unpopular favourites established the foundation for the English Civil War, during which James' son and successor, Charles I, was tried and executed. During James' own life, however, the governments of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland were relatively stable. Along with Alfred the Great, James is considered to have been one of the most intellectual and learned individuals ever to sit on the English or Scottish thrones. Under him, much of the cultural flourishing of Elizabethan England continued; science, literature and art, contributed by individuals such as Sir Francis Bacon and William Shakespeare grew by leaps and bounds during his reign. James himself was a talented scholar, writing works such as Daemonologie (1597), The True Law of Free Monarchies (1598), Basilikon Doron (1599) and A Counterblaste to Tobacco (1604).

Early life

James was the only child of Mary I, Queen of Scots and of her second husband, Henry Stuart, Duke of Albany, more commonly known as Lord Darnley. James was a direct descendant of Henry VII, through his great-grandmother Margaret Tudor, sister of Henry VIII. James' mother was an insecure ruler, as both she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion of Protestant noblemen. Their marriage, furthermore, was a particularly difficult one. While Mary was pregnant with James, Lord Darnley secretly allied himself with the rebels and murdered the Queen's private secretary, David Rizzio. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland, for he was the eldest son of the monarch and thus the heir-apparent. He received the name Charles James, the first name in honour of his godfather Charles IX of France, thus becoming the first future British monarch to have more than one forename. James' father was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o' Field, most likely to avenge Rizzio's death. Mary's marriage on 15 May of the same year to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering the Duke of Albany, made her even more unpopular. In June 1567, the Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle. Mary was forced to abdicate the throne on 24 July, giving it to James, then only thirteen months old.

Regencies

James was formally crowned King of Scotland at the Church of the Holyrood, Stirling, on 29 July 1567. In deference to the religious beliefs of most of the Scots ruling class, he was brought up as a member of the protestant, national Church of Scotland and educated by men with Presbyterian sympathies. During James VI's early reign, power was held by a series of regents, the first of whom was James Stuart, 1st Earl of Moray, his mother's illegitimate half-brother. Mary escaped from prison in 1568, leading to a brief period of violence. Lord Moray defeated Mary's troops at the Battle of Langside, forcing her to flee to England, where she was imprisoned by Elizabeth I. Lord Moray was assassinated by one of Mary's supporters in 1570. He was succeeded by James' paternal grandfather, Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox, who suffered a similar fate in 1571. The next was James VI's guardian, John Erskine, 1st Earl of Mar, who died in 1572. The last of the regents was James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton, who, during the two previous regencies, had been the most powerful Scottish nobleman, more so than the previous regents. Historian and poet George Buchanan was responsible for James' education. Lord Morton was successful in finally crushing the families who continued to support Mary. His fall was brought about not by Mary's supporters, but by the King's closest courtiers, who impressed upon the young monarch the extent of the royal powers, thereby encouraging him to take control himself. The courtiers accused Lord Morton of participating in the murder of James' father. Lord Morton was consequently tried, convicted and then executed in 1581; power was thenceforth held by the King himself, rather than by a regent. Nevertheless, James VI did not rule by himself, relying instead on the advice of his closest courtiers. One of the most important noblemen at the time was James VI's cousin, Esmé Stuart, Seigneur d'Aubigny, who had come from France in 1579, and who had been made Earl of Lennox. Another powerful courtier at the time was James Stuart, who was created Earl of Arran as a reward for his testimony against Lord Morton. As Lord Lennox was a Catholic, and Lord Arran leaned towards Episcopalianism, the Presbyterian Scottish Lords found the government distasteful. In the Raid of Ruthven (1582), some Presbyterian nobles, led by William Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie, captured James and held him captive for almost a year at Ruthven Castle, now known as Huntingtower Castle, in Perthshire. Lord Arran was also detained, and Lord Lennox was banished to France. The King and Lord Arran escaped in 1583; Lord Gowrie was executed, and the rebels forced to flee to England. The Parliament of Scotland, loyal to the King, passed the Black Acts, putting the Church of Scotland directly under royal control. These Acts were extremely unpopular; his clergy opposed and denounced him, attempting to keep his influence under control, lest he grow so powerful as to be bold enough to disestablish Presbyterianism.

