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Janissary

Janissary

and given the finest training to became the elite of the army (Turkish yeniceri, “recruit”) Janissaries - oil painting on canvas - Jean Léon Gérôme - 1865]]The Janissaries (or janizaries; in Turkish: Yeniçeri, meaning New Troops) comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops and bodyguard. The force originated in the 14th century; it was abolished (and massacred) by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826.

Origin of the janissaries

Murat I of the fledgling Ottoman Empire founded the corps around 1330. It was initially formed of non-Muslims, especially Christian youths and prisoners-of-war, reminiscent of Mameluks. Murad may have also used futuwa groups as a model. Such janissaries became the first Ottoman standing army, replacing forces mostly composed of tribal warriors whose loyalty and morale could not always be trusted. Moreover, no free warrior would consent to being an infantryman, considering the position beneath him.

Janissary training and way of life

The first janissary units comprised war captives and slaves. After the 1380s Sultan Selim I filled their ranks with the results of taxation in human form called devshirmeh. The sultan’s men would conscript a number of non-Muslim, usually Christian, boys – at first at random, later by strict selection – and take them to be trained. In the later centauries they appear to have favored essentially Greeks, Albanians, Serbs and Bulgarians. Usually they would select about one in five boys of ages seven to fourteen but the numbers could be changed to correspond with the need for soldiers. Later they would extend the devshirmeh to Hungary. Local residents could hardly be expected to appreciate the custom. Hungary - 1828 ]] Janissaries trained under strict discipline with hard labour and in practically monastic conditions in acemi oglan schools, where they were expected to remain celibate and were forcibly converted to Islam. All did, as Christians were not allowed to bear arms in the Ottoman Empire until the 19th century. For all practical purposes, janissaries belonged to the sultan. Unlike free Muslims, they were expressly forbidden to wear beards, only a moustache. Janissaries were taught to consider the corps as their home and family and the sultan as their de facto father. Only those who proved strong enough earned the rank of a true janissary at the age of twenty four to twenty five. The regiment inherited the property of dead janissaries. Janissaries also learned to follow the dictates of the dervish saint Hajji Bektash Wali who had blessed the first troops. Bektashi served as a kind of chaplain for janissaries. In this and in their secluded life, janissaries resembled Christian knightly orders like the Johannites of Rhodes. In return for their loyalty and their fervour in war Janissaries gained privileges and benefits. Originally they received pay only in wartime, but by the mid-18th century they could work as law-enforcers or as tradesmen in peaceful conditions – although they always lived in barracks. Still, they enjoyed high living standards, exemption from taxes and respected social status. Many of them became administrators and scholars. Retired and invalid janissaries even received pensions.

The janissary corps

The full strength of the janissary troops varied from maybe 100 to more than 200,000. The corps was organized in ortas (literally "hearth" but equivalent to regiment). Suleiman I had 165 ortas but the number over time increased to 196. The sultan was the supreme commander of the Janissaries but the corp was organized and led by the aga (commander). The corps was divided into three sub-corps:
- the jemaat (frontier troops), with 101 ortas
- the beyliks or beuluks (sultan's bodyguard), with sixty one ortas
- the sekban or seirnen, with thirty four ortas In addition there was also thirty four ortas of the ajemi (apprentices). Originally janissaries could increase in rank only within their own orta and only through seniority. They would leave the unit only to assume command of another. Only janissaries' own commanding officers could punish them. The rank names were based on positions in a kitchen staff or hunters, perhaps to emphasise that janissaries were servants of the sultan. In the first centuries janissaries were expert archers, but they adopted firearms as soon as such became available during the 1440s. In melee combat they used axes and sabres. Originally in peacetime they could carry only clubs or cutlasses, unless they served in border troops. Local janissaries, stationed in a town or city for a long time, were known as yerliyyas. The Ottoman empire used janissaries in all its major campaigns, including the 1453 capture of Constantinople, the defeat of the Egyptian mameluks and wars in Austria. Janissary troops were always led to the battle by the sultan himself, and always had a share of the booty. Janissaries’ reputation increased to the point that by 1683 the sultan Mehmet IV could abolish the devshirme. Increasing numbers of originally Muslim Turkish families had already enrolled their own sons into the force. Every governor wanted to have his own janissaries.

