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James McDivitt

James McDivitt

James A. McDivitt (Brig. General, USAF Ret.) is a former NASA Astronaut.

Personal data

Born June 10, 1929, in Chicago, Illinois. His mother, Mrs. James McDivitt, resides in Jackson, Michigan. Married. Four children and two step-children. Recreational interests include hunting, fishing, golf, water sports, tennis, and all outdoor activities.

Education

Graduated from Kalamazoo Central High School, Kalamazoo, Michigan; Jackson Junior College, Jackson, Michigan, received a bachelor of science degree in aeronautical engineering from the University of Michigan (graduated first in class) in 1959 and an honorary doctorate in astronautical science from the University of Michigan in 1965; honorary doctor of science, Seton Hall University, 1969; honorary doctor of science, Miami University (Ohio), 1970; honorary doctor of laws, Eastern Michigan University, 1975.

Organizations/honors

Member of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Tau Beta Pi, and Phi Kappa Phi. Atlantic Council on Foreign Diplomacy, Advisory Council-University of Michigan. Awarded two NASA Distinguished Service Medals; NASA Exceptional Service Medal; two Air Force Distinguished Service Medals; four Distinguished Flying Crosses; five Air Medals; the Chong Moo Medal from South Korea; the USAF Air Force Systems Command Aerospace Primus Award; the Arnold Air Society JFK Trophy; the Sword of Loyola; and the Michigan Wolverine Frontiersman Award, USAF Astronaut Wings.

Experience

McDivitt joined the Air Force in 1951 and retired with the rank of Brigadier General. He flew 145 combat missions during the Korean War in F-80s and F-86s. He is a graduate of the USAF Experimental Test Pilot School and the USAF Aerospace Research Pilot course and served as an experimental test pilot at Edwards Air Force Base, California. He has logged over 5,000 flying hours.

NASA experience

General McDivitt was selected as an astronaut by NASA in September 1962 as part of Astronaut Group 2. He was command pilot for Gemini 4, a 66-orbit 4-day mission that began on June 3, and ended June 7, 1965. McDivitt became the first of his group to be named as commander of his own mission. Highlights of the mission included a controlled extra-vehicular activity period and a number of experiments. He was commander of Apollo 9, a 10-day earth orbital flight launched on March 3, 1969. This was the first flight of the complete set of Apollo hardware and was the first flight of the Lunar Module. Months before the mission NASA had decided to launch a Saturn V with a manned Command Service Module only to lunar orbit to beat the Soviet Moonshot effort. McDivitt was given the option of being commander of this mission the became Apollo 8 but passed. He became Manager of Lunar Landing Operations in May 1969, and led a team that planned the lunar exploration program and redesigned the spacecraft to accomplish this task. In August 1969, he became Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program and was the program manger for Apollo 12, 13, 14, 15 and 16. He retired from the USAF and left NASA in June 1972, to take the position of Executive Vice-President, Corporate Affairs for Consumers Power Company. In March 1975, he joined Pullman, Inc. as Executive Vice-President and a Director. In October 1975 he became President of the Pullman Standard Division, The Railcar Division, and later had additional responsibility for the leasing and engineering and construction areas of the company. In January 1981 he joined Rockwell International where he is presently Senior Vice President, Government Operations and Rockwell International Corporation, Washington, D.C. Source:[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/mcdivitt-ja.html A NASA biography page] McDivitt, James McDivitt, James McDivitt, James

Astronaut

An astronaut, cosmonaut, spationaut or taikonaut (taikongren, 太空人) is a person who travels into space, or who makes a career of doing so. The criteria for determining who has achieved human spaceflight vary (see edge of space). In the United States, people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (approximately 80 kilometers) are designated as astronauts. The FAI defines spaceflight as over 100 km (approximately 62 miles). As of October 12, 2005, a total of 448 humans have reached space according to the U.S. definition, 442 people qualify under the FAI definition, while 438 people have reached Earth orbit or beyond. These individuals have spent over 28,000 crew-days (or a cumulative total of 76.7 years) in space including over 100 crew-days of spacewalks. A person who has traveled in space is said to hold astronaut wings. Astronauts from at least 34 countries have gone into space.

International variations

By convention, a space traveller employed by the Russian Aviation and Space Agency or its Soviet predecessor is called a cosmonaut. "Cosmonaut" is an anglicisation of the Russian word космонавт (kosmonavt), which in turn derives from the Greek words kosmos, meaning "universe" and nautes, "sailor". In the USA, a space traveller is called an astronaut. The term derives from the Greek words ástron ("star") and nautes, ("sailor"). For the most part, "cosmonaut" and "astronaut" are synonyms in all languages, and the usage of choice is often dictated by political reasons. However in the United States, the term "astronaut" is typically applied to the individual as soon as training begins, while in Russia, an individual is not labeled a cosmonaut until successful space flight. The first known use of the term was by Neil R. Jones in his short story The Death's Head Meteor in 1930. On March 14, 1995 astronaut Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on-board a Russian launch vehicle, arguably becoming the first American cosmonaut in the process. European (outside of the UK) space travellers are sometimes, especially in French-speaking countries, called spationauts (a hybrid word formed from the Latin spatium, "space", and Greek nautes, "sailor"). Apart from the Soviet Union, Europe has not yet produced manned spacecraft, but has sent men and women into space in cooperation with Russia and to a lesser extent with the United States of America. Taikonaut is sometimes used in English for astronauts from China by Western news media. The term was coined in May 1998 by Chiew Lee Yih (赵里昱) from Malaysia, who used it first in newsgroups. Almost simultaneously, Chen Lan coined it for use in the Western media based on the term tàikōng (太空), Chinese for "space". In Chinese itself, however, a single term yǔháng yuán (宇航員, "universe navigator") has long been used for astronauts. The closest term using taikong is a colloquialism tàikōng rén (太空人, "space human"), which refers to people who have actually been in space. Official English texts issued by the Chinese government use astronaut ().

Space milestones

colloquialism The first attempt ever in human history to use rocket for a spaceflight was done in the 16th century by a Chinese Ming dynasty official, a skilled stargazer named Wan Hu.[http://edition.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/09/30/china.wanhu/index.html] The first cosmonaut was Yuri Gagarin, who was launched into space on April 12 1961 aboard Vostok 1. The first woman cosmonaut was Valentina Tereshkova, launched into space in June 1963 aboard Vostok 6. Alan Shepard became the first American in space in May 1961. Vladimir Remek became the first non-Soviet European in space in 1978 on a Russian Soyuz rocket. On July 23 1980 Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37. In June 1985 Shannon Lucid became the first Chinese born person in space. On October 15 2003 Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft. The first mission to orbit the moon was Apollo 8 which included William Anders - who was born in Hong Kong making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968. The youngest person to fly in space is Gherman Titov, who was roughly 26 years old when he flew Vostok 2, and the oldest is John Glenn who was 77 when he flew on STS-95. The longest stay in space was 438 days by Valeri Polyakov. As of 2005, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut was seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The furthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401,056 km (during the Apollo 13 emergency). The first non-governmental astronaut was Christa McAuliffe, who was killed during the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster on January 28, 1986. The first astronaut to fly a privately-funded mission was Mike Melvill, on SpaceShipOne flight 15P. This should be contrasted with the various millionaire space tourists, who have flown as passengers, or minor crew members, on publicly funded flights (generally Russian resupply flights to the ISS). The first space tourist was Dennis Tito on April 28, 2001. In the United States, persons selected as astronaut candidates receive silver Astronaut wings. Once they have flown in space they receive gold Astronaut wings. The United States Air Force also presents Astronaut wings to its pilots who exceed 50 miles in altitude.