English succession

James VI and Elizabeth I became allies under the Treaty of Berwick. James sought to remain in the favour of the unmarried Queen of England, as he was a potential successor to her Crown. Henry VIII had feared that the English Crown would go to a Scot: in his will, he excluded Margaret Tudor, James' grandmother, and her descendants from the line of succession. Although technically excluded by the will—which, under an Act of Parliament, had the force of law—both Mary, Queen of Scots and James were serious claimants to the English Crown, as they were Elizabeth I's closest relatives. Also in 1586, Mary was implicated in the Babington Plot, a scheme which sought to put her on the throne of England after murdering Elizabeth. Elizabeth had previously spared Mary's life after the Ridolfi Plot, but could no longer tolerate the danger she posed. Consequently, Mary was executed for her crimes in 1587; but for the will of Henry VIII, James was now the Heir Presumptive to the English Crown. Heir Presumptive Following her execution, Mary's Scottish supporters became weak; James managed to significantly reduce the influence of the Roman Catholic nobles in Scotland. He further endeared himself to Protestants by marrying Anne of Denmark—a princess from a Protestant country and daughter of Frederick II of Denmark—by proxy in 1589. Another marriage, this time with both parties personally present, occurred on 21 January 1590 at Krondborg during James' visit to Denmark. Soon after his return via Leith on 1 May, he attended the North Berwick Witch Trial, in which several people were convicted of having used witchcraft to create a storm in an attempt to sink the ship on which James and Anne had been travelling. This made him very concerned about the threat that witches and witchcraft were posing to himself and the country. During this period, he wrote the aforementioned treatise on demonology. As a result, hundreds of women were put to death for witchcraft; their bodies were later found in what was then called Nor Loch (now Princes Street Gardens). At first, James and his new queen were close, but gradually drifted apart. The couple produced eight children, three of whom survived infancy and one who was stillborn. They decided to live apart after the death of their daughter Sophia. James faced a Roman Catholic uprising in 1588, and was forced to reconcile with the Church of Scotland, at length agreeing to the repeal of the Black Acts in 1592. James, fearing that dealing too harshly with the Catholic rebels might anger many English Catholics, agreed to pardon some of his opponents, which angered the Protestant Church. In 1600, a conspiracy was formed by John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie (son of the Earl of Gowrie, executed in 1584). Upon the failure of the plot, Lord Gowrie and his associates were executed, and even Protestant nobles began to be repressed by the King. Upon the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, the Crown technically should have passed (under the will of Henry VIII) to Edward Seymour, Viscount Beauchamp; some argue that Lord Beauchamp was attainted from succeeding to the throne and therefore that the heir was Lady Anne Stanley. Nevertheless, James was the only serious claimant to the English Crown; no others, including Lord Beauchamp and Lady Anne, were powerful enough to defend their claims. Thus, an Accession Council met and proclaimed James King of England. He and his wife were crowned on 25 July 1603 at Westminster Abbey. Scotland and England remained separate states (see Personal union); it was not until 1707 that the Acts of Union merged the two nations to create a new state, the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Early reign in England

James' chief advisor was Robert Cecil, 1st Baron Cecil of Essendon (the younger son of Elizabeth I's favoured minister, Lord Burghley), who was created Earl of Salisbury in 1605. James was an extravagant spender; only the skill of the Earl of Salisbury could avert financial disaster. He created numerous peerage dignities to reward his courtiers. In total, sixty-two individuals were raised to the English Peerage by James, contrasted to his predecessor, Elizabeth, who had only created eight new peers during her 45-year reign. James also embroiled himself in numerous conflicts with Parliament. Being accustomed to a timid Parliament of Scotland, he did not like working with its more aggressive English counterpart. Before his accession to the English throne, he had written The True Law of Free Monarchies, in which he argued that the divine right of kings was sanctioned by the apostolic succession, and which illustrates James' difficulty in sharing the power of his government. Upon his arrival in London, James was almost immediately faced by religious conflicts in England: he was presented with a petition requesting the tolerance of Puritans. In 1604, at the Hampton Court Conference, James was unwilling to agree to their demands. He did, however, agree to fulfil one request by authorizing an official translation of the Bible, which came to be known as the King James Version. Also in 1604, he broadened Elizabeth's Witchcraft Act to bring the penalty of death without benefit of clergy to any one who invoked evil spirits or communed with familiar spirits. That same year, he ended England's involvement in the twenty year conflict known as the Anglo-Spanish War by signing the Treaty of London. Though James was careful to accept Catholics in his realm, his Protestant subjects ensured that they would not get equal rights. In the early years of his reign, many of his subjects did not know his policies—only that he had an extreme Protestant background—there were a number of plots to remove him from power, such as the Bye Plot and the Main Plot. In 1605, a group of Catholic extremists led by Robert Catesby developed a plan, known as the Gunpowder Plot, to cause an explosion in the chamber of the House of Lords, where the King and members of both Houses of Parliament would be gathered for the State Opening. The conspirators sought to replace James with his daughter, Elizabeth, whom, they hoped, could be forced to convert to Catholicism. One of the conspirators, however, leaked information regarding the plot, which was consequently foiled. Terrified, James refused to leave his residence for many days. Guy Fawkes, whose responsibility had been to execute the plot, was tortured until he revealed the identities of the other conspirators, all of whom were executed or killed during capture. Fawkes is still annually burned in effigy during Guy Fawkes Night, celebrated in the United Kingdom, and New Zealand, to commemorate the failed plot. James' care not to strongly enforce anti-Catholic doctrine thereafter ensured that there were no more plots after 1605.

Conflict with Parliament

New Zealand In 1605, Parliament voted four subsidies to the King, who still considered this to be inadequate revenue. He imposed customs duties without parliamentary consent, although no monarch had taken so bold a step since the reign of Richard II. The legality of such an action was challenged in 1606 by the merchant John Bates; the Court of Exchequer, however, ruled in the King's favour. The decision of the court was denounced by Parliament. Relations between James I and Parliament were also soured by the latter's refusal to pass the King's plan to allow free trade between England and Scotland. In the last session of the first Parliament of his reign (which began in 1610), Lord Salisbury proposed the Great Contract, which would have led to the Crown giving up feudal dues in return for an annual parliamentary subsidy. The plan, however, failed because of factionalism in Parliament. Frustrated by the members of the House of Commons and by the collapse of the Great Contract, James dissolved Parliament in 1611. With the Crown deep in debt, James blatantly sold honours and titles to raise funds. In 1611, he used letters patent to invent a completely new dignity: that of Baronet, which one could become upon the payment of £1,080. One could become a Baron for about £5,000, a Viscount for about £10,000, and an Earl for about £20,000. Lord Salisbury died in 1612; another of the King's closest advisors, Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset, was forced to leave office after being disgraced by the Overbury Scandal. Following the loss of these advisors, James began to involve himself in matters previously handled by his ministers. James' personal government was disastrous for his finances, and a new Parliament had to be called in 1614 in order to obtain the imposition of new taxes. This Parliament, the second of James' reign, was known as the Addled Parliament because it failed to pass any legislation or impose any taxes. James angrily dissolved Parliament shortly thereafter, when it became clear that no progress could be made.

