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James Monroe

James Monroe

James Monroe (April 28, 1758 – July 4, 1831) was the fifth (1817–1825) President of the United States. He is the author of the Monroe Doctrine, although his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, convinced Monroe that the original statement be expanded, and therefore softened, so as to be more palatable to the powers of Europe. There is confusion that Adams conceived the Doctrine himself, which is not true, although he did work with Monroe to flesh out the original concept.

Early years

Born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, Monroe attended the school of Campbelltown Academy and received his education at the College of William and Mary, both in Virginia. After graduating from William & Mary in 1776, Monroe fought with distinction in the Continental Army and practiced law in Fredericksburg, Virginia. His father Spence Monroe (ca. 1727-1774) was a carpenter, joiner, and modest tobacco planter. He and his wife, Elizabeth Jones (born ca. 1729) had significant land holdings, but little money. He was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates in 1782, and then he served in the Continental Congress from 1783-1786. As a youthful politician, he joined the anti-Federalists in the Virginia Convention which ratified the Constitution, and in 1790, an advocate of Jeffersonian policies, was elected United States Senator. As Minister to France in 1794-1796, he displayed strong sympathies for the French cause; later, with Robert R. Livingston and under the direction of President Thomas Jefferson, he helped negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. He was Governor of Virginia 1799-1802. He was Minister to France again in 1803 and then Minister to Britain from 1803-1807. He received three electoral votes for vice president in 1808. He then returned to the Virginia House of Delegates and then he was elected to an another term as Governor of Virginia in 1811, but he resigned a few months into the term. He then served as Secretary of State from 1811-1814 and again from 1815-1817. Finally he served as Secretary of War from 1814-1815.

Presidency

Following the War of 1812, Monroe was elected president in the election of 1816, and re-elected in 1820. In both those elections Monroe went nearly uncontested. re-elected in 1820 Monroe made strong Cabinet choices, naming a Southerner, John C. Calhoun, as Secretary of War, and a Northerner, John Quincy Adams, as Secretary of State. Only Henry Clay's refusal kept Monroe from adding an outstanding Westerner. Both of these individuals are considered outstanding leaders of their time. Monroe's presidency was later labeled "The Era of Good Feelings", in part because partisan politics were almost nonexistent. The Federalist Party dwindled and eventually died out, starting with the Hartford Convention, and the rift between the Democratic Party and the Whig Party had not yet come to pass. Practically every politician belonged to the Democratic-Republican Party. Unfortunately these "good feelings" did not endure, although Monroe, his popularity undiminished, followed nationalist policies. Across the facade of nationalism, ugly sectional cracks appeared. A painful economic depression undoubtedly increased the dismay of the people of the Missouri Territory in 1819 when their application for admission to the Union as a slave state failed. An amended bill for gradually eliminating slavery in Missouri precipitated two years of bitter debate in Congress. The Missouri Compromise bill resolved the struggle, pairing Missouri as a slave state with Maine, a free state, and barring slavery north and west of Missouri forever. Monroe is probably best known for the Monroe Doctrine, which he delivered in his message to Congress on December 2, 1823. In it, he proclaimed the Americas should be free from future European colonization and free from European interference in sovereign countries' affairs. It further stated the United States's intention to stay neutral in European wars and wars between European powers and their colonies but to consider any new colonies or interference with independent countries in the Americas as hostile acts toward the United States. Monroe did not begin formally to recognize the young sister republics until 1822, after ascertaining that Congress would vote appropriations for diplomatic missions. He and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams wished to avoid trouble with Spain until it had ceded the Floridas, as was done in 1821. The United Kingdom, with its powerful navy, also opposed reconquest of Latin America and suggested that the United States join in proclaiming "hands off." Ex-Presidents Jefferson and Madison counseled Monroe to accept the offer, but Secretary Adams advised, "It would be more candid ... to avow our principles explicitly to Russia and France, than to come in as a cock-boat in the wake of the British man-of-war." Monroe accepted Adams's advice. Not only must Latin America be left alone, he warned, but also Russia must not encroach southward on the Pacific coast. "... the American continents," he stated, "by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European Power." Some 20 years after Monroe died in 1831, this became known as the Monroe Doctrine.

Post-Presidency

Upon leaving the White House after Monroe's presidency expired on March 4, 1825, James Monroe had racked up debts over the years of public life. As a result, he was forced to sell off his Highland plantation (now called Ash Lawn-Highland, it is owned by College of William and Mary which has opened it to the public) to pay off the debts, since then he never financially recovered, his wife's poor health made matters worse. [http://www.ashlawnhighland.org] As a result, he and his wife Elizabeth lived in Oak Hill until Elizabeth's death on September 23, 1830. Upon Elizabeth's death, Monroe moved to live with his daughter Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur in New York City and died there peacefully from heart failure and tuberculosis on July 4, 1831; 55 years after the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed and 5 years after the death of Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. He was originally buried in New York but, in 1858 he was reinterred in the President's Circle at Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia.

Cabinet



Supreme Court appointments

Monroe appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:
- Smith Thompson - 1823

States admitted to the Union


- Mississippi – December 10, 1817
- Illinois – December 3, 1818
- Alabama – December 14, 1819
- Maine – March 15, 1820
- Missouri – August 10, 1821

Trivia


- Monroe remains the only president to have held two Cabinet secretary positions. He served as Secretary of State and Secretary of War under James Madison.
- Apart from George Washington and Washington DC, James Monroe is the only US President to have had a country's capital city named after him - that of Monrovia in Liberia which was founded by the American Colonization Society in 1822 as a haven for freed slaves.