The janissary revolts

Janissaries also became aware of their own importance and began to desire better payment. In 1449 they revolted for the first time, demanding higher wages, which they obtained. After 1451, every new sultan was obliged to pay each janissary a reward and raise his pay rank. Sultan Selim II gave janissaries permission to marry in 1566. In the aftermath of the Moldavian Magnate Wars (1595–1621) with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Habsburgs, culminating in the battles of Cecora and Ottoman defeat at Khotyn, Sultan Osman II died during the rebellion of janissaries in 1622. By the early 18th century janissaries had such prestige and influence that they could dominate the government. They could mutiny and dictate policy and hinder efforts to modernize the army structure. They could change sultans as they wished through palace coups. They made themselves landholders and tradesmen. They would also limit the enlistment to the boys of former janissaries who did not have to go through the original training period in acemi oglan. When janissaries could practically extort money from the Sultan and business and family life replaced martial fervour, their effectiveness as combat troops decreased. The northern borders of the Ottoman Empire slowly began to shrink southwards after the second Battle of Vienna in 1683. Janissaries resisted attempts to reorganise the army and in 1622 killed sultan Osman II when he planned to replace them. They also had support of the bektashi sect. In 1807 the janissaries revolted and deposed Selim III, who had tried to create a more modern army with European instructors. His supporters failed to recapture power before Mustafa IV had him killed but elevated Mahmud II to the throne in 1808. When janissaries threatened to oust Mahmut, he followed suit and had the captured Mustafa executed and eventually came to a compromise with the janissaries. He spent more than a decade in securing his position. In April 1810, janissaries burned 2,000 homes in Galata and in spring 1811 two regiments engaged in a gun battle in Istanbul. They fought in the Greek War of Independence. Eventually Mahmud II had to get rid of the janissaries, perhaps because he had to pay the high salaries of 135,000 janissaries, many of whom were not actually serving soldiers. Indeed, many may have been already dead or retired soldiers that were kept on the payroll to allow the commander to claim the money with the pay tickets. In 1826 the janissaries noticed that the sultan was forming a new army. Some have suggested that the sultan had incited them to revolt on purpose. On June 14 15 June 1826, janissaries in Istanbul revolted but this time most of the army and of the population at large turned against them. Sipahis, the cavalry units loyal to the sultan, forced them to retreat to their barracks. Artillery fired fifteen volleys into the barracks buildings and caused massive casualties. Survivors suffered execution or banishment and two years later Mahmud II confiscated the last janissary possessions. This event is now called The Auspicious Incident.

Modern janissaries

In the modern army of Turkey, the Mehter Band and the troops that accompany them form the only remnant of the janissaries.

Janissary music

The military march music of the Janissaries is characteristic because of its powerful, often shrill sound combining bass drums, horns (boru), bells, the triangle and cymbals (zil), among others. Janissary music influenced western classic musicians like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. The Janissary Music is still played at state, military and tourist functions in modern Turkey by the Mehter Band and the troops that accompany. For more details, see Turkish music (style).

References

- Godfrey Goodwin, Janissaries
- David Nicolle, Janissary
- Category:Infantry Category:Ottoman military ja:イェニチェリ

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Turkish: دولتِ عَليه عُثمانيه, Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniye, literally "Ottoman Sublime State") was an imperial power, centered around the borders of the Mediterranean Sea, that existed from 1299 to 1922. At the height of its power in the 16th century, it included Anatolia, the Middle East, parts of North Africa, much of south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus in the north. It comprised an area of about 19.9 million km², though much of this was under indirect control of the central government. The Empire was situated in the middle of East and West, and interacted throughout its six-century history with both the East and the West. It was established by a tribe of Oghuz Turks in western Anatolia, and was ruled by the Osmanlı dynasty, the descendants of those Turks. The Empire was founded by Osman I (in Arabic ʿUthmān, عُثمَان , hence the name Ottoman Empire). In 1453, after the Ottomans captured Constantinople (modern İstanbul), the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire, it became the Ottomans' third capital. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities, and the countries of Europe felt threatened by its steady advance through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At its highest point, the Empire contained many of the important places of classical antiquity, including Homer's Olympus and Dardenus, Zeus' Europa, Io's Bosporus, temple of Diana in Ephesus, sarcophagus of Alexander the Great, the Garden of Eden, Noah's Mount Ararat, Abraham's oasis and wells, Nile, Mount of the Sermon, the Hill of Golgotha. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was a consequence of World War I, when Allied forces including the Arabs eventually defeated Ottoman forces in the Middle East. At the end of the war the Ottoman government collapsed completely; and the empire was divided among the victorious powers. The following couple of years ended with declarations of new states. One of the new states was the Republic of Turkey. The members of the Ottoman dynasty were banned from the lands of Anatolia, where they once built one of the great empires of the world. In 1999, Turkey's parliament granted Turkish citizenship to the members of the Ottoman family, after 76 years.

Timeline

:See Timeline of the Ottoman Empire.

History

Origins

The Ottoman Empire originated as a Uç Beyliği (cf. Marquisate, Marches) within the Seljukid State of Anatolia in the late 13th century; which, by then, was a puppet and vassal of Ilkhanate, itself. Traditionally, in 1299, Osman I declared independence for the Beylik.

Rise (1299–1453)

With the rise of the empire, the characteristics and nature of the state were defined, and the Ottomans definitively carved out their own preserve in history under the rule of Mehmed II. One of the first things the devout Islamic Turks did was name the city previously known as Constantinople, to its new name "Islambol" (meaning "Islam-Bound" or "lots of"). Bol in Turkish means "a lot of" so this name reflected the new state of the city and its people. The name of Islambol was used throughout the empire by the Ottomans right upto the beginning of the twentieth century. Even though Ottoman state existed before Osman I, he is regarded as the founder of the Empire, having given it its name and being the first bey to declare his independence. He extended the frontiers of the empire towards the Byzantine Empire, while other Turkish beyliks suffered from infighting. Under Osman I, the Ottoman capital was moved to Bursa. He published the first coin under his name, demonstrating the trust he built. For the coming centuries his time was recalled with the words "May he be as good as Osman". coin] Mehmed II was only 12 years old when he became sultan, and was reputed to have been an erudite warrior. His military prowess was demonstrated with his conquest of Constantinople (see the Fall of Constantinople). Mehmed also enjoyed the full support of the empire. He used this to reorganize the state structure and military.