Later years

Following the dissolution of the Addled Parliament, James ruled without a Parliament for seven years. Faced with financial difficulties due to the failure of Parliament to approve new taxes, James sought to enter into a profitable alliance with Spain by marrying his eldest son, Charles, Prince of Wales, to the daughter of the King of Spain. The proposed alliance with a Roman Catholic kingdom was not well-received in Protestant England. James' unpopularity, furthermore, was augmented by the execution of Sir Walter Raleigh. In Scotland, James was despised for his insistence on the passage of the Five Articles of Perth, which were seen as attempts to introduce Roman Catholic and Anglican practices into Presbyterian Scotland. From 1618 onwards, the religious conflict known as the Thirty Years' War engulfed Europe. James was forced to become involved because his daughter, Elizabeth, was married to the Protestant Frederick V, Elector Palatine, one of the war's chief participants. During the conflict between Protestants and Catholics, James' attempt to ally himself with Catholic Spain fostered much distrust. Queen Anne died on 4 March 1619 at Hampton Court Palace and was buried at Westminster Abbey. Rumours were later spread that James was little moved by the death because he had romantic affections for George Villiers. The two met in 1614 and James is said to have nicknamed the young man "Steenie" and bestowed honour upon honour to him, culminating with creating Villiers the duke of Buckingham in 1623. George Villiers was the first commoner to be elevated to a dukedom in more than a century. 1623 (1621).]] The third and penultimate Parliament of James' reign was summoned in 1621. The House of Commons agreed to grant James a small subsidy to signify their loyalty, but then, to the displeasure of the King, moved on to personal matters directly involving the King. Villiers, by now James' primary advisor, was attacked for his plan to have the Prince of Wales marry the Spanish Infanta. The practice of selling monopolies and other privileges was also deprecated. The House of Commons sought to impeach Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans, who was implicated in the sale of such privileges during his service as Lord Chancellor, on charges of corruption. The House of Lords convicted Bacon, who was duly removed from office. Although the impeachment was the first in centuries, James did not oppose it, believing that sacrificing Bacon could help deflect parliamentary opposition. In the end, James released Bacon from prison and granted him a full pardon. A new constitutional dispute arose shortly thereafter. James was eager to aid his son-in-law, the Elector-Palatine, and requested Parliament for a subsidy. The House of Commons, in turn, requested that the King abandon the alliance with Spain. When James declared that the lower House had overstepped its bounds by offering unsolicited advice, the House of Commons passed a protest claiming that it had the right to debate any matter relating to the welfare of the Kingdom. James ordered the protest torn out of the Commons Journal, and dissolved Parliament. In 1623, the Duke of Buckingham and Charles, the Prince of Wales, travelled to Madrid in an attempt to secure a marriage between the latter and the Infanta. They were snubbed, however, by the Spanish courtiers, who demanded that Charles convert to Roman Catholicism. They returned to England humiliated, and called for war with Spain. The Protestants backed them and James summoned Parliament, which granted some funding for the war. Parliament was prorogued, on the understanding that it would later return to grant more funds. Parliament, however, never actually met when scheduled. Charles had promised that even if he would marry a Roman Catholic, he would not repeal political restrictions that applied to Roman Catholics. When, however, he agreed to marry the Catholic French Princess, Henrietta Maria, he reneged on his earlier promise and undertook to abolish the same religious qualifications. Charles then ensured that Parliament did not actually meet, in order to avoid a confrontation over the diverging promises. James lapsed into senility during the last year of his reign. Real power passed to Charles and to the Duke of Buckingham, although James kept enough power to ensure that a new war with Spain did not occur while he was King. James died at Theobalds House in 1625 of 'tertian ague' (fever one day in every three), probably brought upon by kidney failure and stroke, and was buried in the Henry VII Lady Chapel in Westminster Abbey. Charles, Prince of Wales, succeeded him as Charles I. James had ruled in Scotland for almost sixty years; no English, Scottish or British monarch, with the exceptions of Victoria and George III, has surpassed his mark.