International astronauts

United States Air Force Up until the end of the 1970s only Americans and Soviets were active astronauts. In 1976 the Soviets started the Intercosmos program with a first group of 6 cosmonauts from fellow socialist countries, a second group started training in 1978. At about the same time in 1978 the European Space Agency selected 4 astronauts to train for the first Spacelab mission on board of the Space Shuttle. In 1980 France started their own selection of astronauts, followed in 1982 by Germany, in 1983 by the Canadian space program, in 1985 by Japan and Italy in 1988. Several more international payload specialist were selected for the Space Shuttle, and also later for international Soyuz missions of Russia. In 1998 the European Space Agency formed a single astronaut corps of 18 by dissolving the former national corps of France, Germany and Italy.

Astronaut training

The first astronauts, both in the USA and USSR, tended to be jet fighter pilots, often test pilots, from military backgrounds. U.S. military astronauts receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge upon completion of Astronaut training and participation in a space flight.

Astronaut deaths

Astronaut Badge To date, eighteen astronauts have been killed on space missions, and at least ten more have been killed in ground-based training accidents. See also: space disaster.

See also


- List of astronauts by name
- List of astronauts by selection
- Timeline of astronauts by nationality
- List of human spaceflights: 1961-1986, 1987-1999, 2000-present.
- List of spacewalks and moonwalks
- X-15
- Spaceflight records
- Shirley Thomas, author of Men of Space series (1960-1968)

External links


- [http://www.astronautix.com Encyclopedia Astronautica]
- [http://www.astronautix.com/astrogrp/phaonaut.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts]
- Category:Transportation and material moving occupations Category:Transportation occupations Category:Science occupations ja:宇宙飛行士 simple:Astronaut th:นักบินอวกาศ

1929

1929 (MCMXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January


- January 2 - Canada and the United States agree on a plan to preserve Niagara Falls.
- January 9 - The Seeing Eye is established with the mission to train dogs to assist the blind (Nashville, Tennessee).
- January 10 - Tintin, a comic book character created by Hergé, makes his debut. He went on to be published in over 200 million comic books in 40 languages, and loved across the world.
- January 15 - First issue of Annales d'histoire économique et sociale published in France by Armand Collin.
- January 17 - Popeye, a comic strip character created by Elzie Crisler Segar, makes his debut.
- January 18 - Leon Trotsky expelled from Soviet Union; he moves to Turkey January 29 and applies for sanctuary in France and Germany
- January 29 - Seeing Eye Dog organization is formed.

February


- February 11 - Italy and the Vatican sign the Lateran Treaty
- February 11 - Eugene O'Neill's Dynamo premieres in New York
- February 14 - St. Valentine's Day Massacre: Seven gangsters rivalling Al Capone are murdered in Chicago, Illinois.
- February 18 - First Academy Awards are announced
- February 26 - The Grand Teton National Park is created.

March


- March 3 - Revolt attempt of Generals José Gonzalo Escobar and Jesús María Aguirre fails in Mexico.
- March 4 - Herbert Hoover is inaugurated as the 31st President of the United States, succeeding Calvin Coolidge.

May


- May 13 - National Crime Syndicate founded in Atlantic City.
- May 14 - Wilfred Rhodes takes his 4000th first-class wicket during a performance of 9 for 39 at Leyton.
- May 31 - British general election returns a hung parliament yet again - Liberals will determine who has power.

June


- June 7 - In Britain Tories concede power rather than risk courting Liberals for fragile majority
- June 8 - Ramsay MacDonald founds new Labour government.
- June 21 - agreement brokered by US ambassador Dwight Whitney Morrow ends the Cristero War in Mexico. In June 27, church bells ring for the first time in years

July


- July 5 - Scotland Yard seizes 12 nude paintings of D.H. Lawrence from the Mayfair gallery on grounds of indecency
- July 24 - French prime minister Raymond Poincaré resigns for medical reasons - he is succeeded by Aristide Briand
- July 24 - The Kellogg-Briand Pact, renouncing war as an instrument of foreign policy, goes into effect (it was first signed in Paris on August 27, 1928 by most leading world powers).

August


- August 8 - The German airship Graf Zeppelin begins a round-the-world flight (will end on August 29).
- August 19 - The radio comedy show Amos and Andy makes its debut starring Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll.

September


- September 5 - Aristide Briand presents his plan of the United States of Europe
- September 7 - Steamboat Kuru sinks in Näsijärvi, Tampere, Finland - 136 drowned
- September 17 - Coup ousts Augustinas Voldemaras in Lithuania; new president is Antanas Smetona

October


- October 11 - JC Penney opens Store #1252 in Milford, Delaware, making it a nationwide company with stores in all 48 states.
- October 22 - Government of Aristide Briand falls in France
- October 24 - Great Depression begins: Black Thursday and then Black Tuesday (October 29) - The New York Stock Exchange crashes, ushering in what will be a world-wide economic crisis.

November


- November 7 - In New York City, the Museum of Modern Art opens to the public.
- November 18 - 1929 Grand Banks earthquake: Off the south coast of Newfoundland in the Atlantic Ocean, a Richter magnitude 7.2 submarine earthquake centered on Grand Banks, breaks 12 submarine transatlantic telegraph cables and triggers a tsunami that destroys many south coast communities in the Burin Peninsula area, killing 28. As of 1997, it is Canada's most lethal earthquake.[http://www.shunpiking.com/ol0103/1929_Tsunami_in_NF.pdf]
- November 29 - US Admiral Richard Byrd becomes the first person to fly over the South Pole.

December


- December 2 - First phone booths in London
- December 3 - Great Depression: US President Herbert Hoover announces to U.S. Congress that the worst effects of the recent stock market crash are behind the nation and the American people have regained faith in the economy.
- December 29 - All India Congress in Lahore demands Indian independence
- December 31 - Guy Lombardo plays Auld Lang Syne for the first time

Unknown dates


- Third Geneva Convention
- The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is proposed.
- Greatest number of fatal civil aircraft crashes in US history.
- Civil war in Afghanistan
- Lapua Movement in Finland
- Branch Davidian sect founded in Los Angeles
- Start of the Soviet-Chinese Conflict
- May - Wickersham Commission began investigation of alcohol prohibition in U.S.
- Vladimir Zworykin takes out the first patent for colour television.