Growth (1453–1683)

Fall of Constantinople–1683]] The growth of Ottoman power can be grouped into two main, characteristic periods. The first period is one of stable conquest and growth; from the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, to the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, in 1566. This was a period of amazing achievements for the Ottoman Empire. Following the acquisition of Constantinople, the Ottomans ended Serbian power at the Battle of Kosovo, which paved the way for expansion into Europe. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) expanded the Empire's eastern frontiers, defeating Safavid Persia in the Battle of Chaldiran and establishing a navy in the Red Sea. His successor, Suleiman the Magnificent, would increase the Empire's size and power even further. After capturing Belgrade, Suleiman would conquer Hungary at the Battle of Mohacs, moving right up to Vienna. In the east, he would take Baghdad in 1535 from the Persians, giving the Ottomans control of the Middle East. Koca Mimar Sinan Agha was a skilled architect and engineer during this period. He took part in Selim's engineering corps. Later Sinan was promoted chief architect and was given the privilege of design, develop and implementation of the captured cities (according to the city plan). He was also appointed the command of the artillery. During a Persian campaign in 1535 he built ships for the army to cross Lake Van. For this he was given the title Haseki'i, Sergeant-at-Arms in the body guard of the Sultan, a rank equivalent to that of the Janissary Ağa. The Ottomans reached their "Golden Age" during Suleiman the Magnificent's reign. The end of these 230 years of growth marked with the end of extension into Europe. The Siege of Vienna was not part of an Ottoman extension into Germany. The Turks wanted to react to interventions of Austrian Habsburg interference into Hungary. But this turned some of the Ottoman allies against it. The Pope abandoned his secular interests, to agitate for a general Crusade against the Ottoman Empire. With the coming decades, the Ottoman Empire was not just an occupying force; it became an instrument in European politics. The Battle of Vienna brought a long period of stagnation, as it was a turning point in the 300-year struggle between the forces of the Central European kingdoms and the Ottoman Empire.

Stagnation (1683–1827)

Eventually, after the defeat of Kara Mustafa by Jan III Sobieski of Poland at the Battle of Vienna, in 1683, the Ottoman Empire lost some of its standing in Europe. In 1699, for the first time in its history, the Ottomans acknowledged that the Austrian empire could sign a treaty with the Ottomans on equal terms, and actually lost a large territory which had been in Ottoman possession for two centuries. There was a long succession of sultans after that, who were not as good as the generation of Mehmed II, Selim I and Suleyman I. During the stagnation, the Ottomans were weakened by wars, especially against Persia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia and Austria-Hungary. The Russian expansionism was a series of ten wars, fought between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. The Ottoman Empire demonstrated notable resilience among these setbacks for long time. The Ottomans managed to pull themselves together to defeat the Russians in in the Battle of Pruth in 1712, and the Austrians in 1736, regaining some of their European territories. Later, during the Crimean War, the Empire would enter into alliance with Britain and France to defeat Russia. Crimean War The Treaty of Passarowitz produced a short, peaceful era between 1718–1730. The change in Ottoman policies toward Europe already had given its signals. The Empire began to improve the cities along the Balkans, that would become their defense against the expansionist movements of the Europeans. More public policies were sought, such as drops in the taxation rates; public relations improvements, such as the institution of consulates, and the first civilian industrial investments all fall into this period. It was called the "Tulip Era" as this motif was extensively used. However, the scientific advantage the Ottomans had over the European countries decreased. While the Ottomans were stagnating in a stalemate with their European and Asian neighboring countries, the European development sped up. The Ottoman Empire did not keep up technologically with its European rivals, especially Russia. Wars and territories were lost, to Austria and Russia. Areas of the empire such as Egypt, became independent in all but name only. During this time, beginning with Selim III, there were efforts to modernize the system. Many of the reforms the sultans tried to impose to revitalise the Empire, were reverted by conservative forces within the Empire, either by the religious cadre, or by the now-corrupt Janissaries, even after the Janissaries were disbanded in 1826.

Decline (1828–1908)

1826 The declining period of the Empire was shaped by reorganization, and transformations in every aspect of the Empire. The caricature on the left is from the period and shows the sentiments of the Ottomans. It is a parody of clerks in the legal bureau of the Ottoman foreign office by Yussuf Bey (the duck). The parrot, monkey and pig (British, Italians, Germans) that nag him are the chief custodians and interpreters (European powers). The Russians are in the background as bears. The Tanzimat was a period of reform, that lasted from 1839 to 1876. During this time, a fairly modern conscripted army was formed. The banking system was also reformed, and the guilds were replaced with modern factories. Economically, the Empire had trouble re-paying the loans to European banks. Militarily, it had trouble defending itself from foreign occupation (e.g. Egypt was occupied by the French in 1798; Cyprus was occupied by the British in 1876, etc.). A significant change of this period was this: the Empire stopped going into conflicts alone, and started entering into alliances with European countries. There was a series of alliances with countries such as France, Holland, Britain and Russia. A prime example of this was the Crimean War, in which the British, French, Ottomans and others united against Tsarist Russia. Of all the ideas that Ottomans acquired from west; the ethnic nationalism, or named at that time as religion of the modern world was the most influential ideology. Ottomans were not just dealing with ethnic nationalism within their boundaries, but across boundaries. Uprisings had many effects on other groups during the 19th century. It was claimed that these uprisings determined the path that Ottomans had to take during the 20th century, but the rhetoric regarding the cause of 19th century uprisings is sharply divided. Ottomans claim that the source of the inter-ethnic conflicts should be sought within their dynamics and the sources that were supporting the conflicts with hidden goals. The decline period had many achievements, such as organization of the economy, military, communication, etc, but whether the Ottoman state was strong and influential on a scope that would have any effect on the ethnic uprisings is another question. ethnic conflicts Young Turks was a group of Ottomans who were educated in western universities and believed that constitutional monarchy could create an ease to the social unrest in the Empire. Mesrutiyet Era explains the political and social dynamics of the first constitution written by İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti and its social and economical consequences. Through a military coup, İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti had forced Sultan Abdülaziz to leave his position to Murad V. However, Murad V turned out mentally ill and had to be deposed in a few months. Heir apparent Prince Abdülhamid had been invited to assume power under the promise that he would declare constitutional monarchy, which he did at 23 November 1876. Constitution was called Kanun-i Esasi (Basic Law in Turkish).