Love life

Historians have said, based upon an assortment of contemporary accounts, that the King had some male lovers throughout his life and was not much interested in his wife. Growing up, James did not have any parents, for his father, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, was murdered and his mother, Mary I of Scotland was forced to flee when she married the suspected murderer, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. His grandfather was assassinated during his boyhood, and he had no siblings. At the age of thirteen, James made his formal entry into Edinburgh. Upon arriving, he met the thirty-seven year old, married, father of five children, French lord Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox who Sir James Melville described as "of nature, upright, just, and gentle." The two became extremely close and it was said by an English observer that "from the time he was fourteen years old and no more, that is, when the Lord Stewart came into Scotland… even then he began… to clasp some one in the embraces of his great love, above all others" and that James became "in such love with him as in the open sight of the people oftentimes he will clasp him about the neck with his arms and kiss him." The King first made Stewart a gentleman of the bedchamber, then a member of the Privy Council, an earl and finally duke of Lennox. In Presbyterian Scotland the thought of a Catholic duke irked many, and Lennox had to make a choice between loyalty to his Catholic faith and loyalty to James. Lennox chose James and the king taught him the doctrines of Calvinism. The Scottish Kirk remained suspicious of Lennox after his public conversion and took alarm when he had the earl of Morton tried and beheaded on charges of treason. The Scottish ministry was also warned that the duke sought to “draw the King to carnal lust.” In response, the Scottish nobles plotted to oust Lennox. They did so by luring James to Ruthven Castle as a guest but then kept him as prisoner for ten months. The Lord Enterprisers forced him to banish Lennox. The duke journeyed back to France and kept a secret correspondence with James. Lennox in these letters says he gave up his family "to dedicate myself entirely to you"; he prayed to die for James to prove "the faithfulness which is engraved within my heart, which will last forever." The former duke wrote, "Whatever might happen to me, I shall always be your faithful servant… you are alone in this world whom my heart is resolved to serve. And would to God that my breast might be split open so that it might be seen what is engraven therein." James was devastated by the loss of Lennox. On his return to France, Lennox was met with a frosty reception as an apostate Catholic. The Scottish nobles had thought that they would be proven right in their convictions that Lennox's conversion was artificial when he returned to France. Instead the former duke remained Presbyterian and died shortly after, leaving James his embalmed heart. James had repeatedly vouched for Lennox's religious sincerity and memorialized him in a poem called "Ane Tragedie of the Phoenix," which said he was like an exotic bird of unique beauty killed by envy. Following Lennox’s death James married Anne of Denmark in 1589 to produce heirs for the throne. The two had eight children with the last being born during 1607. By then James had lost interest in his wife and it was said that she led a sad, reclusive life, appearing at court functions on occasion. His behaviour with the late Lennox, and his distancing himself from his wife attracted wide attention. Francis Osborne noted in a memoir not published until many years later that “The love the King showed men was amorously conveyed as if he had mistaken their sex and thought them ladies, which I have seen Somerset and Buckingham labour to resemble in the effeminateness of their dressings; though in whorish looks and wanton gestures they exceeded any part of womankind my conversation did ever cope withal. Nor was his love, or whatever posterity will please to call it… carried on with a discretion sufficient to cover a less scandalous behaviour; for the king’s kissing them after so lascivious a mode in public, and upon the theatre, as it were, of the world, prompted many to imagine some things done in the tiring house that exceed my expressions no less than they do my experience, and therefore left them upon the waves of conjecture, which hath in my hearing tossed them from one side to another.” A diary entry by Sir Simonds D'Ewes after speaking with James said “I discoursed with him of the things that were secret, as of the sin of sodomy, how frequent it was in the wicked city (London), and if God did not provide some wonderful blessing against it, we could not but expect some horrible punishment for it; especially it being, as we had probable cause to fear, a sin in the prince as well as the people, which god is for the most part chastiser of himself, because no man else indeed dare reprove or tell them of their faults.” Responding to deflect the growing criticism over his sexuality James adopted a severe stance towards sodomy using English law. His book on kingship, Basilikon Doron, lists sodomy among those “horrible crimes which ye are bound in conscience never to forgive.” Jeremy Bentham in an unpublished manuscript denounced James as a hypocrite after his crackdown. King James also singled out sodomy in a letter to Lord Burleigh giving directives that Judges were to interpret the law broadly and not issue any pardons saying that “no more colour may be left to judges to work upon their wits in that point.” A few years later after the controversy over his relationship with Lennox faded away and he began a relation with Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset. Carr was made a gentleman of the bedchamber and he was noted for his handsome appearance as well as his limited intelligence. His downfall came through Frances Howard, a beautiful young married woman. Upon Carr’s request James stacked a court of bishops that would allow her to divorce her husband in order to marry Carr. As a wedding present Carr was created Earl of Somerset. During the next two years the relationship between Carr and James became troubled as Carr increasingly preferred his wife. In a letter James complains that Carr had been “creeping back and withdrawing yourself from lying in my chamber, notwithstanding my many hundred times earnest soliciting you to the contrary” and that he rebuked James “more sharply and bitterly than ever my master Buchanan durst do.” At this point public scandal erupted when the underkeeper of the tower revealed that Carr’s new wife had poisoned Sir Thomas Overbury, his best friend who had opposed the marriage. James, angered over Carr’s attachment to his wife, exploited the opportunity and forcefully insisted that they face trial. His wife confessed to the deed and they were both sentenced to death. The King pardoned them both but held them in the tower for seven years. The last of James’ three male favourites was George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, whom James met at the same time that the situation with Carr was deteriorating. Buckingham was described as exceptionally handsome, intelligent and honest. In 1615 James knighted him and eight years later he became the first commoner in a century to be created a duke. Buckingham became good friends with James’ wife Anne, she addressed him in affectionate letters begging him to be “always true” to her husband. In a letter to James, Buckingham said “sir, all the way hither I entertained myself, your unworthy servant, with this dispute, whether you loved me now… better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where the bed’s head could not be found between the master and his dog.” James in some letters addressed him as his spouse saying that “I desire only to live in this world for your sake, and… I had rather live banished in any part of the earth with you than live a sorrowful widow’s life without you.” A few years later James died with Buckingham at his side.