Births

January-March


- January 3 - Sergio Leone, Italian director (d. 1989)
- January 6 - Babrak Karmal, third President of Afghanistan (d. 1996)
- January 15 - Rev. Martin Luther King Jr., American civil rights leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1968)
- January 17 - Jacques Plante, Canadian hockey player (d. 1986)
- January 20 - Fireball Roberts, American race car driver (d. 1964)
- January 23 - John Charles Polanyi, Canadian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- January 26 - Jules Feiffer, American cartoonist and writer
- January 28 - Acker Bilk, American jazz clarinetist
- January 28 - Claes Oldenbourg, Swedish sculptor
- January 29 - Gastón Suárez, Bolivian novelist and dramatist (d. 1984)
- January 31 - Rudolf Mössbauer, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- January 31 - Jean Simmons, English actress
- February 5 - Luc Ferrari, French composer (d. 2005)
- February 5 - Fred Sinowatz, Austrian politician
- February 6 - Pierre Brice, French actor
- February 14 - Vic Morrow, American actor (d. 1982)
- February 15 - Graham Hill, English race car driver (d. 1975)
- February 17 - Chaim Potok, American rabbi and author (d. 2002)
- February 17 - Patricia Routledge, English actress
- February 18 - Len Deighton, British author
- February 28 - Hayden Fry, American football coach
- February 28 - Frank Gehry, Canadian-born architect
- March 1 - Georgi Markov, Bulgarian dissident (d. 1978)
- March 4 - Bernard Haitink, Dutch conductor
- March 9 - Desmond Hoyte, Prime Minister and President of Guyana (d. 2002)
- March 17 - Peter L. Berger, Austrian-born sociologist
- March 23 - Sir Roger Bannister, British runner

April-June


- April 1 - Milan Kundera, Czech-born author
- April 5 - Ivar Giaever, Norwegian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- April 6 - André Previn, German-born pianist, composer, and conductor
- April 8 - Walter Berry, Austrian bass-baritone (d. 2000)
- April 10 - Max von Sydow, Swedish actor
- May 4 - Audrey Hepburn, Belgian actress (d. 1993)
- May 4 - Sydney MacDonald Lamb, American linguist
- May 6 - Paul Lauterbur, American chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- May 10 - Antonine Maillet, Canadian author
- May 14 - Gump Worsley, Canadian hockey player
- May 14 - Henry McGee, English actor
- May 21 - Heinz Holliger, Swiss oboist
- May 25 - Beverly Sills, American soprano
- June 1 - Nargis, Indian actress (d. 1981)
- June 2 - Norton Juster, American author and architect
- June 3 - Werner Arber, Swiss microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- June 6 - Sunil Dutt, Indian actor and politician (d. 2005)
- June 10 - Harald Juhnke, German entertainer (d. 2005)
- June 12 - Brigid Brophy, English author (d. 1995)
- June 12 - Anne Frank, German diarist (d. 1945)
- June 13 - Alan Civil, English French horn player (d. 1989)
- June 16 - Ramon Bieri, American actor (d. 2001)
- June 17 - Tigran Petrosian, Russian chess player (d. 1984)
- June 23 - June Carter Cash, American singer (d. 2003)
- June 26 - Milton Glaser, American graphic designer

July-September


- July 1 - Gerald Edelman, American biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- July 2 - Imelda Marcos, First Lady of the Philippines
- July 4 - Bill Tuttle, baseball player
- July 5 - Tony Lock, English cricketer (d. 1995)
- July 9 - King Hassan II of Morocco (d. 1999)
- July 11 - Hermann Prey, German bass-baritone (d. 1998)
- July 18 - Dick Button, American figure skater
- July 18 - Jalacy "Screamin' Jay" Hawkins, American musician (d. 2000)
- July 24 - Oriana Fallaci, Italian journalist and author
- July 25 - Somnath Chatterjee, Indian politician
- July 26 - Alexis Weissenberg, Bulgarian-French pianist
- July 29 - Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, wife of John F Kennedy
- August 1 - Hafizullah Amin, second President of Afghanistan (d. 1979)
- August 16 - Helmut Rahn, German footballer (d. 2003)
- August 24 - Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 2004)
- August 26 - Maurice Tempelsman, Belgian diamond merchant and financier
- August 28 - Istvan Kertesz, Hungarian conductor (d. 1973)
- September 1 - Anne Ramsey, American actress (d. 1988)
- September 5 - Bob Newhart, American comedian and actor
- September 5 - Andrian Nikolayev, cosmonaut (d. 2004)
- September 6 - Yash Johar, Indian film producer (d. 2004)
- September 8 - Christoph von Dohnanyi, German conductor
- September 9 - Claude Nougaro, French singer (d. 2004)
- September 15 - Murray Gell-Mann, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- September 20 - Anne Meara, American comedienne and actress
- September 21 - Bernard Williams, British philosopher (d. 2003)
- September 25 - Ronnie Barker, British comedian (d. 2005)
- September 25 - Barbara Walters, American journalist
- September 28 - Lata Mangeshkar, Indian playback singer

October-December


- October 14 - Yvon Durelle, Canadian boxer
- October 22 - Lev Yashin, Soviet footballer (d. 1990)
- October 24 - George Crumb, American composer
- October 24 - Yordan Radichkov, Bulgarian writer and playwright (d. 2004)
- November 2 - Muhammad Rafiq Tarar, President of Pakistan
- November 2 - Richard E. Taylor, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 4 - Doris Roberts, American actress
- November 7 - Eric R. Kandel, Austrian-born neuroscientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- November 8 - Lal Krishna Advani, Indian politician
- November 9 - Imre Kertesz, Hungarian writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- November 11 - LaVern Baker, American singer (d. 1997)
- November 12 - Grace Patricia Kelly, American actress and Princess of Monaco (d. 1982)
- November 19 - Norman Cantor, Canadian medieval scholar (d. 2004)
- November 30 - Dick Clark, American television entertainer
- December 6 - Nikolaus Harnoncourt, German-born conductor
- December 9 - Bob Hawke, twenty-third Prime Minister of Australia
- December 16 - Nicholas Courtney, British actor
- December 16 - James Moore, British author
- December 17 - Jacqueline Hill, British actress (d. 1993)
- December 28 - Terry Sawchuk, Canadian hockey player (d. 1970)
- December 28 - Brian Redhead, English journalist and broadcaster (d. 1994)

Deaths


- January 5 - Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov, Grand Duke of Russia (b. 1856)
- January 13 - Wyatt Earp, American gunfighter (b. 1848)
- January 30 - La Goulue, French dancer (b. 1866)
- February 8 - Maria Christina of Austria, Queen Regent of Spain (b. 1858)
- February 12 - Lillie Langtry, British singer and actress (b. 1853)
- February 14 - Tom Burke, American runner (b. 1875)
- March 20 - Ferdinand Foch, French commander of allied forces in World War I (b. 1851)
- April 4 - Karl Benz, German automotive pioneer (b. 1844)
- April 24 - Caroline Rémy, French feminist (b. 1855)
- May 21 - Archibald Primrose, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1847)
- June 8 - Bliss Carman, Canadian poet (b. 1861)
- June 11 - William Dickson Boyce, American entrepreneur and founder of the Boy Scouts of America (b. 1858)
- June 28 - Edward Carpenter, English poet (b. 1844)
- July 15 - Hugo von Hofmannsthal, Austrian writer (b. 1874)
- August - Mary MacLane, Canadian feminist writer (b. 1881)
- August 3 - Thorstein Veblen, Norwegian-born economist (b. 1857)
- August 3 - Emil Berliner, German-born inventor (b. 1851)
- August 5 - Millicent Fawcett, British suffragist and feminist (b. 1847)
- August 26 - Sir Ernest Satow, British diplomat and scholar in East Asia (b. 1843)
- August 27 - Herman Potočnik Noordung, Slovenian rocket engineer (b. 1892)
- September 12 - Rainis, Latvian poet and playwright (b. 1865)
- September 23 - Richard Adolf Zsigmondy, Austrian-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1865)
- October 1 - Antoine Bourdelle, French sculptor (b. 1861)
- October 3 - Jeanne Eagels, American actress (b. 1890)
- October 3 - Gustav Stresemann, Chancellor of Germany, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1878)
- October 28 - Bernhard von Bülow, Chancellor of Germany (b. 1849)
- November 24 - Georges Clemenceau, Premier of France (b. 1841)
- December 10 - Harry Crosby, American publisher and poet (b. 1898)
- December 20 - Émile Loubet, 7th President of France (b.1838)