Dissolution (1908–1922)

The dissolution period begins with the onset of II. Constitutional government. Basic Law Three new Balkan states were shaped during the end of the 19th century. All three as well as Montenegro sought additional territories within the large Turkish-ruled regions known as Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace. The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century. Initially under the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia, that resulted with the First Balkan War. The second Balkan War followed the first. second Balkan War second Balkan War In a final effort to keep power in their hands by regaining at least some of the lost territories, the triumvirate led by Enver Pasha joined the Central Powers in World War I. The Ottoman Empire had some successes in the beginning years of the war. The Allies, including the newly formed ANZACs were defeated in the Battle of Gallipoli, Iraq and the Balkans, and some territories were regained. In the Caucasus the Ottomans lost ground in a series of battles and Russians moved to a line from Trabzon, Erzurum, to Van. The Russian revolution gave the Ottomans a chance to regain these areas. The Ottomans were eventually defeated at the end of the war by the Allies, Arabs, and Republic of Armenia, which Armenian Republic was being declared during the war, in contrast to Arab nations. Ottoman territories were annexed. The initial agreement was Mundros treaty, and was followed by the Sevres treaty. After a century, what it seems came out of Serves was the achievement of British policy in the Near East. Great Britain had obtained most of her desires, in the partition of the Ottoman Empire. However, for other powers of Entente, we have to look at the results of Turkish War of Independence. Turks were raised against the Serves, to expel the Greeks, to confront the Republic of Armenia, the Italians, the French and to threaten the British in the region of Straits. Finally Turks asserted their right to an independent national existence. Turkish independence resulted with the 'coup de grâce' to the Ottoman state, in 1922, with the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new republican assembly of Turkey. Republic of Turkey was founded on October 29, 1923 from the remnants of the empire, like many other states.

State

There are some Ottoman State characters which did not change throughout the centuries. 1923 The Ottoman state revolutionized the system with the aid and experience of Christians, and Jews, while other states were holding on to their religion and national identity. That was an eclectic path for the rapidly expanding state, which needed local sources to manage the system, such as the adaptation of advisors (vizier) to the sultans, sometimes being selected from loyal Christians, Greeks, Italians, and so many others. Even from the western perspective the developments over the Byzantine structure were highly apparent in the diplomatic correspondence of the rising state, which was performed in Greek language. In diplomatic circles, the empire was often referred to as the Divan: بابِ علی Bâb-i-âlî ("great gate"), the grand Palace Gate of the Imperial Topkapı Palace, where the sultan greeted foreign ambassadors. It has also been interpreted as referring to the Empire's (and especially the capital Istanbul's) position as "gateway" between Europe and Asia. In its day, the Ottoman Empire was also commonly referred to as the Turkish Empire or Turkey by Westerners, though it should not be confused with the modern nation-state of Turkey. The Ottomans were administrators and not producers, except for the Turkish peasants producing foodstuff. The Ottoman Empire was not the program of economic exploitation, like the colonial empires of the modern Europe states. The government under Ottoman understanding was shaped around defending the land, building the security and harmony within the land. Against the common belief among the Christians, the source of violence during the last years of Ottoman Empire was the nation building process, not the Ottoman way of administration.

Sultans

The Sultan, was the sole regent and government of the empire, at least officially. The dynasty is most often called the Osmanli or the House of Osman. The first rulers called themselves bey thereby acknowledging the sovereignty of the Seljuk sultanate and its successor the Ilkhanate sultanate. Murad I was the first Ottoman to claim the title of "sultan" (king). With the capture of Constantinople in 1453, the state was on its way to becoming a mighty empire, with Mehmed II as its emperor, or padishah, in Europe sometimes the Grand Turk. From 1517 onwards, the Ottoman Sultan was also the Caliph of Islam, and the Ottoman Empire was from 1517 until 1922 (or 1924) synonymous with the Caliphate, the Islamic State. The sultan enjoyed many titles such as Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, Khan of Khans, and from 1517 onwards, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe, i.e. Caliph, which theoretically also gave him overlordship over other Muslim rulers around the world. For example, among the Mughal Emperors of India, only Aurangzeb had the Khutba read in his own name.

Organization

Khutba] Although the Ottoman state had many reorganizations, several main structures remained the same. There was a person who was totally responsible, always in command of the state. That was called the Sultan of the Empire. The decisions were always taken by a court of people at the divan, with the last word on Sultan. At the initial stages, court was composed from the elders of the tribe. Then it was modified to include professionals from military and local elites, such as high-ranking religious and political advisors. They were named as the viziers. This structure was later modified to include Grand Vizier to lift of some of the responsibilities from the Sultan. The Sublime Porte was the open court of the Sultan, named after the gate to the headquarters to the Grand Vizier, where the sultan held the greeting ceremony for foreign ambassadors. At times, the Grand Vizier became as or more important than the Sultan. From 1908 onwards the state was constitutional monarch without executive powers, with parliament consisting of chosen representatives from the provinces.