External links


- [http://www.ashlawnhighland.org/ The Presidential Home of James Monroe (College of William and Mary)]
- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/monroepa.htm The Papers of James Monroe] at the Avalon Project (includes Inaugural Addresses and other materials)
- [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Monroe.html Monroe Doctrine and related resources at the Library of Congress]
- [http://www.algerclan.org/cgi-bin/igmget.cgi/n=Alger?I8949 A genealogical profile of the President]
- [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jm5.html White House Biography]
- [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g05.htm James Monroe's Health and Medical History]
- Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe, James Monroe Monroe, James Monroe, James ko:제임스 먼로 ja:ジェームズ・モンロー

April 28

April 28 is the 118th day of the year (119th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 247 days remaining.

Events


- 1253 - Nichiren, a Japanese Buddhist monk, propounds Nam Myoho Renge Kyo for the first time and declares it to be the essence of Buddhism, in effect founding Nichiren Buddhism.
- 1788 - Maryland becomes the 7th state to ratify the Constitution of the United States.
- 1789 - Mutiny on the HMS Bounty. Captain William Bligh and 18 sailors are set adrift and the rebel crew sets sail for Pitcairn Island.
- 1796 - The Armistice of Cherasco is signed by Napoleon Bonaparte and Vittorio Amedeo III, the King of Sardinia, expanding French territory along the Mediterranean coast.
- 1862 - American Civil War: Admiral David Farragut captures New Orleans, Louisiana.
- 1920 - Azerbaijan is added to the Soviet Union.
- 1930 - The first night game in organized baseball history takes place in Independence, Kansas.
- 1932 - A vaccine for yellow fever is announced for use on humans.
- 1945 - Benito Mussolini and his mistress Clara Petacci are executed by members of the Italian resistance movement.
- 1947 - Thor Heyerdahl and five crewmates set out from Peru on the Kon-Tiki to prove that Peruvian natives could have settled Polynesia.
- 1950 - King of Thailand, Bhumibol Adulyadej, got married with his queen,Queen Sirikit, after their quiet engagement in Lausanne, Switzerland on July 19, 1949.
- 1952 - Dwight D. Eisenhower resigns as Supreme Commander of NATO in order to run for President of the United States.
- 1952 - Occupied Japan: The United States occupation of Japan ends.
- 1965 - United States troops land in the Dominican Republic to "forestall establishment of a Communist dictatorship" and to evacuate U.S. citizens.
- 1967 - Expo 67 opens in Montréal, Québec, Canada
- 1969 - Charles de Gaulle resigns as President of France.
- 1970 - Vietnam War: U.S. President Richard M. Nixon formally authorizes American combat troops to fight communist sanctuaries in Cambodia.
- 1977 - The Red Army Faction trial ends, with Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin and Jan-Carl Raspe found guilty of four counts of murder and more than 30 counts of attempted murder.
- 1977 - The Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure is signed.
- 1978 - President of Afghanistan Mohammed Daoud Khan is overthrown and assassinated in a coup led by pro-communist rebels.
- 1981 - Galician current Statute of Autonomy
- 1987 - U.S. engineer Ben Linder is killed in an ambush by US-funded Contras in northern Nicaragua.
- 1988 - Near Maui, Hawaii, a flight attendant is sucked out of Aloha Flight 243, a Boeing 737, and falls to her death when an upper part of the plane's cabin area rips off in mid-flight. Metal fatigue is later found to be the cause of the failure.
- 1990 - After 6,237 performances, the Broadway musical A Chorus Line closes.
- 1994 - Former Central Intelligence Agency official Aldrich Ames pleads guilty to giving U.S. secrets to the Soviet Union and later Russia.
- 1996 - Whitewater scandal: President Bill Clinton gives 4 1/2 hour videotaped testimony for the defense.
- 1996 - Port Arthur massacre: Martin Bryant kills 35 people and wounds another 18 in Tasmania, Australia.
- 1997 - The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention goes into effect. Russia, Iraq and North Korea were notable nations who had not ratified the treaty.
- 2001 - Millionnaire Dennis Tito becomes the world's first space tourist.
- 2003 - Apple Computer's iTunes Music Store launches, selling 1 million songs in its first week.
- 2003 - Iraq, 15 unarmed teenagers were killed by american forces in front of a school during a demostration; marking the beginning of the Falluja riots that took place during April 2003.
- 2004 - Pictures of abuse and torture of prisoners by U.S. armed forces at Abu Ghraib prison are first shown on 60 minutes.
- 2005 - The Patent Law Treaty goes into effect.