Nobel Prizes


- Physics - Prince Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie
- Chemistry - Arthur Harden, Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin
- Physiology or Medicine - Christiaan Eijkman, Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins
- Literature - Thomas Mann
- Peace - Frank Kellogg

External links


- About.com: [http://mutualfunds.about.com/od/1929marketcrash/ 1929 Stock Market Crash]
- [http://www.stock-market-crash.net/1929.htm Stock Market Crash of 1929]-Learn about the disastrous crash that lead to the Great Depression Category:1929 ko:1929년 ms:1929 ja:1929年 simple:1929 th:พ.ศ. 2472

Jackson, Michigan

Jackson is a city located in the south central area of the U.S. state of Michigan. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 36,316. It is the county seat of Jackson County, Michigan6. It was founded in 1827, and is named for Democratic President Andrew Jackson. It is the birthplace of the Republican Party, and was also home to one of the Apollo Space Capsules at the Jackson Space Center until the museum closed in 2004. (The Apollo capsule was moved to the Kalamazoo Air Zoo.) It is the home of Jackson Community College and the Michigan Shakespeare Festival. Surrounding communities include Parma, Spring Arbor, Springport, Grass Lake, Clark Lake, Napoleon and Michigan Center.

Geography

Michigan Center According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 28.7 km² (11.1 mi²). 28.7 km² (11.1 mi²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

Economy

Jackson is home to one of the world's largest maximum-security prisons, which provides employment to many Jackson residents, commonly referred to as Jacksonians. The other main employers in the city are CMS Energy, which provides natural gas and electrical services to much of Michigan and has its headquarters in the city, as well as Foote Hospital.

Coney Island heritage

Jackson is known "the world 'round" for its famous Coney Island-style hot dogs. Originating with arguably The Jackson Coney Island or The Virginia Lunch, both located on Michigan Avenue in the early 1910s, the Coney Island hotdog has been a Jackson mainstay. Coney Island hot dogs typically contain "everything", or meat sauce, mustard, and chopped onions. Unlike neighboring Detroit Coney Island hot dogs, Jackson sauce more closely resembles crumbled ground beef than the more traditional chili con carne, runny sauces of Detroit. Many Jackson residents have fond memories of eating Coney Island hot dogs during the height of their popularity in the 1960s. Many Coney Island restaurants are still active today, including :
- The Jackson Coney Island
- The Virginia Lunch
- Todoroff's Coney Island
- The Roxy Café
- Andy's Pizza & Coney

Sparks County Park - Illuminated Cascades

Located on Warren Avenue, the park occupies nearly 500 acres (2 km²) and contains the illuminated "Cascades", six fountains and a giant concrete waterfall construction over which water tumbles in continually changing patterns of colorful light. The falls are lit after dusk until 11 PM, every summer evening. There also is a small museum depicting the history of Cascades Falls, two golf courses, tennis courts, a picnic area, lagoons with paddleboats in the summer and ice skating in the winter, batting cages, and a miniature golf course. Sparks Park also is home to festivals such as a Civil War re-enactment and the Dragons & Dreams festival.

Education

Jackson is home to several different public elementary schools, as well as a few Catholic elementary schools. It also has a large public middle school (The Middle School at Parkside), as well as Jackson Catholic Middle School. Finally, it also boasts three high schools: Jackson High School (Public), Jackson Christian School, and Lumen Christi Catholic High School, which is known for being an athletic as well as an academic powerhouse. The school has won state championships in most of the sports it plays.

Demographics

As of the census2 of 2000, there are 36,316 people, 14,210 households, and 8,668 families residing in the city. The population density is 1,264.4/km² (3,274.9/mi²). There are 15,241 housing units at an average density of 530.6/km² (1,374.4/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 73.87% White, 19.70% Black or African American, 0.56% Native American, 0.51% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.65% from other races, and 3.67% from two or more races. 4.05% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 14,210 households out of which 33.7% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.8% are married couples living together, 19.9% have a female householder with no husband present, and 39.0% are non-families. 32.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.8% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.48 and the average family size is 3.12. In the city the population is spread out with 29.7% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 31 years. For every 100 females there are 91.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 85.5 males. The median income for a household in the city is $31,294, and the median income for a family is $39,072. Males have a median income of $31,957 versus $23,817 for females. The per capita income for the city is $15,230. 19.6% of the population and 15.2% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 26.9% of those under the age of 18 and 11.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

External links


- [http://www.cityofjackson.org/ Official City Web Site]
- [http://www.Lumen-Christi.org/ Lumen Christi Catholic High School]
- [http://www.gjcc.org/ Greater Jackson Chamber of Commerce]
- [http://www.jackson.cc.mi.us/ Jackson Community College]
- [http://www.michshakefest.org/ Michigan Shakespeare Festival] ----- Jackson is a town on Old U.S. 12, Interstate Highway 94, and U.S. Highway 127 Category:Cities in Michigan Category:Jackson County, Michigan Category:County seats in Michigan ja:ジャクソン (ミシガン州)

Hunting

Category:NPOV disputes :This article is about the hunting of prey by human society. For other uses of the word "hunting", see Hunting (disambiguation). "Hunter" and "huntress" redirect here; for other uses of these words, see Hunter (disambiguation) and Huntress (disambiguation). Hunting is most commonly applied to the practice of pursuing animals to capture or kill them for food, sport, or trade in their products. Hunting should be distinguished from poaching which is the killing, trapping or capture of game animals contrary to law. Animals so hunted are referred to as game animals. By definition, hunting excludes the killing of individual animals that have become dangerous to humans and the killing of vermin as a means of pest control. Although hunting also technically excludes wildlife management to maintain a population of animals within an environment's carrying capacity, regulatory and licensing bodies may restrict the bag limit such that only animals in excess of the environment's carrying capacity may be harvested.