Subdivisions

Even though there is no election, there was a very interesting democratic structure within the Ottoman State. From an outside view, Ottoman state organization was based on a hierarchy with the Sultan, but there were many historical incidences that local governors acted by their own, sometimes just opposite of the Sultan. There are eleven incidences that Sultans were dethroned as they were perceived threats to the state. Sultans were chosen from the sons of the previous Sultan, but one has to understand the educational system and how it eliminates the unfit, or builds a common trust among the ruling elite for the son before they were throned. There were only two failed attempts to overthrow the ruling family, which suggests an extreme political stability. At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire had 29 provinces plus three tributary principalities and Transylvania, a kingdom which swore allegiance to the Porte.

Failures of the state

The fall of the Ottoman state is attributed to the failure of its economic structure. Many of the Ottoman Empire's failures are commonly attributed to an inability to establish economic and political hegemony over other nations, despite the fact that it was an empire. The term "the sick man of Europe" originated from these frustrations. Without economic participation the inns, hospitals, libraries, or indeed on this term any public benefit depended on public investments, named as vakif. The economy of the Ottoman state was no match to its counterparts. With the change of trade roads, the Ottoman Empire lost its main income source. Inability to industrialize the state and too great a dependence on farmers as a source of revenue through taxation were also factors. Inefficiencies originating from the size of the empire were also significant. Trying to keep the empire intact through internal and external wars was a costly process which compromised the Ottoman Empire's capacity to introduce reform. With improvements in communication the population that was distributed along the trade routes became concentrated on the centers. This population was highly affected by the economic competition of that time. The populations that moved into cities were faced with hardships which tested their patience, persistence, and adaptability. The Ottomans had to keep the system running under these social pressures. The dynamics of trade were curious—even as early as the 1470s Greeks and Jews were the premier traders, not the Ottomans. Consequently, the Ottomans were forced to protect the Greek elite in order to maintain a functioning economy. They were, moreover, constantly obliged to deal with social unrest among the empire's Greek community. When the Greek elite turned against the Ottomans, the Empire lost control. The Greek elite blamed the economic problems on the Ottomans and offered an escape route to Greeks by pursuing a nation of their own. In reality, even after the Greek revolution, the same elite was controlling the economy with the trade routes having already been altered. By many accounts, the circumstances surrounding the fall of the Ottoman Empire closely paralleled the fall of Byzantium, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions among the empires' populations and its inability to relate with them. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat was too late to reverse the damage.

Economy

Tanzimat The economical structure of the Empire was defined by the geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood in between West and East, thus blocking the route eastward forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators set out in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire was holding the same path that Marco Polo once used. When Columbus discovered America, the Ottoman Empire was in its highest position as an economical power that extended over three continents. The current Ottoman studies imply that the change in politics between Ottomans and Central Europe did depend on the opening of the new sea routes. It is also possible to see the decay of the Ottoman Empire by tracing the loss of significance of the land routes. Decay is a very relative term, in reality while central Europe is moving forward, Ottoman were holding on to their traditions. The pragmatic thinking of Ottomans that once helped to reform the systems left behind by Roman Empire was once again giving out the same signs which Ottomans found centuries ago.

Law

The Ottoman empire was legally based around the philosophy of local jurisprudence. Local legal systems that did not conflict with the state as a whole were largely left alone. The Ottoman system had three court systems, one for the Muslims run by kadi (judges), one for non-Muslims (appointed Jews and Christians ruled over their religious areas), and another for trade (originated after the capitulations). The court used depended on the sides of the conflict. On top of everything was the Kanun Law (administrative in nature). These court categories were not exclusive; Muslim courts could be used for a trade conflict or inter-religious cases. The primary law system was the Islamic courts. As for systems of law, there were Sharia Law and the Kanun Law. The Ottoman State did not interfere with religious law systems for other recognized faiths, even if it had a voice through local governors. Sharia Law evolved out of the Koran and from the word of Mohammed. Kanun Law was the secular law of the Sultan. Both were taught at law schools, which existed in Bursa and Istanbul. The court was run by sultan-appointed kadi. Often Jews and Christians went to Islamic courts to get a more forceful ruling on an issue. Women almost always went to Islamic courts, as they tended to side more often with and gave fairer payments to women. In truth, the political judicial system was run for the betterment of the rulers. The Kanun overruled the Sharia Law, which showed a level of respect for the Sultan over religion.

Military

The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called timars. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The famous Janissary corps provided élite troops and bodyguards for the sultan. After the 17th century, however, the Ottomans could no longer produce a modern fighting force because of a lack of reforms, mainly because of the corrupted Janissaries. The abolition of the Janissary corps in 1826 was not enough, and in the war against Russia, the Ottoman Empire severely lacked modern weapons and technologies. The modernisation of the Ottoman empire in the 19th century started with the military. This was the first institution to hire foreign experts and which sent their officer core for training in western European countries. Technology and new weapons were transferred to the Empire, such as German and British guns, Air force and a modern navy. The empire was successful in modernising its army. However, it was still no match against the major western powers. “The beginnings of legal reform in the Middle East were initiated in the Ottoman Empire in the middle of the nineteenth century through the promulgation of commercial and penal codes such as the Ottoman Commercial code (1850) and the Ottoman Penal code (1858).” (Haddad, Y.Y., Byron H. and Ellison F., Eds.)