Births


- 1442 - King Edward IV of England (d. 1483)
- 1630 - Charles Cotton, English poet (d. 1687)
- 1686 - Michael Brokoff, Czech sculptor (d. 1721)
- 1715 - Franz Sparry, composer (d. 1767)
- 1758 - James Monroe, 5th President of the United States (d. 1831)
- 1819 - Ezra Abbot, American Bible scholar (d. 1884)
- 1838 - Tobias Michael Carel Asser, Dutch jurist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1913)
- 1874 - Karl Kraus, Austrian journalist and author (d. 1936)
- 1878 - Lionel Barrymore, American actor (d. 1954)
- 1886 - Ğabdulla Tuqay, Russian poet (d. 1913)
- 1889 - António de Oliveira Salazar, dictator of Portugal (d. 1970)
- 1900 - Jan Oort, Dutch astronomer (d. 1992)
- 1903 - Johan Borgen, Norwegian author (d. 1979)
- 1906 - Kurt Gödel, Austrian mathematician (d. 1978)
- 1906 - Paul Sacher, Swiss conductor (d. 1999)
- 1908 - Oskar Schindler, Austrian businessman (d. 1974)
- 1912 - Odette Sansom, French spy (d. 1995)
- 1916 - Ferruccio Lamborghini, Italian automobile manufacturer (d. 1993)
- 1921 - Rowland Evans, American journalist and commentator (d. 2001)
- 1924 - Kenneth Kaunda, President of Zambia
- 1926 - Harper Lee, American author
- 1928 - Yves Klein, French painter (d. 1962)
- 1928 - Eugene M. Shoemaker, American planetary scientist (d. 1997)
- 1930 - James Baker, American politician
- 1930 - Carolyn Jones, American actress (d. 1983)
- 1937 - Saddam Hussein, former leader of Iraq
- 1938 - Madge Sinclair, Jamaican actress (d. 1995)
- 1941 - Ann-Margret, Swedish-born actress
- 1941 - K. Barry Sharpless, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1943 - Jacques Dutronc, French singer and actor
- 1944 - Jean-Claude Van Cauwenberghe, Belgian politician
- 1948 - Terry Pratchett, English author
- 1948 - Marcia Strassman, American actress
- 1950 - Jay Leno, American comedian and television host
- 1952 - Mary McDonnell, American actress
- 1953 - Kim Gordon, American musician (Sonic Youth)
- 1955 - Paul Guilfoyle, American actor
- 1956 - Jimmy Barnes, Scottish-born singer
- 1958 - Hal Sutton, American golfer
- 1960 - John Cerutti, baseball player and announcer (d. 2004)
- 1966 - John Daly, American golfer
- 1966 - Too $hort, American rapper
- 1970 - Nicklas Lidström, Swedish Hockey player
- 1970 - Diego Simeone, Argentine footballer
- 1973 - Elisabeth Röhm, American actress
- 1974 - Penélope Cruz, Spanish actress
- 1974 - Richel Hersisia, Dutch boxer
- 1979 - Jorge Garcia, American actor
- 1981 - Jessica Alba, American actress

Deaths


- 1192 - Conrad of Montferrat, King of Jerusalem
- 1498 - Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, English politician (killed in battle)
- 1533 - Nicholas West, English bishop and diplomat (b. 1461)
- 1695 - Henry Vaughan, Welsh poet (b. 1621)
- 1710 - Thomas Betterton, English actor
- 1726 - Thomas Pitt, British Governor of Madras (b. 1653)
- 1772 - Johann Friedrich Struensee, physician of Christian VII of Denmark (b. 1737)
- 1781 - Cornelius Harnett, American delegate to the Continental Congress]] (b. 1723)
- 1813 - Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov, Russian field marshal (b. 1745)
- 1816 - Johann Heinrich Abicht, German philosopher (b. 1862)
- 1841 - Peter Chanel, French saint (b. 1803)
- 1853 - Ludwig Tieck, German writer (b. 1773)
- 1858 - Johannes Peter Müller, German physiologist (b. 1801)
- 1905 - Fitzhugh Lee, American Confederate general (b. 1835)
- 1926 - Zip the Pinhead, American freak show performer (b. 1857)
- 1945 - Benito Mussolini, Italian fascist dictator (b. 1882)
- 1945 - Clara Petacci, Italian mistress of Benito Mussolini (shot) (b. 1912)
- 1945 - Roberto Farinacci, Italian fascist (b. 1892)
- 1954 - Léon Jouhaux, French labor leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1879)
- 1973 - Clas Thunberg, Finnish speed skater (d. 1893)
- 1978 - Sardar Mohammed Daoud, President of Afghanistan (shot) (b. 1909)
- 1970 - Ed Begley, American actor (b. 1901)
- 1992 - Francis Bacon, Anglo-Irish painter (b. 1909)
- 1992 - Iceberg Slim, American writer (b. 1918)
- 1993 - Jim Valvano, American basketball coach (b. 1946)
- 1999 - Rory Calhoun, American actor (b. 1922)
- 1999 - Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921)
- 2000 - Penelope Fitzgerald, English writer (b. 1916)
- 2002 - Alexander Lebed, Russian general (b. 1950)
- 2002 - Lou Thesz, American wrestler (b. 1916)
- 2005 - Chris Candido, professional wrestler (b. 1972)

Holidays and observances


- Roman Empire - first day of the Floralia in honor of Flora
- Bahá'í Faith - Feast of Jamál (Beauty) - First day of the third month of the Bahá'í Calendar
- [http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/worldday/ World Day for Safety and Health at Work]
- Feast day of the following saints in the Roman Catholic Church:
  - Saints Theodora and Didymus
  - Arthemius
  - Saints Vitalis and Valeria
  - Patritius
  - Luchesius
  - Louis Marie Grignon of Montfort
  - Peter Chanel

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/28 BBC: On This Day] ---- April 27 - April 29 - March 28 - May 28 – listing of all days ko:4월 28일 ms:28 April ja:4月28日 simple:April 28 th:28 เมษายน