History

wildlife management

Old roots

In ancient societies, before the widespread domestication of animals, hunting was generally vital for survival as part of the hunter-gatherer way of life. For most humans before the development of agriculture, hunting would have provided an important source of protein to augment the foraged plants and vegetables that made up the majority of their diet. In addition, animal hides were used for clothing and shelters. The earliest hunting weapons would have included rocks, the Atlatl and bow and arrows. Even when animal domestication became relatively widespread, hunting was usually a significant contributor to the food supply available to a population. In addition, animal parts such as hides and horns were utilized in clothing and tools, and not all of these products could be provided from the domestication of animals. The importance of hunting in ancient societies is represented by deities such as the Greek Artemis alias the Roman Diana (both lunar goddesses, among the twelve major divinities with an equivalent in nearly every ancient Mediterranean culture) or Cernunnos, the Horned God. The mythological association of a prey species with a divinity could be reflected in hunting restrictions, often a 'reserve' surrounding its temple(s). Hunter-gathering cultures existed along-side agrarian societies with whom they traded. This did not always result in a cultural transition from hunting-gathering to agrarian domestication. Also, in chilly climates, the hides or furs of animals would be used as clothing (see trapping). The Inuit peoples in the Arctic could produce complicated parkas consisting of up to 60 stitched pieces capable of with-standing sub-zero temperatures. From the skins of sea mammals they produced, and still produce, water-proof kayaks, clothing, gloves and footwear. With domestication of the dog, birds of prey and the ferret, various forms of animal-aided hunting developed including venery (scent hound hunting, such as fox hunting), coursing (sight hound hunting), falconry and ferreting. These are all associated with medieval hunting; in time various dog breeds were selected for very precise tasks during the hunt, reflected in such names as pointer and setter. As hunting moved from a strictly necessary activity for survival to one of many staples of society, two trends emerged. One was that of the specialist hunter - a position previously held by just about every able-bodied male (usually) in the society. As domesticated farming and herding took hold, hunting became one of many trades to be pursued by those with the necessary training. The other trend was the emergence of hunting as a sport. As game became more of a luxury than a dietary necessity, the pursuit of it could equally well be considered a luxury pursuit. Still dangerous hunting, as for lions or wild boars, usually on horseback (or from a chariot, as in Pharaonic Egypt and Mesopotamia) also had a similar function as tournaments and various manly sports: an honourable, often somewhat competetive passtime helping the aristocracy in peace time to practice in the skills of warfare. warfare warfare In most parts of medieval Europe, the upper-class (aristocracy and higher clergy) obtained as proud privilege the sole rights to hunt (and sometimes fish) in certain areas of a feudal territory. Game in these areas was certainly used as a source of food and furs, often provided via professional huntsmen; but it was also expected to provide a form of recreation for the aristocracy. The importance of this proprietary view of game can be seen in the Robin Hood legends, in which one of the primary charges against the outlaws is that they "hunt the King's deer".

Modern Hunting for Sport

In time, this aristocratic type of hunting lost its roots as a source of food and supplies, while retaining its prestigious nature as a sport, eagerly adopted by the rising bourgeoisie. Hunting in North America in the 1800s was done primarily as a way to supplement food supplies. The safari method of hunting was a development of sport hunting that saw elaborate travel in Africa, India and other places in pursuit of trophies. In modern times, trophy hunting persists, but is frowned upon by some when it involves rare or endangered species of animal. Other people also object to trophy hunting in general because it is seen as a senseless act of killing another living thing for recreation, rather than food. Advocates of trophy hunting disagree. They state that the vast majority of the edible portions of the animal are consumed by the hunters themselves or given to local inhabitants. This along with fees paid to hunt contribute to the local economy and provide value to animals that would otherwise be seen as competition for grazing, livestock, and crops [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/10/06/MNG1UF392D1.DTL]. In Tanzania it is estimated that safari hunter spends 50-100 times that of the average eco-tourist and at a lower environmental impact. The average photo tourist demands luxury accommodations and at a higher number of visitors to make the endeavor financially viable. In contrast the average safari hunter travels on foot, staying in tented camps and in vastly smaller numbers. Safari hunters are also more likely to use remote areas, uninviting to the average eco-tourist. Having these hunters there allows for anti-poaching activities and revenue for local communities [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1076/is_5_41/ai_54895821/pg_5]. In the 1800s southern and central European hunters often pursued game only for a trophy, usually the head or pelt of an animal, to be displayed as a sign of prowess. The rest of the animal was often wasted. In contrast, in relatively scarcely populated northern Europe, hunting has remained the tradition of the common people, and still serves a purpose as a means of acquiring meat, although the standard of living does not require it; Eating game is generally considered a healthier and more ethical alternative to the exploitation of farmed animals. In the Nordic countries, hunting for trophies was, and still is frowned upon, but an impressive trophy is considered a bonus. This is perhaps the most common practice of modern hunters worldwide.

Specific hunting traditions

Shikar (India)

During the feudal and colonial epoch on the Indian continent, hunting was a true 'kingly sport' in the numerous princely states, as many (maha)rajas etc. maintained a whole corps, attached to their court, of shikaris, i.e. native professional hunterssince these had to be armed (not unlike he common lancer units; both could be mounted), they might also double as a supplementary police corps or military contingent. Often these were recruited from the normally low-ranking local pre-Aryan tribes (e.g. Bhils in Rajasthan's premier kingdom Mewar), because of their traditional knowledge of environment, techniques etc., but thus could be closer then most subjects to the ruler, who would often hunt big game (preferably the emperor of Asians wildlife, the (Bengal) tiger) in majestic style: on the back of an elephant, often commandeering extra helpers as drivers to scare the game out of the grass or jungle till it came within gun reach. As hunting was an important princely pass-time, worthy hunting lodges were constructed (not unlike feudal Europe) After European guests of these princes had enjoyed the honour of talking part in these elephant hunts, some colonial Sahibs started organizing their own, and tiger numbers especially dwindled alarmingly. Fortunately, the independent republics (and neighbouring Himalayan monarchies, as Nepal) became wise enough to curb such massively disturbing 'expeditions', for the threat of poching may still mean the unnecessary end of more species and habitats then have already been lost forever.

Safari

A safari (from Swahili word meaning a long journey) is an overland journey (especially in Africa). Safari as a distinctive way of hunting was popularized by US author Ernest Hemingway and president Theodore Roosevelt. It is a several days or even weeks-lasting journey and camping in the bush or jungle, while pursuing big game. Nowadays, it's often used to describe tours through African national parks to watch or hunt wildlife. Hunters are usually tourists, accompanied by professional local guide, skinners and porters in more difficult terrains. A special safari type is the solo-safari where all the license acquiring, stalking, preparation and outfitting is done by the hunter himself. Among trophy hunters, those who outfitted the safaris themselves would receive the greatest admiration. On the rise, even before integral ecotourism was, is the animal-friendly version known as photo-safari, where the only shots aimed at wildlife come from camera lenses. The synonym Bloodless hunt for hunting with the use of film and a still photo camera was first used by the Polish photographer Włodzimierz Puchalski Category: Hunting Category:Photography by genre

United Kingdom

The practice of British fox hunting is a prime example of sport hunting; the fox is not eaten, and the skin is rarely preserved afterwards. Fox hunting originally developed as a means of vermin control to protect livestock. In Victorian times it also became a popular sport of the upper classes. It now attracts followers from all walks of life. Mounted followers join in on horseback and foot-followers walk or cycle, others follow by car, stopping to view the hunt from suitable vantage points. Fox hunting attract strong feelings. Some animal rights supporters feel it causes suffering to the fox and is both cruel and unnecessary, but no cruelty evidence was forthcoming when the legislation was drawn up. Most members of the farming and rural communities in which it takes place feel it is an integral and useful part of rural life, providing an important contribution to prevent vermin from killing farm animals especially at lambing time and providing an important contribution to social life for local people. In 2002 the Scottish Parliament passed an act banning fox hunting and other forms of hunting with hounds. On September 15th 2004 the British Parliament followed Scotland's lead and passed a similar ban for England and Wales under the Hunting Act 2004, which took effect from February 18 2005. The British Government forced the ban into law using the Parliament Act. Some hunting activists have declared their intention to break the law and continue hunting with hounds, and others are 'hunting within the law' and thereby showing the law to be flawed, illogical and unenforcable.