Culture

1826 Ottoman culture covers expressive activities and the symbolic structures that happened under the umbrella of Ottoman Empire. That is an inclusive statement for all the religious and ethnic cultures of the state. Also, there is a specific intersecting culture that originated from living multi-culturally that reached to its highest levels among the Ottoman elites. Ottoman elites were not monolithic and composed of many different ethnic and religious people. With the turn of the 19th century, nationalistic states including Turkey began to write their own history. Most of the references to Ottoman culture were buried either in the archives or destroyed. What we know about that period mainly originates from opposing state archives and their official view points. These references can not be claimed fair or inclusive. It is also hard to reach defending views given the fact that Ottomans ceased to exist. Current studies show that empire culture was very rich and colorful. Opposing to wide spread beliefs, coming from a nomadic culture, Ottoman Turks was in peace with different cultures that they have in contact. Originally Ottomans belong to central-Asian culture. Ottomans later integrated Persian and Byzantine cultures into their way of life, instead of being assimilated into these cultures. When considering the Turkish folkloric or Ottoman elite art, we can see that they have conserved the colors and symbols that were inherited from their origins. Ottoman elites used Persian in their art to express their own inner world. The Ottoman court life was a harmony of Turkish and the Persian Shahs, but had many Byzantine and European influences. This Ottoman multicultural perspective reflects on their policies. One of the reasons that the Ottoman Empire lasted this long was the high tolerance policies pursued originating from their nomadic inheritance. This statement should be taken as a comparison to assimilative and ignorant medieval times (east and west). The Ottoman State pursued multi-cultural and multi-religious politics. When we talk about Ottoman tolerance, we talk about the structures that accommodate different perspectives. A good example was the Ottoman justice system. Another can be cited with the local governors to the regions. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of the conquered regions. With the intercultural marriages, the new cultural structures were gradually added to the Ottomans, creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to common Turkish arts (folkloric), the assimilation of the Ottoman elites to these new cultures is apparent.

Religion

marriages] Before the Turks adopted Islam, they practiced a polytheistic religion. After their first contact with Arabs and the battle of Talas, a number of Turkic tribes accepted Islam and propogated their new faith further into Turkistan. The process of conversion was over long before the birth of the Ottoman empire. As early as 1453, after having conquered Constantinople, they granted special privileges to the Christian people who had belonged to the old Byzantine Empire. Christians became subjects of the Ottoman Empire but not subject to Muslim faith or law. The Ottoman State never officially enforced religious conformity, nor did it harshly pursue a policy of individual conversion. The fact that opposition to the Ottoman state had always been on a national scale supports this idea. Going back to 1391, Bayezid I with Thessalonica(Selanik) actively adopted policies of lenient behaviors towards those with different faiths. Sultans took their primary concern to be service of the interests of the state, as the Ottoman Empire could not survive without toil, cooperation and taxes. For centuries, the Ottoman Empire was often as a refuge for the Jews of Europe, who were often persecuted or expelled from the countries of Christian Europe (see History of the Jews in Turkey). The Ottoman State's relation with the Orthodox Church was very peaceful. The Ottoman state kept the orthodox structure intact until the national uprisings. Currently under Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople we can see encompassing national Orthodox jurisdictions such as Bulgarian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, and Russian Orthodox. Some of these policies were slowly changed with the adoption of parliamentary monarchy. Constantinople was "Turkified" externally, changing its name to Istanbul. Some churches, including the Hagia Sophia, were converted to mosques. The sultans were careful not to destroy the Christian mosaics but covered them with plaster. In 1935, after five centuries, the complete removal of the plaster was carried out after the new Republic of Turkey, "in the interest of art", converted the Hagia Sophia into a museum. This very treatment of those old Christian mosaics — a treatment not of destruction but of conscious preservation — illustrates the similar fate of the Christian people of the Balkans who likewise had a cultural revivification as nations and states.

External links

- [http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/engindex.html Ottoman Web Site] – Contains detailed information about the Ottoman Empire
- [http://www.4dw.net/royalark/Turkey/turkey.htm Royal Ark: Turkey] – Extensive site with a lot of detailed information
- [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/OTTOMAN1.HTM World Civilizations: The Ottomans] – Comprehensive site that covers much about the state and the government
- [http://www.turkcebilgi.com/Osmanl%FD%20%DDmparatorlu%F0u Turkcebilgi.com Ottoman Empire Pages] (in Turkish)
- [http://www.theottomans.org The Ottomans] – Covers various aspects of the Ottoman Empire in detail
- [http://www.discoverturkey.com/haberler/osmanli-bayrak.html Flags of Ottoman Empire]
- [http://www.ottomansouvenir.com/Capitals/Capitals_of_Ottoman_Empire.htm Capitals of Ottoman Empire]
- [http://www.osmanlimedeniyeti.com Everything About Ottoman Empire] – Everything about the history and culture of Ottoman Empire (in Turkish)
- [http://www.humanities.ualberta.ca/ottoman/module3/lecture2.htm More on the 16 & 1700's] - Emerging Nationalisms, Declining Empire?