1758

1758 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events


- April 29 - Battle of the Bay of Bengal - A French fleet under Sir George Pocock engages the French fleet of Anne Antoine d'Aché indecisively near Madras.
- May 21 - Mary Campbell is abducted from her home in Pennsylvania by Lenape during the French and Indian War.
- June 12 - French and Indian War: Siege of Louisbourg - James Wolfe's attack at Louisbourg, Nova Scotia commences.
- June 23 - Seven Years' War: Battle of Krefeld - Anglo-Hanoverian forces under Ferdinand of Brunswick defeat the French.
- July 8 - French and Indian War: French forces hold Fort Carillon against British at Ticonderoga, New York.
- July 25 - French and Indian War: The island battery at Fortress Louisbourg is silenced and all French warships are destroyed or taken.
- August 3 - Battle of Negapatam - Off the coast of India, Admiral Pocock again engages d'Aché's French fleet, this time with more success.
- August 25 - Battle of Zorndorf - Frederick defeats the Russian army of Count Wilhelm Fermor near the Oder.
- September 3 - the Tavora affair - attempted assassination of Joseph I of Portugal
- September 14 - French and Indian War: a British attack on Fort Duquesne is defeated.
- October 14 - Battle of Hochkirch - Frederick loses a hard-fought battle against the Austrians under Marshal Leopold von Daun, who besieges Dresden.
- November 25 - French and Indian War: French forces abandon Fort Duquesne to British control.
- December 25 - Halley's Comet appears for the first time after Halley's discovery of it.
- First European settlement in what is now Erie County by the French at the mouth of Buffalo Creek.
- Pope Clement XIII ascends to papacy
- Rudjer Boscovich publishes his atomic theory in Theoria philosophiae naturalis redacta ad unicam legem virium in nalura existentium
- James Abercromby replaces the earl of Loudoun as supreme commander in the American colonies. He is replaced himself after failing to take the fort at Ticonderoga.

Ongoing events


- French and Indian War (1754-1763)
- Seven Years' War (1756-1763)

Births


- April 28 - James Monroe, 5th President of the United States (d. 1831)
- May 6 - André Masséna, French marshall (d. 1817)
- May 6 - Maximilien Robespierre, French revolutionary (executed) (d. 1794)
- May 17 - John St Aubyn, British fossil collector (d. 1839)
- August 5 - Emperor Go-Momozono of Japan (d. 1779)
- September 29 - Horatio Nelson, British admiral (d. 1805)
- October 16 - Noah Webster, American lexicographer (d. 1843)
- Charles d'Abancourt, French statesman (murdered in prison) (d. 1792)
- Kamehameha I, King of Hawaii

Deaths


- January 7 - Allan Ramsay, Scottish poet (b. 1686)
- February 10 - Thomas Ripley, English architect
- March 2 - Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (b. 1679)
- March 6 - Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington, English politician
- March 22 - Jonathan Edwards, American minister (b. 1703)
- March 22 - Richard Leveridge, English bass and composer (b. 1670)
- April 22 - Antoine de Jussieu, French naturalist (b. 1686)
- April 30 - François d'Agincourt, French composer (b. 1684)
- May 3 - Pope Benedict XIV (b. 1675)
- June 12 - Augustus William, Prince of Prussia (b. 1722)
- July 6 - George Howe, 3rd Viscount Howe, British general (killed in battle)
- October 12 - Richard Molesworth, 3rd Viscount Molesworth, British field marshal (b. 1680)
- October 14 - Francis Edward James Keith, Scottish soldier and Prussian field marshal (b. 1696)
- November 5 - Hans Egede, Norwegian Lutheran missionary (b. 1686)
- November 20 - Johan Helmich Roman, Swedish composer (b. 1694)
- November 22 - Richard Edgcumbe, 1st Baron Edgcumbe, English politician (b. 1680)
- December 5 - Johann Friedrich Fasch, German composer (b. 1688)
- December 25 - James Hervey, English clergyman and writer (b. 1714) Category:1758 ko:1758년

July 4

July 4 is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 180 days remaining. The phrase "Fourth of July" has acquired widespread significance in American lingo as a reference to the Independence Day celebration in the United States and that celebration's many cultural accoutrements.

