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January 12

January 12

January 12 is the 12th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 353 days remaining (354 in leap years).

Events

- 1528 - Gustav I of Sweden crowned king of Sweden.
- 1592 - Titus Andronicus first staged at the Rose Theatre.
- 1773 - The first public Colonial American museum opens in Charleston, South Carolina.
- 1777 - Mission Santa Clara de Asís is founded in what is now Santa Clara, California.
- 1838 - In order to avoid anti-Mormon.persecution, Joseph Smith, Jr. and his followers leave Ohio for Missouri.
- 1866 - Royal Aeronautical Society is formed in London.
- 1872 - Yohannes IV is crowned Emperor of Ethiopia in Axum, the first imperial coronation in that city in over 200 years.
- 1875 - Kwang-su becomes emperor of China.
- 1896 - H. L. Smith takes the first x-ray photograph.
- 1898 - Ito Hirobumi begins his third term as Prime Minister of Japan.
- 1908 - A long-distance radio message is sent from the Eiffel Tower for the first time.
- 1915 - The Rocky Mountain National Park is formed by an act of U.S. Congress.
- United States House of Representatives rejects proposal to give women the right to vote.
- 1926 - Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll premiere their radio program Sam 'n' Henry, a precursor to Amos 'n' Andy; possibly the first situation comedy.
- 1932 - Hattie W. Caraway becomes the first woman elected to the United States Senate.
- 1940 - World War II: Russia bombs cities in Finland.
- 1942 - President Franklin Roosevelt creates the National War Labor Board.
- 1945 - World War II: The Soviets begin a large offensive in Eastern Europe against the Nazis.
- 1964 - Rebels in Zanzibar begin a revolt and later proclaim a republic.
- 1966 - Lyndon B. Johnson states that the United States should stay in South Vietnam until Communist aggression there is ended.
- Batman the TV series debuts on ABC.
- 1969 - Super Bowl III: New York Jets upset the Baltimore Colts, 16-7.
- Hard rock band Led Zeppelin release their eponymous first album.
- 1970 - Biafra capitulates, ending the Nigerian civil war.
- 1971 - All in the Family debuts on CBS.
- Harrisburg Six: The Reverend Philip Berrigan and five others are indicted on charges of conspiring to kidnap Henry Kissinger and of plotting to blow up the heating tunnels of federal buildings in Washington, DC.
- 1976 - UN Security Council votes 11-1 to allow the Palestinian Liberation Organization to participate in a Security Council debate (without voting rights).
- 1986 - Space shuttle Columbia takes-off with the first Hispanic-American astronaut, Dr. Franklin R. Chang-Diaz.
- 1991 - Persian Gulf War: An act of the U.S. Congress authorizes the use of military force to drive Iraq out of Kuwait.
- 1992 - A new constitution, providing for freedom to form political parties, is approved by referendum in Mali.
- 1995 - Malcolm X's daughter, Qubilah Shabazz, is arrested for conspiring to kill Louis Farrakhan.
- 1998 - Nineteen European nations agree to forbid human cloning.
- 2005 - Deep Impact (space mission) launches from Cape Canaveral by a Delta 2 rocket.

Births

1562 to 1899

- 1562 - Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy (d. 1630)
- 1576 - Petrus Scriverius, Dutch writer (d. 1660)
- 1591 - Giuseppe Ribera, Spanish painter (d. 1652)
- 1628 - Charles Perrault, French folklorist (d. 1703)
- 1715 - Jacques Duphly, French composer (d. 1789)
- 1716 - Antonio de Ulloa, Spanish general and governor of Louisiana (d. 1795)
- 1723 - Samuel Langdon, American President of Harvard University (d. 1797)
- 1729 - Edmund Burke, Irish statesman and philosopher (d. 1797)
- 1737 - John Hancock, American statesman (d. 1793)
- 1746 - Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Swiss pedagogue (d. 1827)
- 1751 - King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (d. 1825)
- 1786 - Sir Robert Inglis, Bt, English politician (d. 1855)
- 1849 - Jean Béraud, French painter (d. 1935)
- 1856 - John Singer Sargent, American artist (d. 1925)
- 1863 - Swami Vivekananda, Indian guru (d. 1902)
- 1873 - Spiridon Louis, Greek runner (d. 1940)
- 1876 - Jack London, American author (d. 1916)
- 1876 - Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari, Italian composer (d. 1948)
- 1877 - Frank J. Corr, Mayor of Chicago (d. 1934)
- 1878 - Ferenc Molnár, Hungarian writer (d. 1952)
- 1879 - Ray Harroun, American race car driver (d. 1968)
- 1882 - Milton Sills, American actor (d. 1930)
- 1884 - Texas Guinan, American actress (d. 1933)
- 1892 - Mikhail Gurevich, Russian aircraft designer (d. 1976)
- 1893 - Hermann Göring, Nazi official (d. 1946)
- 1893 - Alfred Rosenberg, Nazi official (d. 1946)
- 1896 - Rex Ingram, Irish director and actor (d. 1950)
- 1899 - Paul Hermann Müller, Swiss chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1965)