Legacy

Almost immediately after James I's death, Charles I became embroiled in disputes with Parliament. The disputes escalated until the English Civil War began during the 1640s; the monarchy was overthrown, and a military dictatorship established. The Stuart dynasty, however, was later restored in 1660. Some historians blame James for the Civil War. However, the general view now is that Charles I was more responsible for the state of affairs in 1640 than his predecessor. In the Virginia Colony in the New World, the Jamestown Settlement, established in 1607, and the James River were named in his honour. Both names remain in common use almost 400 years later. In 1611, Sir Thomas Dale named his new promising "Citie of Henricus" (sic) in honour of his son, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, who died in 1612. Although Henricus was wiped out in the Indian Massacre of 1622, its naming survives as Henrico County, Virginia in modern times.

Style and arms

Formally, James was styled "James, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." (The claim to the Throne of France, which had been maintained since the reign of Edward III, was merely nominal.) By a proclamation of 1604, James assumed the style "James, King of Great Brittaine, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." for non-statutory use. James' English arms, whilst he was King of England and Scotland, were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). James also introduced the unicorn, a symbol of Scotland, as an heraldic supporter in his armorial achievement; the other supporter remained the English lion. In Scotland, his arms were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); II Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland), with one of the unicorns of Scotland being replaced as a heraldic supporter by a lion.

Issue

References

- [http://www.electricscotland.com/history/other/james6.htm Chambers, Robert. (1856). Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen. "James VI." London: Blackie and Son.]
- [http://www.richhillsoftware.com/dave/genealogy The Descendants of James VI & I of England & Scotland.]
- Fraser, Antonia. (1974). King James VI of Scotland and James I of England. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
- Lee, Maurice. (1990). England's Solomon: James VI and I in his Three Kingdoms. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
- Stewart, Alan. (2003). The Cradle King. New York: St. Martin's Press.
- Williamson, D. (1998). The Kings and Queens of England. New York: National Portrait Gallery.
- Willson, David Harris. (1956). King James VI & I. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1625

Events

- March 27 - Prince Charles Stuart becomes King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland.
- June 13 - Marriage of Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria, Princess of France and Navarra.
- June 15 - Breda surrenders to the Spanish troops of general Ambrogio de Spinola
- The English Parliament refuses to vote Charles I the right to collect customs duties for his entire reign, restricting him to one year instead.
- William Oughtred invents the slide rule.
- James Ussher becomes Archbishop of Armagh.
- New Netherlands director Wilhem Verhulst commissions the construction of Fort Amsterdam on the southern tip of Manhattan.

Births

- June 8 - Giovanni Domenico Cassini, Italian astronomer and engineer (d. 1712)
- July 10 - Jean Herauld Gourville, French adventurer (d. 1703)
- August 13 - Rasmus Bartholin, Danish physician and scientist (d. 1698)
- August 14 - François de Harlay de Champvallon, Archbishop of Paris (d. 1695)
- August 20 - Thomas Corneille, French dramatist (d. 1709)
- September 24 - Johan de Witt, Dutch politican (d. 1672)
- October 4 - Jacqueline Pascal, French child prodigy and sister of Blaise Pascal (d. 1661)
- November 30 - Jean Domat, French jurist (d. 1696)
- December 14 - Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville, French orientalist (d. 1695) See also :Category:1625 births.

Deaths

- January 7 - Ruggiero Giovannelli, Italian composer
- March 7 - Johann Bayer, German astronomer (b. 1572)
- March 25 - Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569)
- March 27 - King James I of England and Ireland/James VI of Scotland (b. 1566)
- March 29 - Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Spanish historian (b. 1549)
- April 23 - Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange (b. 1567)
- April 27 - Mori Terumoto, Japanese warrior (b. 1553)
- June 1 - Honoré d'Urfé, French writer (b. 1568)
- June 5 - Orlando Gibbons, English composer and organist (b. 1583)
- August - John Fletcher, English writer (b. 1579)
- September 20 - Heinrich Meibom, German historian and poet (b. 1555)
- September 26 - Thomas Dempster, Scottish historian (d. 1579)
- October 22 - Kikkawa Hiroie, Japanese politician (b. 1561)
- December 9 - Ubbo Emmius, Dutch historian and geographer (b. 1547)
- Robert Cushman, Plymouth Colony settler See also :Category:1625 deaths. Category:1625 ko:1625년 ms:1625