Events


- 993 - Saint Ulrich of Augsburg canonized.
- 1054 - A supernova is observed by the Chinese and Amerindians near the star ζ Tauri. For several months it remains bright enough to be seen during the day. Its remnants form the Crab Nebula.
- 1187 - Saladin defeats Guy of Lusignan, King of Jerusalem, at the Battle of Hattin.
- 1584 - Sir Walter Ralegh first sees the coast of North Carolina
- 1636 - City of Providence, Rhode Island forms.
- 1712 - 12 slaves are executed in New York for starting an uprising that killed 9 whites
- 1776 - American Revolutionary War: The Continental Congress approves a Declaration of Independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain.
- 1802 - At West Point, New York the United States Military Academy opens.
- 1803 - The Louisiana Purchase is announced to the American people.
- 1810 - The French occupy Amsterdam.
- 1817 - At Rome, New York, United States, construction on the Erie Canal begins.
- 1826 - Fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, on which John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, two of America's Founding Fathers, died.
- 1827 - Slavery is abolished in New York State.
- 1831 - James Monroe dies on the fifty-fifth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence.
- 1837 - Grand Junction Railway, world's first long-distance railway, opens between Birmingham and Liverpool.
- 1838 - The Iowa Territory is organized.
- 1840 - The Cunard Line's 700 ton wooden paddle steamer RMS Britannia departs from Liverpool bound for Halifax, Nova Scotia on the first transatlantic passenger cruise.
- 1845 - Near Concord, Massachusetts, Henry David Thoreau embarks on a two-year experiment in simple living at Walden Pond (see Walden).
- 1855 - In Brooklyn, New York, the first edition of Walt Whitman's book of poems titled Leaves of Grass is published.
- 1859 - Franco-Piedmontese War: The Battle of Magenta.
- 1862 - Lewis Carroll tells Alice Liddell a story that would grow into Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and its sequels.
- 1863 - American Civil War: Battle of Vicksburg - Vicksburg, Mississippi surrenders to Ulysses S. Grant after 47 days of seige.
- 1865 - Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is published.
- 1881 - In Alabama, the Tuskegee Institute opens.
- 1894 - The short-lived Republic of Hawaii is proclaimed by Sanford B. Dole.
- 1910 - African-American boxer Jack Johnson knocks out white boxer Jim Jeffries in a heavyweight boxing match sparking race riots across the United States.
- 1918 - Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI ascends to the throne.
- 1918 - Bolsheviks kill Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and his family (Julian calendar date).
- 1927 - First flight of the Lockheed Vega.
- 1934 - Joe Louis wins his first professional boxing match.
- 1934 - Leo Szilard patents the chain-reaction design for the atomic bomb.
- 1939 - Lou Gehrig, recently diagnosed with Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, tells a crowd at Yankee Stadium that he considered himself "The luckiest man on the face of the earth" as he announces his retirement from major league baseball.
- 1941 - Mass murder of Polish scientists and writers, committed by Nazi Germans in captured Polish city of Lwów.
- 1946 - After 381 years of colonial rule, the Philippines is granted full independence by the United States.
- 1950 - First broadcast by Radio Free Europe.
- 1959 - With the admission of Alaska as the 49th U.S. state earlier in the year, the 49-star flag of the United States debuts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
- 1960 - Due to the post-Independence Day admission of Hawaii as the 50th U.S. state on August 21, 1959, the 50-star flag of the United States debuts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania almost ten and a half months later (see Flag Act).
- 1966 - President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Freedom of Information Act into United States law. The act goes into effect the next year.
- 1976 - Israeli commandos raid Entebbe airport in Uganda, rescuing most of the passengers and crew of an Air France jetliner seized by pro-Palestinian hijackers.
- 1976 - The citizens of the United States celebrate their country's bicentennial.
- 1982 - Four Iranian diplomats have been kidnapped upon Israel invasion of lebanon.
- 1984 - NASCAR driver Richard Petty wins his 200th and final career victory at the Firecracker 400 race.
- 1987 - In France, former Gestapo chief Klaus Barbie (aka the "Butcher of Lyon") is convicted of crimes against humanity and is sentenced to life imprisonment.
- 1989 - 14-year-old actress Drew Barrymore attempts suicide.
- 1993 - The Argentine national football team defeats mexico to win the Copa América 1993 in Guayaquil.
- 1997 - NASA's Pathfinder space probe lands on the surface of Mars.
- 1998 - Lin "Spit" Newborn and Daniel Shersty are murdered by neonazis in the desert just outside Las Vegas.
- 2002 - Three people are shot at the El Al check-in booth at Los Angeles International Airport. The gunman is shot and killed by a security officer.
- 2002 - A Prestige Airlines cargo Boeing 707 crashes just short of the runway in Bangui, Central African Republic killing 25
- 2004 - The cornerstone of the Freedom Tower is laid on the site of the World Trade Center in New York City. (This was largely a symbolic event; actual construction would not start for several weeks)
- 2004 - National Team of Greece won the EURO 2004 Cup 1-0 after the Final against Portugal.
- 2005 - The Deep Impact collider hits the comet Tempel 1.

Births


- 1330 - Ashikaga Yoshiakira, Japanese shogun (d. 1367)
- 1546 - Murat III, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1595)
- 1694 - Louis-Claude Daquin, French composer (d. 1772)
- 1715 - Christian Fürchtegott Gellert, German poet (d. 1769)
- 1719 - Michel-Jean Sedaine, French dramatist (d. 1797)
- 1799 - King Oscar I of Sweden (Joseph François Oscar Bernadotte), French Napoleonic general (d. 1859)
- 1804 - Nathaniel Hawthorne, American writer (d. 1864)
- 1807 - Giuseppe Garibaldi, Italian patriot (d. 1882)
- 1826 - Stephen Foster, American songwriter (d. 1864)
- 1845 - Thomas Barnardo, Irish humanitarian (d. 1905)
- 1854 - Victor Babeş, Romanian bacteriologist (d. 1926)
- 1847 - James Anthony Bailey, American circus impresario (d. 1906)
- 1872 - Calvin Coolidge, 30th President of the United States (d. 1933)
- 1878 - George M. Cohan, American singer, dancer, composer, actor, and writer (d. 1942)
- 1881 - Ulysses S. Grant III, American soldier and planner (d. 1968)
- 1882 - Louis B. Mayer, American film producer (d. 1957)
- 1883 - Rube Goldberg, American cartoonist (d. 1970)
- 1896 - Mao Dun, Chinese writer (d. 1981)
- 1900 - Louis Armstrong, American musician (d. 1971)
- 1902 - Meyer Lansky, Russian-born mobster (d. 1983)
- 1902 - George Murphy, American dancer, actor, and Senator from California (d. 1992)
- 1904 - Angela Baddeley, English actress (d. 1976)
- 1905 - Irving Johnson, American author and adventurer (d. 1991)
- 1910 - Gloria Stuart, American actress
- 1911 - Mitch Miller, American bandleader and television personality
- 1917 - Manolete, Spanish bullfighter (d. 1947)
- 1918 - Ann Landers, American advice columnist (d. 2002)
- 1918 - Abigail Van Buren, American advice columnist and twin sister to Ann Landers
- 1920 - Leona Helmsley, American hotel operator and real estate investor
- 1920 - Norm Drucker, prominent National Basketball Association referee
- 1921 - Gerard Debreu, French-born economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2004)
- 1921 - Tibor Varga, Hungarian violinist and conductor (d. 2003)
- 1923 - Rudolf Friedrich, Swiss Federal Councilor
- 1924 - Eva Marie Saint, American actress
- 1926 - Alfredo Di Stefano, Argentinian footballer
- 1927 - Gina Lollobrigida, Italian actress
- 1927 - Neil Simon, American playwright
- 1929 - Bill Tuttle, baseball player
- 1930 - George Steinbrenner, baseball team owner
- 1938 - Bill Withers, American singer and songwriter
- 1942 - Floyd Little, American football player
- 1943 - Konrad "Conny" Bauer, German jazz trombonist
- 1943 - Geraldo Rivera, American reporter and talk show host
- 1946 - Ron Kovic, American peace activist
- 1946 - Ed O'Ross, American actor
- 1951 - Kathleen Kennedy Townsend, American politician
- 1961 - Richard Garriott, English video game designer
- 1962 - Pam Shriver, American tennis player
- 1967 - Vinny Castilla, Mexican Major League Baseball player
- 1967 - Andy Walker, Canadian television personality
- 1973 - Gackt, Japanese singer
- 1974 - La'Roi Glover, American football player
- 1976 - Daijiro Kato, Japanese motorcycle racer
- 1981 - Daniel Creaney, Lorraine Kelly impersonator