Hunting in the United States

In the United States, hunting is a sport not associated with any particular class or culture. Today's hunters come from a broad range of economic, social, and cultural backgrounds. In 2001, over 13 million hunters averaged eighteen days hunting and spent over $20.5 billion on their sport. Modern North American hunting has been strongly influenced by organizations such as the Boone and Crocket Club, founded in 1887 to discourage commercial hunting, promote conservation and the "fair chase" ethic of hunting "individual animals in a manner that conserves, protects, and perpetuates the hunted population." In the United States, hunters are encouraged to take a hunters safety course. There are many good courses taught by hunters and they teach the responsibilities of a good sportsman. On television there is a show on OLN called Hunters Handbook that shows hunting safety and new hunting products. Modern hunters see themselves as conservationists. Each year, nearly $200 million in hunters' federal excise taxes are distributed to State agencies to support wildlife management programs, the purchase of lands open to hunters, and hunter education and safety classes. Proceeds from the Federal Duck Stamp, a required purchase for migratory waterfowl hunters, have purchased more than 5 million acres (20,000 km²) of habitat for the refuge system lands that support waterfowl and many other wildlife species, and are often open to hunting. The $200 million is the federal portion only and does not include monies collected by the states for hunting licenses. Local hunting clubs and national conservation organizations protect the future of wildlife by setting aside millions of acres of habitat and speaking up for conservation in Washington and State capitals [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/whatdo.html]. Two such private organizations are Ducks Unlimited [http://www.ducks.org] and Delta Waterfowl [http://www.deltawaterfowl.org]. Hunting of mammals such as deer, elk and small game is regulated by the states. Hunting of migratory waterfowl (ducks, geese, and others) is regulated by the Federal government under treaties with Canada and Mexico since the birds do not recognize international political boundaries. The states usually adminster the federally-set regulations. One task of Federal and state park rangers and game wardens is to enforce laws and regulations related to hunting, included species protection, hunting seasons, and hunting bans. Hunting can be an important tool for wildlife management. Hunting gives resource managers a valuable tool to control populations of some species that might otherwise exceed the carrying capacity of their habitat and threaten the well-being of other wildlife species, and in some instances, that of human health and safety [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/]. Hunting reduces the annual crop of new animals and birds to allow the remaining animals sufficient feed and shelter to survive. An example of using hunters in wildlife management can be found in the "Snow, Blue and Ross' Goose Conservation Order 2005." [http://www.agfc.com/rules_regs/hunting_regs_migratory_conservation_order.html] The Conservation Order allows hunters, after all other waterfowl seasons are closed, to shoot an unlimited number of these species of geese. The reason for the Conservation Order is that these species have grown so numerous that they are destroying the Arctic environment which many species of animals use as breeding grounds. Many Native American hunters claim subsistence hunting rights as a traditional part of their culture. In certain cases (such as the Marine Mammal Protection Act), Federal law provides protection for Native Americans. This is particularly true in Alaska, where people still feed on sea and land mammals as well as fish and birds. It is common for rural Alaska Native communities to obtain 50-90% of their daily protein from hunting. Varmint hunting is the killing of animals seen as pests and animals that are not normally considered as game species. While not an efficient form of pest control (poisoning and trapping are much more effective), it does provide recreation and is currently the fastest growing area of hunting. Varmint species are often responsible for detrimental effects on crops, livestock, landscaping, infrastructure, and pets. Animals may be utilized for fur or meat, but often no use is made of the carcass. Which species are "varmints" depends on the circumstance and area. Common varmints include various rodents, coyotes, crows, foxes, feral cats, and feral hogs. Some animals once considered varmints are now protected, such as wolves. Animal management authorities sometimes rely on hunting to control certain animal populations. These hunts are sometimes carried out by professional hunters although other hunts include amateurs. Overpopulations of deer in urban parks and bears which have attacked humans might be hunted by animal management authorities. Modern hunting is done with a plethora of weapons. The three most common being:guns, bows, and muzzleloaders. Some prefer bowhunting and bowfishing, as they may consider such hunting methods more challenging.

Depiction of hunt in Popular Culture

While there are numerous hunting shows, television programs, magazines and merchandise, some popular entertainment also condemns sport hunting. This is most obvious in animation which often depicts hunting from the hunted animal's point of view and furthermore has the audience's sympathy as the animal either usually escapes or successfully defends itself. Hence, the hunter is often presented as the antagonist. This can range from the humorous such as Bugs Bunny fighting off Elmer Fudd to the dramatic (and absurdly-inaccurate) as in Bambi. In contrast, filmed depictions of hunting by aboriginal cultures like Native American ones are treated with much more sympathy with the implied idea that they are hunting for what they need to survive and no more. (This "implied idea" actually continues to be the case in many Alaskan Bush communities today.)[http://tunt.blogspot.com/2005/03/30-hunting-for-subsistence.html] Varmint hunting of prairie dogs is depicted in John Ross' novel "Unintended Consequences". A favorable depiction of hunting is found in L.Neil Smith's science fiction novel 'Pallas'.

See also


- Hunting horn in the U.S.

External links


- [http://www.justinalexander.net/huntingethics.htm Ethics of Hunting] - a philosophy thesis on the ethical arguments for and against hunting, including a section focusing on Christian ethics.
- [http://www.surviveoutdoors.com/reference/huntingsafety.asp Hunting Safety]
- [http://www.fws.gov/ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service website]
- [http://www.fws.gov/hunting/huntstat.html U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service statistics]
- [http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/ Texas Parks and Wildlife Commission as an example of state agencies]
- [http://www.booneman.com/ Michigan based grassroots hunting, fishing and habitat forum]
- [http://www.boone-crockett.org/huntingEthics/ethics_fairchase.asp?area=huntingEthics Boone and Crockett Club "Fair Chase" Statement]
- [http://www.scifirstforhunters.org/ Safari Club International] Category:Survival skills Category:Blood sports Category:Archery
- ja:狩猟

Fishing

Fishing is the activity of hunting for fish. By extension, the term fishing is also applied to hunting for other aquatic animals such as various types of shellfish as well as squid, octopus, turtles, frogs and some edible marine invertebrates. The term fishing is usually not applied to the hunting of aquatic mammals such as whales. Fishing is an ancient and worldwide practice with many techniques and traditions, and it has been transformed by modern technological developments.