James I of Scotland

James I (December 10, 1394 – February 21, 1437) reigned as king of Scotland from April 4, 1406 until February 21, 1437. However, from 1406 to 1424 he was king in name only. He was born on December 10, 1394, the son of Robert III and Annabella Drummond. He had an eventful childhood. In 1402 his elder brother, David, was starved to death in prison at Falkland in Fife. Before the death of his father in 1406 James was sent to France for safety. On the way there, the English captured him and handed him over to Henry IV of England who imprisoned him and demanded a ransom. Robert III was said to have died from grief over the capture of James. His uncle, Robert Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany who became Regent on the death of Robert III, was in no hurry to pay for his release. Robert secured the release of his son Murdoch, who was captured at the same time, but not so with James. So for the next 18 years, James was imprisoned and educated in Windsor Castle and in secure large country houses near London. After the death of his uncle in 1420, the ransom of £40,000 was finally paid, and in 1424 James returned to Scotland to find a country in chaos. He took his bride with him – he had met and fallen in love with Joan Beaufort while imprisoned. He married her in London in February 2, 1423. They would have eight children, including the future James II of Scotland, and Margaret, wife of Louis XI of France. He is believed during his captivity to have written The Kingis Quair, an allegorical romance and one of the earliest major works of Scottish literature extent. James was formally crowned King of Scotland at Scone Abbey, Perthshire, on May 2 or 21, 1424. He immediately took strong actions to regain authority and control. One such action was to execute the Albany family, who had opposed his actions. The execution of Murdoch, Duke of Albany, and two of Murdoch's sons took place on May 24, 1425 at Castle Hill, Stirling. He proceeded to rule Scotland with a firm hand, and achieved numerous financial and legal reforms. For instance, for the purpose of trade with other nations, foreign exchange could only be exchanged within Scottish borders. He also tried to remodel the Parliament of Scotland along English lines. However, in foreign policy, he renewed the Auld Alliance, a Scottish-French (and therefore anti-English) alliance, in 1428. His actions throughout his reign, though effective, upset many people. During the later years of his reign, they helped to lead to his claim to the throne coming under question. James I's grandfather, Robert II, had married twice and the awkward circumstances of the first marriage, from which James was descended, led to it being disputed. Conflict broke out between the descendants of the first marriage and the unquestionably legitimate descendants of the second marriage over who should be on the Scottish throne. Matters came to a head on February 21, 1437, when James was assassinated by a group of Scots led by Sir Robert Graham while staying at the Friars Preachers Monastery in Perth. He attempted to escape his assailants through a sewer. However, three days previously, he had the other end of the drain blocked up because it was connected to the tennis court outside, and balls were in the habit of getting lost in it. (See also: Catherine Douglas.) A wave of executions followed in March, 1437, of those who were part of the plot. Among those executed were James's uncle, Walter, Earl of Atholl, and his grandson, Robert, Master of Atholl (both of whom were descended from Robert II's second marriage).

Reference

- Peter Wordie and Lance St John Butler (1989). "Tennis in Scotland" in The Royal Game. Stirling: Falkland Palace Real Tennis Club. ISBN 0-9514622-0-2 or ISBN 0-9514622-1-0. Category: 1394 births Category: 1437 deaths Category:Scottish monarchs Category:House of Stuart Category:House of Lancaster Category:Murdered kings Category:Dukes in the Peerage of Scotland

1394

Events

- Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March, travels with King Richard II of England to Ireland.
- Expulsion of the Jews from France.
- Ashikaga Yoshimitsu retires as shogun of Japan and is succeeded by his son, Ashikaga Yoshimochi.

Births

- March 4 - Prince Henry the Navigator, Portuguese patron of exploration (died 1460)
- July 12 - Ashikaga Yoshinori, Japanese shogun (died 1441)
- November 24 - Charles, duc d'Orléans, French poet (died 1465)
- December 10 - King James I of Scotland (d. 1437)
- Ulugh Beg, Turkish ruler and astronomer (died 1449)
- Cymburgis of Masovia, Duchess of Austria
- Ikkyu, Japanese Zen Buddhist priest and poet (died 1481)
- Michael de la Pole, 3rd Earl of Suffolk (died 1415)

Deaths

- June 4 - Mary de Bohun, wife of Henry IV of England
- June 7 - Anne of Bohemia, queen of Richard II of England (plague) (born 1366)
- July 24 - Alexander Stewart, 1st Earl of Buchan, Scottish prince (born 1343)
- August 27 - Emperor Chokei of Japan (born 1343)
- September 16 - Avignon Pope Clement VII (born 1342)
- John de Ros, 6th Baron de Ros (born 1365)
- John Devereux 2nd Baron Devereux
- Louis of Enghien, Count of Conversano and Brienne
- John Hawkwood, English mercenary (born 1320)

James I of Aragon

James I of Aragon (Catalan: Jaume I, Spanish: Jaime I) (Montpellier February 2, 1208 – July 27, 1276), surnamed the Conqueror, was the king of Aragon, count of Barcelona and Lord of Montpellier from 1219 to 1276. He was the only child of Peter II of Aragon and Marie of Montpellier. As a child he was a pawn of power politics in Provence, where his father was engaged in struggles in the wars between the Cathars of Albi and Simon de Montfort. Peter endeavoured to placate the northern crusaders by arranging a marriage between his son James and Simon's daughter, entrusting the boy to be educated in Montfort's care in 1211, but Peter was soon forced to take up arms against them, and he was slain at the Battle of Muret September 12, 1213. Montfort would willingly have used James as a means of extending his own power. The Aragonese and Catalans, however, appealed to the pope, who forced Montfort to surrender him in May or June 1214. James was now entrusted to the care of Guillen de Monredon, the head of the Knights Templar in Spain and Provence. The kingdom was given over to confusion till in 1216 the Templars and some of the more loyal nobles brought the young king to Saragossa. He first married, in 1221, Leonor, daughter of Alfonso VIII of Castile, and then after having the marriage annulled (though a son was declared legitimate), in 1235, Yolande of Hungary, daughter of Andrew II of Hungary. His children were: # Alfonso (1229-1260), married Constance of Moncada, Countess of Bigorre # Violant of Aragon (1236-1301), married Alfonso X of Castile # Peter III of Aragon # Constance of Aragon (1239-1269), married Juan Manuel of Castile, son of Ferdinand III of Castile # James II of Majorca # Isabella of Aragon, married Philip III of France # Sancho, Archbishop of Toledo (1250-1279) After a false start at uniting Aragon with Navarre through a scheme of mutual adoption, James turned to the south and the Mediterranean, conquered the Balearic Islands (from 1228 over the following four years) and Valencia (the city capitulated September 28, 1238). With the French, James endeavoured to form a state straddling the Pyrenees, to counterbalance the power of France north of the Loire. As with the earlier Visigothic attempt, this policy was victim of physical, cultural and political obstacles. As in the case of Navarra, he was too wise to launch into perilous adventures. By the Treaty of Corbeil, with Louis IX, signed May, 1258, he frankly withdrew from conflict with the French king, and was content with the recognition of his position, and the surrender of antiquated and illusory French claims to the overlordship of Catalonia. During his remaining two decades, James warred with the Moors in Murcia, on behalf of his son-in-law Alphonso the Wise of Castile. As a legislator and organizer he occupies a high place among the Spanish kings. The favor he showed his illegitimate offspring led to protest from the nobles, and to conflicts between his sons legitimate and illegitimate. When one of the latter, Fernan Sanchez, who had behaved with gross ingratitude and treason to his father, was slain by the legitimate son Peter, the old king recorded his grim satisfaction. Alphonso the Wise of Castile]] At the close of his life King James divided his states between his sons by Yolande of Hungary, Peter receiving the Hispanic possessions on the mainland and James, the Kingdom of Majorca (the Balearic Islands and the counties of Roussillon and Cerdagne) and the Lordship of Montpellier, a division which inevitably produced fratricidal conflicts. The king fell very ill at Alcira, and resigned his crown, intending to retire to the monastery of Poblet, but died at Valencia July 7, 1276. King James wrote or dictated at various stages a chronicle of his own life, "Llibre Dels Fets" in Catalan, which is the first self-chronicle of a Christian king. As well as a fine example of autobiography the "Book of Deeds" expresses concepts of the power and purpose of monarchy, examples of loyalty and treachery in the feudal order, the growth of national sentiment based on homeland, language and culture, and medieval military tactics.