1900 to 1999

- 1902 - King Saud of Saudi Arabia (d. 1969)
- 1905 - Tex Ritter, American actor and singer (d. 1974)
- 1906 - Daniil Kharms, Russian playwright (d. 1942)
- 1907 - Patsy Kelly, American actress (d. 1981)
- 1907 - Sergei Korolev, Russian rocket scientist (d. 1966)
- 1908 - Jean Delannoy, French film director
- 1908 - Clement Hurd, American children's book illustrator (d. 1988)
- 1910 - Luise Rainer, German actress
- 1915 - Paul Jarrico, American writer (d. 1997)
- 1916 - Pieter Willem Botha, President of South Africa
- 1916 - Jay McShann, American musician
- 1920 - James L. Farmer, Jr., American civil rights activist (d. 1999)
- 1923 - Ira Hayes, American soldier
- 1925 - Scottie MacGregor, American actress
- 1926 - Ray Price, American singer
- 1928 - Ruth Brown, American singer
- 1930 - Tim Horton, Canadian hockey player and entrepreneur (d. 1974)
- 1930 - Glenn Yarborough, American singer and songwriter
- 1932 - Des O'Connor, British television presenter
- 1935 - Kreskin, mentalist
- 1937 - Shirley Eaton, British actress
- 1944 - Joe Frazier, American boxer
- 1946 - George Duke, American musician
- 1948 - Khalid Abdul Muhammed, American Nation of Islam spokesman (d. 2001)
- 1949 - Wayne Wang, Hong Kong-born film director
- 1950 - Sheila Jackson Lee, American politician
- 1951 - Kirstie Alley, American actress
- 1951 - Rush Limbaugh, American radio personality
- 1952 - Walter Mosley, American author
- 1954 - Howard Stern, American radio host
- 1955 - Rockne O'Bannon, writer and television producer
- 1957 - John Lasseter, American director, writer, and animator
- 1959 - Blixa Bargeld, German singer (Einstürzende Neubauten)
- 1959 - Per Gessle, Swedish songwriter
- 1960 - Oliver Platt, Canadian actor
- 1960 - Dominique Wilkins, American basketball player
- 1964 - Jeff Bezos, American entrepreneur
- 1966 - Rob Zombie, American musician, artist, and writer
- 1970 - Zack de la Rocha, American musician (Rage Against the Machine)
- 1970 - Raekwon, American rapper
- 1972 - Espen Knutsen, Norwegian hockey player
- 1974 - Melanie Chisholm, British singer
- 1974 - Tor Arne Hetland, Norwegian cross-country skiier
- 1997 - HAL 9000, Computer by Arthur C. Clarke

Deaths

1321 to 1899

- 1321 - Maria of Brabant, queen of Philip III of France (b. 1256)
- 1519 - Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1459)
- 1583 - Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands (b. 1508)
- 1665 - Pierre de Fermat, French mathematician and lawyer (b. 1601)
- 1674 - Giacomo Carissimi, Italian composer (b. 1605)
- 1705 - Luca Giordano, Italian artist (b. 1634)
- 1732 - John Horsley, British archaeologist
- 1735 - John Eccles, English composer (b. 1668)
- 1777 - Hugh Mercer, American Revolutionary War officer (mortally wounded in battle)
- 1781 - Richard Challoner, English Catholic prelate (b. 1691)
- 1817 - Juan Andres, Spanish Jesuit (b. 1740)

1900 to 1999

- 1943 - Jan Campert, Dutch journalist and writer (b. 1902)
- 1944 - Lance C. Wade, American pilot (b. 1915)
- 1960 - Nevil Shute, English writer (b. 1899)
- 1965 - Lorraine Hansberry, American writer (b. 1936)
- 1976 - Agatha Christie, English writer (b. 1890)
- 1983 - Nikolai Podgorny, President of the USSR (b. 1903)
- 1991 - Keye Luke, Chinese-born actor (b. 1904)
- 1997 - Charles B. Huggins, Canadian-born cancer researcher, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1901)
- 1999 - Betty Lou Gerson, American voice actress (b. 1914)