References

- Barbara Jelavich, History of the Balkans, Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0521252490. See "Balkan Christians under Ottoman Rule", pages 39–126.
- Colin Imber, The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power, 2002. ISBN 0333613864.
- Gülru Necipoglu Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, 1991. ISBN 0262140500.
- Caroline Finkel Osman's Dream. The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923, 2005. ISBN 0719555132.
- Ottomans Category:Former countries in Europe Category:Empires ko:오스만 제국 ms:Empayar Turki Uthmaniyyah ja:オスマン帝国

Bodyguard

A bodyguard is a person who protects someone (known as their principal) from personal assault, kidnapping, assassination, loss of confidential information, or other threats. Bodyguards are typically armed and have expertise in unarmed combat, tactical driving, and first aid. However, the most important skill for a bodyguard is the ability to assess a situation and decide how best to respond to minimize danger to his principal. Most important public figures are protected by several bodyguards who work together as a unit, using several vehicles and sometimes decoy vehicles to protect their client. Less important protectees (or those with lower risk profiles) are accompanied by a single bodyguard, who may double as a driver. However, some billionaires and dignitaries choose to dispense with bodyguards in all but the most risky situations. In multi-agent units (like those protecting celebrities or the heads of states), one or more bodyguards specialize on particular tasks, such as intelligence, communication/communications protection, threat/vulnerability/risk assessment, and analysis. Other tasks may include design and operation of physical security measures at home, office, and while travelling, as well as data security systems. There can also be on-call specialists in explosives and chemical detection, crowd screening and control, SCUBA patrol, special weapons, armor, hostage negotiation, surveillance, and technical countermeasures (anti-bugging). Regardless of the team size, there must be a comprehensive security plan with a staffing plan and budget. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, most bodyguards are former or current police officers, or sometimes former military or other government agency personnel. One well-known public agency that provides bodyguard services is the United States Secret Service which safeguards the lives of the President, his family, and other executive officials. The Secret Service can be compared to historical bodies such as the Praetorian Guard, Varangian Guard, Swiss Guard, Janissaries and Napoleon's Imperial Guard. Another agency, the U.S. State Department's Bureau of Diplomatic Security, is responsible for protecting U.S. missions and their personnel overseas, as well as selected dignitaries in the U.S., including the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, the Secretary of State, and visiting foreign dignitaries below heads-of-state level. Whilst the United States Secret Service is an example of an independent guard force (though protective security forms only part, albeit the most important part, of its work), other bodyguards are part of general police forces. One example of this sort is the Royalty and Diplomatic Protection Department of the Metropolitan Police, which is responsible for the security of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom. An international scandal involving a bodyguard erupted in 2000 in Ukraine, when local president Leonid Kuchma was publicly accused of committing numerous crimes by Mykola Mel'nychenko, an agent assigned to provide communications protection at his office (See also SBU, Georgiy Gongadze, Cassette Scandal). In 1984 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of the Republic of India was assassinated by two of her security guards. Some police dogs that are considered valuable enough for criminals to attempt to kill are assigned a large breed companion dog that serves as their bodyguard.

Minders

- A minder is a bodyguard who protects the financial interests of the principal rather than their personal safety.

Notable bodyguards

- Walter H. Thompson - bodyguard of Winston Churchill for 18 years in the period 1921-1945.

Fictional bodyguards

- Bodyguard - former Japanese television series starring Reiko Takashima
- The Bodyguard film about guarding a celebrity singer
- Bodyguards - UK television series
- The Human Target - American comic book and television series
- In the Line of Fire - American film about guarding the President
- Usagi Yojimbo - Stan Sakai's anthropomorphic samurai based upon Miyamoto Musashi
- Yojimbo- Akira Kurosawa film
- Domovoi Butler - From The Artemis Fowl series Category:Protective service occupations ja:親衛隊

Mahmud II

Mahmud II (in Arabic محمودالثانى ) (July 20, 1785–July 1, 1839) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death. In 1808, Mahmud's brother and predecessor, Mustafa IV ordered his execution along with that of his brother, the deposed Sultan Selim III, in order to defuse a rebellion. Selim was killed, but Mahmud safely hid and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa. The leader of this rebellion, Mustafa Bayrakdar, then became Mahmud's vizier and took the initiative in resuming reforms that had been terminated by the conservative coup of 1807 that had brought Mustafa IV to power. It was not long before the vezir was killed by rebellious Janissaries in a fire, however, and Mahmud was forced to temporarily abandon the reforms. Later in his reign, Mahmud's efforts at reform were more successful. His most notable achievement was the massacre of the Janissary corps in 1826.