Deaths


- 965 - Pope Benedict V
- 1187 - Raynald of Chatillon, Prince of Antioch (executed)
- 1541 - Pedro de Alvarado, Spanish explorer (b. 1495)
- 1603 - Philippe de Monte, Flemish composer (b. 1521)
- 1623 - William Byrd, English composer
- 1742 - Guido Grandi, Italian mathematician (b. 1671)
- 1754 - Philippe Néricault Destouches, French dramatist (b. 1680)
- 1761 - Samuel Richardson, English writer (b. 1689)
- 1780 - Prince Charles of Lorraine, Austrian military leader (b. 1712)
- 1787 - Charles de Rohan, prince de Soubise, Marshal of France (b. 1715)
- 1821 - Richard Cosway, English artist (b. 1742)
- 1826 - John Adams 2nd President of the United States (b. 1735)
- 1826 - Thomas Jefferson, 3rd President of the United States (b. 1743)
- 1831 - James Monroe, 5th President of the United States (b. 1758)
- 1848 - François-René de Chateaubriand, French writer and diplomat (b. 1768)
- 1850 - William Kirby, English entomologist (b. 1759)
- 1857 - William L. Marcy, American statesman (b. 1786)
- 1881 - Johan Vilhelm Snellman, Finnish statesman (b. 1806)
- 1882 - Joseph Brackett, American religious leader and composer (b. 1797)
- 1891 - Hannibal Hamlin, U.S. Vice President (b. 1809)
- 1901 - Johannes Schmidt, German linguist (b. 1843)
- 1902 - Swami Vivekananda, Indian spiritual leader (b. 1863)
- 1905 - Élisée Reclus, French geographer and anarchist (b. 1830)
- 1910 - Giovanni Schiaparelli, Italian astronomer (b. 1835)
- 1926 - Pier Giorgio Frassati, Italian mountaineer (b. 1901)
- 1931 - Buddie Petit, American jazz cornetist
- 1934 - Maria Skłodowska-Curie, Polish-born scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in chemistry and physics (b. 1867)
- 1941 - Antoni Łomnicki, Polish mathematician (b. 1881)
- 1970 - Barnett Newman, American artist (b. 1905)
- 1971 - August Derleth, American writer and editor (b. 1909)
- 1975 - Georgette Heyer, English author (b. 1902)
- 1976 - Antoni Słonimski, Polish poet and writer (b. 1895)
- 1986 - Oscar Zariski, Russian mathematician (b. 1899)
- 1991 - Dr. Victor Chang, Australian physician (murdered) (b. 1936)
- 1992 - Astor Piazzolla, Argentinian composer (b. 1921)
- 1995 - Eva Gabor, Hungarian-born actress (b. 1919)
- 1997 - Charles Kuralt, American television reporter (b. 1934)
- 2002 - Benjamin O. Davis Jr., American general (b. 1912)
- 2003 - Barry White, American singer and record producer (b. 1944)
- 2004 - Jean-Marie Auberson, Swiss conductor (b. 1920)
- 2005 - Hank Stram, American football coach (b. 1923)

Holidays and observances


- United States - Independence Day (1776)
- Filipino-American Friendship Day
- In astronomy, the approximate date of Earth's aphelion.