External link

- [http://www.yorku.ca/inpar/Medieval_Catalan.html The Book of Deeds] of James I of Aragon (available in PDF format)
- [http://12.1911encyclopedia.org/J/JA/JAMES_I_OF_ARAGON.htm Enycyclopaedia Britannica 1911:] James I of Aragon
- [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1232barcelona3.html Medieval Sourcebook:] e-text of James's grant of trade privileges to Barcelona, 1232, freeing the city from tolls and imposts with his realms
- [http://libro.uca.edu/worlds/chron.htm The Worlds of Alfonso the Learned and James the Conqueror - Robert I. Burns, S.J., ed.]
- [http://libro.uca.edu/ck/chron.htm The Crusader Kingdom of Valencia - Robert Ignatius Burns, S.J.]

Reference

- The Book of Deeds of James I of Aragon: A Translation of the Medieval Catalan "Llibre Dels Fets" ("Crusade Texts in Translation" Series) translated and edited by Damian J. Smith and Helena Buffery, 2003 |- |- |- |- Category:1208 births Category:1276 deaths Category:Aragonese monarchs Category:Counts of Barcelona

1276

For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century.

Events

- February - The court of the Southern Song Dynasty of China and hundreds of thousands of its citizens flee from Hangzhou to Fujian and then Guangdong in an effort to escape an invasion by the Mongol Empire.
- March 9 - Augsburg becomes an Imperial Free City. Ravensburg also does in the same year.
- June - King Rudolph I of Germany declares war on King Otakar II of Bohemia, a political rival; by November, Otakar II is forced to cede four important territories as demanded by the diet of Nuremberg in 1274.
- Four different men are pope over the course of the year, as Popes Gregory X, Innocent V, and Adrian V all die in quick succession.
- The foundation stone of the Minorite Church in Vienna is laid by King Otakar II of Bohemia.
- Mamluk sultan Baibars conquers Al-Maris, previously part of Makuria, and annexes it into Egypt.
- A severe 23-year drought begins to affect the Grand Canyon area, eventually forcing the agriculture-dependent Anasazi culture to migrate out of the region.

Births

- October 19 - Prince Hisaaki, Japanese shogun (died 1328)
- Christopher II of Denmark (died 1332)
- Vakhtang III of Georgia (died 1308)
- Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford (died 1322)
- Yesün Temür Khan of the Mongol Empire (died 1328)
- Louis d'Évreux, son of King Philip III of France

Deaths

- January 10 - Pope Gregory X
- June 22 - Pope Innocent V
- July 27 - King James I of Aragon (born 1208)
- August 18 - Pope Adrian V
- Emperor Gong of Song China
- Guido Guinizelli, Italian poet
- Vasily of Kostroma, Grand Duke of Vladimir (born 1241)
- Kanezawa Sanetoki, Japanese member of the Hojo clan (born 1224)
- Ahmad al-Badawi, Sufi (born 1199) Category:1276 ko:1276년

1267

For broader historical context, see 1260s and 13th century.

Events

Europe

War and politics

- King Afonso III of Portugal and King Alfonso X of Castile sign a treaty determining the southern border between Portugal and Spain as the Guadiana River, a border that remains to this day.
- The Second Barons' War in England ends, as the rebels and King Henry III of England agree to peace terms as laid out in the Dictum of Kenilworth.
- King Henry III of England acknowledges Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's title of Prince of Wales in the Treaty of Montgomery.
- Emperor Baldwin II of Constantinople gifts the Principality of Achaea to King Charles I of Sicily in the Treaty of Viterbo in the hopes that Charles could help him restore the Latin Empire.
- The city of Ostrava was founded.