Fishing in antiquity

Origins

whales Fishing is a very ancient practice that dates back at least to the Mesolithic period which began about 10,000 years ago. We know from archaeological features such as shell middens [http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/arch/middens/index.htm], discarded fish bones and cave paintings that sea foods were important and consumed in significant quantities. During this time, most people lived a hunter-gather life style and were, of necessity, constantly on the move. However, where there are a few early examples of permanent settlements (though not necessarily permanently occupied) such as those at Lepenski Vir, they are almost always associated with fishing as a major source of food. The neolithic culture and technology spread worldwide between about 8,000 and 4,000 years ago. With the new technologies of farming and pottery came the basic forms of most fishing methods known today. Fishing may even pre-date the development of modern humans. There is a controversial theory called the aquatic ape hypothesis which proposes that the ancestors of modern humans went through one or more periods of time living in a semi-aquatic setting and that they gathered most of their food from shallow coastal or other waters before their descendants returned to a more land-based existence.

Ancient archaeology

Ancient representations

aquatic ape hypothesis The ancient river Nile was full of fish; fresh and dried fish were a staple food for much of the population. The Egyptians invented various implements and methods for fishing and these are clearly illustrated in tomb scenes, drawings, and papyrus documents. Simple reed boats served for fishing. Woven nets, weir baskets made from willow branches, harpoons and hook and line (the hooks having a length of between eight millimetres and eighteen centimetres) were all being used. By the 12th dynasty, metal hooks with barbs were being used. As is fairly common today, the fish were clubbed to death after capture. Nile perch, catfish and eels were among the most important fish. Some representations hint at fishing being pursued as a pastime. Fishing scenes are rarely represented in ancient Greek culture, a reflection of the low social status of fishing. There is a wine cup, dating from 510–500 BC, that shows a boy crouched on a rock with a fishing-rod in his right hand and a basket in his left. In the water below, a rounded object of the same material with an opening on the top. This has been identified as a fish-cage used for keeping live fish, or as a fish-trap. It is clearly not a net. This object is currently in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. [http://www.mfa.org/collections/search_art.asp?recview=true&id=153702&coll_keywords=fishing&coll_accession=&coll_name=&coll_artist=&coll_place=&coll_medium=&coll_culture=&coll_classification=&coll_credit=&coll_provenance=&coll_location=&coll_has_images=&coll_on_view=&coll_sort=0&coll_sort_order=0&coll_package=0&coll_start=71 Image:Ancient angler] ancient Greek Pictorial evidence of Roman fishing comes from mosaics which show fishing from boats with rod and line as well as nets. Various species such as conger, lobster, sea urchin, octopus and cuttlefish are illustrated. [http://museum.agropolis.fr/english/pages/expos/aliments/poissons/images/mosaique.htm Image of Roman mosaic]. In a parody of fishing, a type of gladiator called retiarius was armed with a trident and a casting-net. He would fight against the murmillo, who carried a short sword and a helmet with the image of a fish on the front. The Greco-Roman sea god Neptune is depicted as wielding a fishing trident.

Ancient literature

There are numerous references to fishing in ancient literature; in most cases, however, the descriptions of nets and fishing-gear do not go into detail, and the equipment is described in general terms. An early example from the Bible in Job 41:7: Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? or his head with fish spears? [http://bible.tmtm.com/wiki/Job_Chapter_41] The Greek historian Polybius ((ca 203 BC-120 BC), in his Histories, describes hunting for swordfish by using a harpoon with a barbed and detachable head. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Plb.+34.3] Oppian of Corycus, a Greek author wrote a major treatise on sea fishing, the Halieulica or Halieutika, composed between 177 and 180. This is the ealiest such work to have survived intact to the modern day. Oppian describes various means of fishing including the use of nets cast from boats, scoop nets held open by a hoop, spears and tridents, and various traps “which work while their masters sleep”. Oppian’s description of fishing with a “motionless” net is also very interesting: :The fishers set up very light nets of buoyant flax and wheel in a circle round about while they violently strike the surface of the sea with their oars and make a din with sweeping blow of poles. At the flashing of the swift oars and the noise the fish bound in terror and rush into the bosom of the net which stands at rest, thinking it to be a shelter: foolish fishes which, frightened by a noise, enter the gates of doom. Then the fishers on either side hasten with the ropes to draw the net ashore. From ancient representations and literature it is clear that fishing boats were typically small, lacking a mast or sail, and were only used close to the shore. In traditional Chinese history, history begins with three semi-mystical and legendary individuals who taught the Chinese the arts of civilization around 2800-2600 BC: of these Fu Hsi was reputed to be the inventor of writing, hunting, trapping, and fishing.

Fishing techniques

Hand fishing

It is possible to fish with minimal equipment by using only the hands. In the USA catching catfish in this way is known as noodling. In the British Isles, the practice of catching trout by hand is known as trout tickling; it is an art mentioned several times in the plays of Shakespeare. Trout binning is a method of fishing, possibly fictional, performed with a sledgehammer. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11267] Divers can catch lobsters by hand. Pearl diving is the practice of hunting for oysters by free-diving to depths of up to 30 m. Hand-line fishing is a technique requiring a fishing line with a weight and one or more lure-like hooks.

Spear and bow fishing

Spear fishing is an ancient method of fishing and may be conducted with an ordinary spear or a specialised variant such as an eel spear ([http://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/claremuseum/riches_of_clare/water/eel_spear2.htm Image]) or the trident. A small trident type spear with a long handle is used in the American South and Midwest for "gigging" bullfrogs with a bright light at night, or for gigging carp and other trash fish in the shallows. Traditional spear fishing is restricted to shallow waters, but the development of the speargun has made the method much more efficient. With practice, divers are able to hold their breath for up to four minutes; of course, a diver with underwater breathing equipment can dive for much longer periods. Hunter gatherers may use the bow to kill fish in shallow water.

Fishing nets

bow All fishing nets are meshes usually formed by knotting a relatively thin thread. Modern nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon, although nets of organic polyamides such as wool or silk thread were common until recently and are still used in certain areas. A small hand net held open by a hoop and possibly on the end of a long stiff handle has been known since antiquity and may be used for sweeping up fish near the water surface. Such a net used by an angler to aid in landing a captured fish is known as a landing net. In England, hand netting is the only legal way of catching eels and has been practiced for thousands of years on the River Parrett and River Severn. A casting net is circular with a weighted periphery. Sizes vary up to about 4 m diameter. The net is thrown by hand in such a manner that it speads out on the water and sinks. Fish are caught as the net is hauled back in. [http://www.nccoastalfishing.com/index.htm?casting.htm~main]. River Severn 1972]] Coracle-fishing is performed by two men, each seated in his coracle and with one hand holding the net while, with the other, he plies his paddle. When a fish is caught, each hauls up his end of the net until the two coracles are brought to touch and the fish is then secured. The Chinese fishing nets (Cheena vala) found at Kochi in India are an unusual method of fishing. Huge mechanical contrivances hold out horizontal nets of 20 m or more across. The nets are dipped into the water and raised again, but otherwise cannot be moved. A seine is a large fishing net that hangs vertically in the water by attaching weights along the bottom edge and floats along the top. Trawling is a method of fishing that involves actively pulling a fishing net through the water behind one or more boats. A gillnet catches fish which try to pass through it by snagging on the gill covers. Thus trapped, the fish can neither advance trough the net nor retreat. Ghost nets are nets that have been lost at sea. They may continue to be a menace to wildlife for many years.