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/4 BBC: On This Day] ---- July 3 - July 5 - June 4 - August 4 - more historical anniversaries ko:7월 4일 ms:4 Julai ja:7月4日 simple:July 4 th:4 กรกฎาคม

1831

1831 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events


- February-March - Revolts in Modena, Parma and the Papal States are put down by Austrian troops
- February 14 - Ras Marye of Yejju marches into Tigray and defeats and kills the warlord Sabagadis in the Battle of Debre Abbay.
- February 20 - Battle of Grochow. Polish rebel forces divide a Russian army.
- March 1 - Democrat Samuel Smith becomes President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate until December 4
- March 9 – French Foreign Legion founded
- March 19 - City Bank of New York is the site of the first bank robbery in United States history ($245,000 taken).
- April 7 - Pedro I of Brazil abdicates as emperor of Brazil in favor of his son Pedro II of Brazil.
- April 21 - New York University is founded in New York City, New York.
- May 26 - Battle of Ostroleka. The Poles fight another indecisive battle.
- June 1 - James Clark Ross discovers the position of the North Magnetic Pole on the Boothia Peninsula.
- July 21 - Inauguration of Léopold I of Belgium, first king of the Belgians
- August 2 - Dutch invasion of Belgium. It is repelled by a French army
- August 21 - Outbreak of Nat Turner's slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia. Approximately 55 whites stabbed, shot and clubbed to death.
- September 6-8 - Battle of Warsaw - The Russians take the Polish capital and crush resistance.
- September 22 - UK House of Commons passes the Reform Bill - it is later defeated in the House of Lords
- October 26 – Cholera epidemic begins in Sunderland, England
- October 30 - In Southampton County, Virginia, escaped slave Nat Turner is captured and arrested for leading the bloodiest slave revolt in United States history.
- October 31 - Rioters burn down 100 houses in Bristol, UK - intervention by 14th Dragoons leads to death of hundreds
- November 11 - In Jerusalem, Virginia, Nat Turner is hanged after inciting a violent slave uprising.
- December 27 - Charles Darwin embarks on his historic journey aboard the HMS Beagle.
- The Sydney Morning Herald newspaper is first published.
- Cholera in Hamburg

Births


- January 7 - Heinrich von Stephan, German postal union organizer (d. 1897)
- January 26 - Mary Mapes Dodged, writer (d. 1907)
- March 3 - George Pullman, American inventor and industrialist (d. 1897)
- March 6 - Friedrich von Bodelschwingh, theologian (d. 1910)
- March 12 - Clement Studebaker, American automobile pioneer (d. 1901)
- March 20 - Solomon L. Spink, U.S. Congressman from Illinois (d. 1881)
- June 1 - John Bell Hood, American Confederate general (d. 1879)
- June 13 - James Clark Maxwell, Scottish physicist (d. 1879)
- June 28 - Joseph Joachim, Austrian violinist (d. 1907)
- July 22 - Emperor Komei of Japan (d. 1867)
- 12 August - Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Russian-born author and theosophist (d. 1891)
- September 18 - Siegfried Marcus, German-Austrian automobile pioneer (d. 1898)
- October 6 - Richard Dedekind, German mathematician (d. 1916)
- October 18 - Emperor Frederick III of Germany (d. 1888)
- October 31 - Romualdo Pacheco, Governor of California (d. 1899)

Deaths


- January 21 - Achim von Arnim, German poet (b. 1781)
- February 14 - Vincente Guerrero, Mexican revolutionary leader (b. 1782)
- February 17 - Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (b. 1785)
- February 25 - Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, German writer (b. 1752)
- April 20 - John Abernethy (surgeon) (b. 1764)
- April 27 - Charles Felix of Savoy, King of Sardinia (b. 1765)
- June 27 - Sophie Germain, French mathematician (b. 1776)
- July 4 - James Monroe, 5th President of the United States (b. 1758)
- July 16 - Louis Alexandre Andrault Graf Langeron, Russian general (b. 1763)
- August 24 - August von Gneisenau, Prussian field marshal (b. 1760)
- November 11 - Nat Turner, American slave rebel (b. 1800)
- November 14 - Georg Hegel, German philosopher (b. 1770)
- November 16 - Carl von Clausewitz, German military strategist (b. 1780)
- Sabagadis - Ethiopian warlord Category:1831 ko:1831년 ms:1831 ja:1831年 simple:1831

1825

See also 1825 in the United States. 1825 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 4 - King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies and is succeeded by his son Francis I of the Two Sicilies.
- February 12 - The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west
- March 4 - John Quincy Adams officially succeeds James Monroe as President of the United States.
- May 11 - American Tract Society, is founded.
- July 6 - The Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderborg-Beck gains possession of Glücksburg and changes his title to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg later became the Royal House of Greece, Denmark and Norway.
- July 30 - Malden Island discovered.
- August 6 - Bolivia gains independence from Peru as a republic with the instigation of Simón Bolívar
- August 25 - Uruguay declares independence from Brazil (See Uruguay's independence)
- September 27 - The world's first modern railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway opens in England.
- October 26 - The Erie Canal opens - passage from Albany, New York to Lake Erie
- December 1 - Alexander I of Russia dies and is succeeded by his younger brother Nicholas I of Russia.
- Decembrist Revolt in Russia.
- The first horse-drawn omnibuses established in London
- First roller skates
- Aluminium discovered
- City of Brisbane founded - see History of Brisbane

Births


- January 25 - George Pickett, American Confederate general (d. 1876)
- March 22 - Jane Sym, First Lady of Canada (d. 1893)
- May 4 - Sir Thomas Henry Huxley, English biologist (d. 1895)
- May 8 - George Bruce Malleson, English officer and author (d. 1898)
- September 11 - Eduard Hanslick, Austrian music critic (d. 1904)
- September 25 - Joachim Heer, Swiss politician (d. 1879)
- October 10 - Paul Kruger, Boer resistance leader (d. July 14 1904)
- October 25 - Johann Strauss, Junior, Austrian composer (d. 1899)
- November 9 - A.P. Hill, American Confederate general (d. 1865)
- December 2 - Emperor Peter II of Brazil (d. 1891)