Culture

- Roger Bacon completes his work Opus Majus and sends it to Pope Clement IV, who had requested it be written; the work contians wide-ranging discussion of mathematics, optics, alchemy, astronomy, astrology, and other topics, and includes what some believe to be the first description of a magnifying glass. Bacon also completes Opus Minus, a summary of Opus Majus, later in the same year.
- The leadership of Vienna forces Jews to wear Pileum cornutum,a cone-shaped head dress, in addition to the yellow badges Jews were already forced to wear.
- In England, the Statute of Marlborough is passed, the oldest English law still (partially) in force.

Asia and Africa

- The "Grand Capital" is constructed in Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing by Kublai Khan, having moved the capital of the Mongol Empire there three years prior.
- Malik ul Salih establishes Samudra Pasai, the first Muslim state in Indonesia.
- Spain attempts an invasion of Morocco, but the Marinids successfully defend against the invasion and drive out Spanish forces.

Births

- February 3 - Richard FitzAlan, 8th Earl of Arundel (died 1302)
- August 10 - King James II of Aragon (died 1327)
- December 17 - Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (died 1324)
- Giotto di Bondone, Italian artist (died 1337)

Deaths

- John FitzAlan, 6th Earl of Arundel (born 1223)
- Hugh II of Cyprus (born 1253)
- Lars, Archbishop of Uppsala

1327

Events

- January 25 - Edward III becomes King of England.
- beginning of reign of Alfonso IV of Aragon.
- Petrarch sees a woman he names Laura in the church of Sainte-Claire d'Avignon, which awakes in him a lasting passion. He writes a series of poems dedicated to her, which are collected into his Canzoniere ("Song Book").

Births

- Joan I of Naples
- Demetrius I Starszy, Prince of Trubczewsk (died 1399)
- Baldus de Ubaldis, Italian jurist (died 1400)

Deaths

- August 16 - Roch, French saint
- September 21 - King Edward II of England (born 1284)
- October 27 - Elizabeth de Burgh, queen of Robert I of Scotland
- November 2 - King James II of Aragon (born 1267)
- December 19 - Agnes of France, Duchess of Burgundy
- Coban, Chobanid prince of the Ilkhanate
- Constantine I of Imereti
- Walter Reynolds, Archbishop of Canterbury Category:1327 ko:1327년

James I of Cyprus

James I of Cyprus (1334 – September 9, 1398) was King of Cyprus 1382–1398. He was the son of Hugh IV of Cyprus, and became king upon the death of his nephew Peter II. He married his kinswoman Helvis of Brunswick-Grubenhagen (daughter of Philip of Brunswick, Constable of Jerusalem and Helisia of Dampierre) in 1365. James was created Constable of Cyprus, and in that office, led the war against the Genoese in 1372. With the capture of Kyrenia in 1374, he was taken as a hostage to Genoa, where he consummated his marriage with Helvis, whom he had wed when she was twelve. Most or all of their children were born in Genoa. Due to his captivity, he was not crowned until 1385. In 1393, Leo VI of Armenia died, and James assumed the title of King of Armenia, and was formally crowned as King in 1396. That kingdom was by now reduced to the city of Korikos, which had been in Cypriote hands since its conquest by Peter I of Cyprus. He had twelve children:
- Janus (1375–1432), who succeeded him as king
- Philip (d. c. 1430), Constable of Cyprus
- Henry (d. July 7, 1426), titular Prince of Galilee, killed at Chirokitia, married his cousin Eleonore, daughter of John, titular Prince of Antioch
- Odo (d. 1421), Seneschal of Jerusalem, married his cousin Loysia, daughter of John, titular Prince of Antioch
- Hugh (d. 1442), Regent of Cyprus and Cardinal Archbishop of Nicosia
- Guy, Constable of Cyprus
- an unknown daughter (d. 1374)
- Jacqua (d. c. 1397)
- Eschiva (d. aft. 1406)
- Marie (1381–1404), married Ladislas of Naples in 1403
- Agnes (c. 1382–1459), Abbess of Wunsdorf
- Isabelle, married her cousin Peter, titular Count of Tripoli and son of John, titular Prince of Antioch Upon his death, his son Janus succeeded to the throne. Category:1334 births Category:1398 deaths Category:Monarchs of Armenia Category:Kings of Cyprus Category:Claimant Kings of Jerusalem

1398

Events

- Glendalough monastery, Wicklow Ireland destroyed.
- Construction of the Stecknitz Canal as one of the oldest artificial waterways of the world.
- Timur arrived on the bank of the Indus River, and proceeded to sack Delhi.
- The Teutonic Order occupies the island of Gotland.

Births

- February 25 - Xuande Emperor of China (died 1435)
- August 19 - Marqués de Santillana, Spanish poet (died 1458)
- Spytek z Melsztyna, Polish nobleman (died 1439)

Deaths

- January 31 - Emperor Suko of Japan (born 1334)
- February 3 - John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (born 1340)
- March 24 - Margaret Plantagenet, Duchess of Norfolk
- June 24 - Hongwu Emperor of China (born 1328)
- July 20 - Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March, heir to the throne of England (born 1374)
- September 9 - James I of Cyprus (born 1334)
- Jeong Dojeon, Korean philosopher
- Blanche d'Evreux, French princess (born 1333) Category:1398 ko:1398년

Dulcinea (Asteroid)

(571) Dulcinea ist ein Asteroid des Hauptgürtels, der am 4. September 1905 vom deutschen Astronomen Paul Götz in Heidelberg entdeckt wurde. Der Asteroid wurde benannt nach einer Figur aus dem Roman Don Quixote von Miguel de Cervantes. Kategorie:Hauptgürtelasteroid

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