Reforms

the main points of the more momentous measures may be advantageously surveyed together; and among the first in value as well as date next to the all-important army reforms, which will be seperately considered), are the edicts, by which Sultan Mahmud, soon after he was emancipated from the military tyranny of the janisseries, closed the Court of Confiscations, and took away the power of the life and death from the Pachas. Previously to the first of these Firmans at the property of all persons banished or condemned to death was forfeited to the crown; and a sordid motive for acts of cruelty was thus kept in perpetual operation, besides the encouragement of a host of Delators of the vilest kind. By the second, it was rendered no longer in the power of a Turkish governor to doom men to instant death by a mere wave of his hand; but the Pachas, the Agas, and other officers, were enjoined that “they should net presume to inflict themselves the punishment of death on any man, whether Raya or Turk, unless authorized by a legal sentence pronounced by the Kadi, and regularly signed by the judge.” Even then an appeal was allowed to the criminal to one of the Kadiaskers of Asia or Europe, and finally to the Sultan himself, if the criminal chose to persist in his appeal. About the same time that Mehmed ordained these just arid humane changes, he set personally an example of reform by regularly attending the Divan, instead of secluding himself from the labors of state, according to the evil practice, which had been introduced so long ago as the reign of Selyman Kanuni, and which had been assigned as one of the causes of the decline of the empire by a Turkish historian nearly two centuries before Mahmud’s time. Mahmoud redressed some of the worst abuses connected with the Vakif’s, by placing the revenues under the administration of the state; but he did net venture, to apply this vast mass of property to the general purposes of’ flue goverment. With the military fiefs, the Timars and the Ziamets, he dealt more boldly. These had long ceased to furnish the old effective military force, for the purpose of which they worn instituted and by attaching them to the public domains, Mahmud metarially strengthened the resources of the state, and put and end of host of corruptions. One of the most resolute acts of his rulling was suppression of the Dereh Beys, the hereditary local chiefs (with power to nominate their successors in default of male heirs), win, by one of the worst abuses of the Ottoman feudal system, had made themselves petty princes in almost every province of the empire. The reduction of these insubordinate feudatories was not effected at once, or without severe struggles and frequent insurections. But Mahmoud steadily persevered in this great measures and ultimately the island of Cyprus became the only part of empire in which power, not emanating from the Sultan, allowed to be retained by Dere Beys. In dealing with the complicated questions caused by the embarrassed finances empire, of his empire, and by the oppression and vexatious ness with which certain imposts pressed upon particular classes, Mahmoud showed the best spirit of the best of the Kiuprilis. A Firman of February 22, 1834, abolished the vexatious charges which public functionaries, when traversing the provinces, bad long been accustomed to make on the inhabitants. By the same edict all collection of money, except at the two regular half-yearly periods, we denounced as abuses. “No one is ignorant,” said Sultan Mahmud in this document, “that I am bound to afford support to all my subjects against vexatious proceedings; to endeavour unceasingly to lighten, instead of increasing their burdens, and to ensure peace and tranquillity. Therefore, those acts of oppression are at once contrary to the will of God, and to my imperial orders.” The kharatch, or capitation-tax, though moderate in and exempting those who paid it from military service, had long been made an engine of gross tyranny, through the insolence and misconduct of the government collectors. The Firman of 1834 abolished the old mode of levying it, and ordained that in it should be raised by a commission composed of the Cadi the Musluman governors, and the Ayans, or municipal chiefs Rayas of each district. Many other financial improvements were effected, the narration of which would be too long for introdi here. By another important series of measures, the administrative government was simplified and strengthen large mass of sinecure offices was abolished, and the Sultan valuable personal example of good sense, and economy, organising the imperial household, and mercilessly suppressing all titles without duties, and all salaried officials without functions.

Last Years

When he died from tuberculosis in 1839, his funeral was crowded by throngs of people who came to bid the sultan farewell. Mahmud appears to have been unable to effect the reforms he desired in the mode of educating his children, so that his son received no better education than that given to Ottoman princes in the harem. His son Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded him.

Referance

- Incorporates text from "History of Ottoman Turks" (1878) Mahmud II Mahmud II ja:マフムト2世

1826

See also 1826 in the United States. 1826 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events

- February 8 - Argentina. Unitarian Bernardino Rivadavia becomes the first President of the country.
- February 11 - University College London is founded, under the name University of London.
- February 13 - American Temperance Society founded.
- April 1 - Samuel Morey patents the internal combustion engine.
- June 14-15 – The Auspicious Incident: Mahmud II, sultan of Ottoman Empire, crushes the last mutiny of janissaries in Istanbul
- June 22 - the Pan-American Congress of Panama tries to unify American republics (it fails)
- July 26 - Last auto de fe.
- Nicéphore Niépce creates the first permanent photograph
- First railway tunnel built in route between Liverpool and Manchester in England
- Cholera epidemic begins in India
- The British crown colony of the Straits Settlements is established.

Births

- January 12 - William Chapman Rawlston, banker and financier
- January 26 - Louis Favre, Swiss engineer (d. 1879)
- February 16 - Joseph Victor von Scheffel, German poet (d. 1886)
- February 16 - Julia Grant, First Lady of the United States (d. 1902)
- March 4 - Theodore Judah, railroad engineer (d. 1863)
- March 24 - Matilda Joslyn Gage, pioneering feminist (d. 1898)
- March 29 - Wilhelm Liebknecht, German journalist and politician (d. 1900)
- April 6 - Gustave Moreau, French painter (d. 1898)
- April 26 - George Hull Ward, American general (d. 1863)
- May 3 - King Charles XV of Sweden and Norway (d. 1872)
- May 4 - Frederic Edwin Church, American painter (b. 1900)
- June 24 - George Goyder, surveyor-general of South Australia (d. 1898)
- July 4 - Stephen Foster, American songwriter and poet (d. 1864)
- July 4 - Green Clay Smith, American temperance movement leader (d. 1895]])
- September 17 - Bernhard Riemann, German mathematician (d. 1866)
- November 13 - Charles Frederick Worth, English couturier (d. 1895)
- November 24 - Carlo Collodi, Italian writer (d. 1890)

Exact month/day of birth unknown

William Daniel, American temperance movement leader (d. 1897)

Deaths

- January 3 - Louis Gabriel Suchet, French marshal (b. 1770)
- January 17 - Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga, Spanish composer (b. 1806)
- March 29 - Johann Heinrich Voß, German poet (b. 1751)
- June 5 - Carl Maria von Weber, German composer (b. 1786)
- July 4 - Thomas Jefferson, 3rd President of the United States (b. 1743)
- July 4 - John Adams, 2nd President of the United States (b. 1735)
- July 8 - Luther Martin, delegate to the American Constitutional Convention (b. 1746)
- November 23 - Johann Elert Bode, German astronomer (b. 1747) Category:1826 ko:1826년 ms:1826 simple:1826