Month/day unknown


- Carolyn Merrick, American temperance movement leader (d. 1908)

Deaths


- January 4 - Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (b. 1751)
- May 7 - Antonio Salieri, Italian composer (b. 1750)
- May 19 - Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, French politician (b. 1760)
- May 22 - Laskarina Bouboulina, Greek independence fighter (shot)
- May 23 - Ras Gugsa of Yejju, Regent of the Emperor of Ethiopia
- August 20 - William Waldegrave, 1st Baron Radstock, Governor of Newfoundland (b. 1753)
- November 14 - Jean Paul, German writer (b. 1763)
- December 1 - Alexander I of Russia (b. 1777)
- December 28 - James Wilkinson, American soldier and statesman
- December 29 - Jacques-Louis David, French painter (b. 1748) Category:1825 ko:1825년 ms:1825

President of the United States

The President of the United States (unofficially abbreviated "POTUS") is the head of state of the United States. Under the U.S. Constitution, the President is also the chief executive of the federal government and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The full title is President of the United States of America. Because of the superpower status of the United States, the American President is widely considered to be the most powerful person on Earth, and is usually one of the world's best-known public figures. During the Cold War, the President was sometimes referred to as "the leader of the free world," a phrase that is still invoked today. The United States was the first nation to create the office of President as the head of state in a modern republic. Today the office is widely emulated all over the world in nations with a presidential system of government. Many countries with a parliamentary system also have an office named "president", but the roles of this office vary widely, and the President in such systems usually has far more limited powers than the Prime Minister. The 43rd and current President of the United States is George W. Bush. His first term ran from January 20, 2001 to January 20, 2005; his second term began on January 20, 2005 and ends on January 20, 2009; and President Bush is constitutionally barred from a third term.

Requirements to hold office

Section One of Article II of the U.S. Constitution establishes the requirements one must meet in order to become President. The president must be a natural-born citizen of the United States (or a citizen of the United States at the time the U.S. Constitution was adopted), be at least 35 years old, and have been a resident of the United States for 14 years. The natural-born citizenship requirement has been the subject of controversy. Critics argue that this requirement arbitrarily excludes some highly qualified candidates for the Presidency. They also charge that supporters fail to appreciate the contributions made by immigrants to American society. Proponents of the requirement argue that the requirement helps to ensure that the President fully understands and is a part of the American people and their outlook. Proponents also argue that the clause helps protect the country from foreign interference—another country could send an emigrant to the United States and through subterfuge get them elected. Many prominent public officials, such as Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger (R-CA; born in Austria) and Governor Jennifer Granholm (D-MI; born in Canada), are barred from the presidency because they were not natural-born citizens. Constitutional amendments are occasionally proposed to remove or modify this requirement, but none have been successful.

Election

Presidential elections are held every four years. Presidents are elected indirectly, through the Electoral College. The President and the Vice President are the only two nationally elected officials in the United States. (Legislators are elected on a state-by-state basis; other executive officers and judges are appointed.)

Old system

Originally, each elector voted for two people for President. The votes were tallied and the person receiving the greatest number of votes (provided that such a number was a majority of electors) became President, while the individual who was in second place became Vice President.

Current system

The Amendment XII in 1804 changed the electoral process by directing the electors to use separate ballots to vote for the President and Vice President. To be elected, a candidate must receive a majority of electoral votes, or if no candidate receives a majority, the President and Vice President are chosen by the House of Representatives and Senate, respectively, as necessary.

Campaign

The modern Presidential election process begins with the primary elections, during which the major parties (currently the Democrats and the Republicans) each select a nominee to unite behind; the nominee in turn selects a running mate to join him on the ticket as the Vice Presidential candidate. The two major candidates then face off in the general election, usually participating in nationally televised debates before Election Day and campaigning across the country to explain their views and plans to the voters. Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with winning swing states, through frequent visits and mass media advertising drives.

Inauguration and oath of office

mass media Since 1933, with the ratification of Amendment XX, a newly elected President, or a re-elected incumbent, is sworn into office on January 20 of the year following the election, an event called Inauguration Day. Although the Chief Justice of the United States usually administers the presidential oath of office, the Constitution does not specify any requirements; thus, anyone with the legal authority to administer oaths can perform the duty. In accordance with Article II, Section 1, Paragraph 8 of the Constitution, upon entering office, the President must take the following oath or affirmation: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Only presidents Franklin Pierce and Herbert Hoover have chosen to affirm rather than swear. The oath is traditionally ended with, "So help me God," although for religious reasons some Presidents have said, "So help me", or "and thus I swear." On Inauguration Day, following the oath of office, the President customarily delivers an inaugural address which sets the tone for his administration. These addresses can reach the level of high oratory, from such stand-alone lines as Kennedy's "Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country," to entire speeches, such as Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address.

Term(s) of office

Under the Constitution, the President serves a four-year term. Amendment XXII (which took effect in 1951 and was first applied to Dwight D. Eisenhower starting in 1953) limits the president to either two four-year terms or a maximum of ten years in office should he have succeeded to the Presidency previously and served two years at most completing his predecessor's term. Since then, three presidents have served two full terms: Dwight Eisenhower, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton. Incumbent President George W. Bush would become the fourth if he completes his curren