Dredging

There are types of dredges used for collecting scallops or oysters from the seabed. They tend to have the form of a scoop made of chain mesh and they are towed by a fishing boat. Scallop dredging is very destructive to the seabed, and nowadays is often replaced by mariculture or by scuba diving to collect the scallops.

Fishing lines

Fish are caught with a fishing line by encouraging a fish to bite upon a fish hook or a gorge. A fishing hook will pierce the mouthparts of a fish and may be barbed to make escape less likely. A gorge is buried in the bait such that it would be swallowed end first. The the tightening of the line would fix it cross-wise in the quarry's stomach or gullet and so the capture would be assured. Fishing with a hook and line is called angling. Trolling is a technique in which a fishing lure on a line is drawn through the water. Trolling from a moving boat is a technique of big-game fishing and is used when fishing from boats to catch large open-water species such as tuna and marlin. Trolling is also a freshwater angling technique. Long-line fishing is a commercial fishing technique that uses hundreds or even thousands of baited hooks hanging from a single line.

Kite fishing

Kite fishing was invented in China and was (and is) also known to the people of New Guinea and other Pacific Islands. It is not clear whether kite fishing was communicated or of independent invention. Suitable kites may be of very simple construction. Those of Tobi Island are a large leaf stiffened by the ribs of the fronds of the coconut palm. The fishing line may be made from coconut fibre and the lure made from spiders webs. Kites can provide the boatless fishermen access to waters that would otherwise be available only to boats. Similarly, for boat owners, kites provide a way to fish in areas where it is not safe to navigate such as shallows or coral reefs where fish may be plentiful. Kites can also be used for trolling a lure through the water.

Ice fishing

See main article Ice fishing. Ice fishing is the practice of catching fish with lines and hooks through an opening in the ice on a frozen body of water. It is practiced by hunter-gatherers such as the Inuit and by sportsmen in many cold climates.

Fish traps

Traps are culturally almost universal and seem to have been independently invented many times. There are essentially two types of trap, a permanent or semi-permanent structure placed in a river or tidal area and pot-traps that are baited to attract prey and periodically lifted. Indigenous Australians were, prior to European colonisation, most populous in Australia's better-watered areas such as the Murray-Darling river system of the south-east. Here, where water levels fluctuate seasonally, indigenous people constructed ingenious, stone, fish traps. Unfortunately most have been completely or partially destroyed. The largest and best known were the Brewarrina fish traps on the Barwon River at Brewarrina in New South Wales, which fortunately are at least partly preserved [http://www.deh.gov.au/heritage/national/sites/brewarrina.html]. The Brewarinna fish traps caught huge numbers of migratory native fish as the Barwon River rose in flood and then fell. In southern Victoria, indigenous people created an elaborate systems of canals, some more than 2 km long. The purpose of these canals was the encouragement and catching of eels, a fish of short coastal rivers (as opposed to rivers of the Murray-Darling system). The eels were caught by a variety of traps including stone walls constructed across canals with a net placed across an opening in the wall. Traps at different levels in the marsh came into operation as the water level rose and fell. Somewhat similar stone wall traps were constructed by native American Pit River people in north-eastern California. [http://www.primitiveways.com/ajumawi_fish_traps.html] In medieval Europe, large fishing weir structures were constructed from wood posts and wattle fences. 'V' shaped structures in rivers could be as long as 60 m and worked by directing fish towards fish traps or nets. Such fish traps were evidently controversial in medieval England. The Magna Carta includes a clause requiring that they be removed: :All fish-weirs shall be removed from the Thames, the Medway, and throughout the whole of England, except on the sea coast. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/magnacarta.html] Basket weir fish traps were widely used in ancient times. They are shown in medieval illustrations and surviving examples have been found. Basket weirs are about 2 m long and comprise two wicker cones, one inside the other — easy to get into and hard to get out. [http://www.le.ac.uk/ulas/annualreports/ar99-00/hemington/hemington.html] Magna Carta The Wagenya people, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, build a huge system of wooden tripod across the river. These tripods are anchored on the holes naturally carved in the rock by the water current. To these tripods are anchored large baskets, which are lowered in the rapids to “sieve” the waters for fish. It is a very selective fishing, as these baskets are quite big and only large size fish are entrapped. Twice a day the adults Wagenya people pull out these baskets to check if there is any fish caught; in which case somebody will dive into the river to fetch it. Pot traps are typically used to catch crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters and crayfish. Pot traps such as the lobster trap may be constructed in various shapes, each is a mesh box designed with a convoluted entrance that makes entry much easier than exit. The pots are baited and lowered into the water and checked daily. Similar traps are used in many areas to capture bait fish.

Trained animals

bait fish In China and Japan, the practice of cormorant fishing is thought to date back some 1300 years. Fishermen use the natural fish-hunting instincts of the cormorants to catch fish, but a metal ring placed round the bird's neck prevents large, valuable fish being swallowed. The fish are instead collected by the fisherman. [http://www.city.gifu.gifu.jp/kankou/08_eng_01.html] The practice of tethering a remora, a sucking fish, to a fishing line and using the remora to capture sea turtles probably originated in the Indian Ocean. The earliest surviving records of the practice are Peter Martyr d'Anghera's 1511 accounts of the second voyage of Columbus to the New World (1494)[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12425/12425-h/12425-h.htm]. However, these accounts are probably apocryphal, and based on earlier accounts no longer extant. Dating from the 1500s in Portugal, Portuguese Water Dogs were used by fishermen to send messages between boats, to retrieve fish and articles from the water, and to guard the fishing boats.

Toxins

Many hunter gatherer cultures use poisonous plants to stun fish so that they become easy to collect by hand. Some of these poisons paralyze the fish, others are thought to work by removing oxygen from the water. [http://tk.agron.ntu.edu.tw/Segawa1/fishing_poison.htm] Cyanides are used to capture live fish near coral reefs for the aquarium and seafood market. This illegal fishing occurs mainly in or near the Philippines, Indonesia, and the Caribbean to supply the 2 million marine aquarium owners in the world. Many fish caught in this fashion die either immediately or in shipping. Those that survive often die from shock or from massive digestive damage. The high concentrations of cyanide on reefs so harvested damages the coral polyps and has also resulted in cases of cyanide poisoning among local fishermen and their families.

Explosives

Dynamite or blast fishing, is done easily and cheaply with dynamite or homemade bombs made from locally available materials. Fish are killed by the shock from the blast and are then skimmed from the surface or collected from the bottom. The explosions indiscriminately kill large numbers of fish and other marine organisms in the vicinity and can damage or destroy the physical environment. Explosions are particularly harmful to coral reefs[http://stigmes.gr/br/brpages/articles/dinambr.htm]. Blast fishing is also illegal in many waterways around the world.

Modern fishing

Recreational fishing

homemade bombs Main article Angling Recreational fishing and the closely related (nearly synonymous) sport fishing describe fishing for pleasure or competition. Recreational fishi