2000 onwards

- 2000 - Marc Davis, American animator (b. 1913)
- 2000 - Bobby Phills, American basketball player (b. 1969)
- 2001 - Affirmed, American racehorse (b. 1975)
- 2001 - William Hewlett, American engineer and businessman (b. 1913)
- 2002 - Stanley Unwin, South African comedian (b. 1911)
- 2002 - Cyrus Vance, U.S. Secretary of State (b. 1917)
- 2003 - Kinji Fukasaku, Japanese director (b. 1930)
- 2003 - Leopoldo Galtieri, dictator of Argentina (b. 1926)
- 2003 - Maurice Gibb, British singer, songwriter, and musician (Bee Gees) (b. 1949)
- 2005 - Amrish Puri, Indian actor (b. 1932)
- 2005 - Edmund S. Valtman, Estonian-born cartoonist (b. 1914)

Holidays and observances

- Tanzania - Zanzibar Revolution Day
- Yennayer - Berber New Year

Fiction

- In 2001: A Space Odyssey, the fictional computer HAL becomes operational on January 12. In the movie by Stanley Kubrick HAL was "born" in 1992, while in the book by Arthur C. Clarke the same event occurs in 1997.
- In the television series The X-Files, the third season episode [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_X-Files_%28season_3%29#Syzygy SYZYGY], has two girls, Terri & Magi, both born on January 12, 1979. Strange astrological properties with 3+ celestial bodies in alignment gives them great power which they use to kill off several of their high school classmates on their birthday in 1996.
- In the USA's Monk (TV series), the 4th season episode of [http://www.usanetwork.com/series/monk/theshow/episodeguide/episodes/s4_andmrsmonk/index.html MR. MONK AND MRS. MONK (#T-2351)] indicates that Monk spilt something on January 12, 1999 during an earthquake. He stated "Earthquakes count, I don't make the rules."

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/12 BBC: On This Day] ---- January 11 - January 13 - December 12 - February 12 — listing of all days ko:1월 12일 ms:12 Januari ja:1月12日 simple:January 12 th:12 มกราคม

January 12

January 12 is the 12th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 353 days remaining (354 in leap years).

Events

Births

1562 to 1899

1900 to 1999

Deaths

1321 to 1899

1900 to 1999

2000 onwards

Holidays and observances

- Tanzania - Zanzibar Revolution Day
- Yennayer - Berber New Year

Fiction

External links

Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

1528

Events

- June 19 - Battle of Landriano - A French army in Italy under Marshal St. Pol is decisively defeated.
- November 6 - Shipwrecked Spanish conquistador Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca becomes the first known European to set foot on Texas.
- Andrea Doria revolts against the French and establishes the independence of Genoa.
- Montenegro gains autonomy under Turk power.
- Maya people drive Spanish Conquistadors out of Yucatán.
- Spain takes direct control of Acapulco.
- Bubonic plague breaks out in England.
- Fourth major outbreak of the sweating sickness in England. This time the disease also spreads to northern Europe
- St George's Chapel in Windsor Castle completed.
- Chateau Fontainebleau in France begun.
- Cardinal Wolsey founds a college at Ipswich.
- Michelangelo Buonarroti begins work on fortifications of Florence.
- Baldassare Castiglione publishes The Book of the Courtier.

Births

- January 7 - Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre (died 1572)
- July 8 - Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (died 1580)
- October 4 - Francisco Guerrero, Spanish composer (died 1599)
- November 12 - Qi Jiguang, Chinese military general (d. 1588)
- Igram van Achelen, Dutch statesman (died 1604)
- Jean de Ligne, Duke of Aremberg, stadtholder of the Dutch provinces of Friesland (died 1568)
- Federico Barocci, Italian painter (died 1612)
- Adam of Bodenstein, Swiss alchemist and physician (died 1577)
- Jean-Jacques Boissard, French antiquary and Latin poet (died 1602)
- Andrey Kurbsky, Russian writer (died 1583)
- Akechi Mitsuhide, Japanese samurai and warlord (died 1582)
- Girolamo Muziano, Italian painter (died 1592)
- Costanzo Porta, Italian composer (died 1601)
- George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, English statesman (died 1590)
- John Dudley, 2nd Earl of Warwick (died 1554)

Deaths

- February 29 - Patrick Hamilton, Scottish religious reformer (martyred) (born 1504)
- April 1 - Francisco de Peñalosa, Spanish composer
- April 6 - Albrecht Dürer, German artist, writer, and mathematician (born 1471)
- August 15 - Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec, French military leader (born 1485)
- October 5 - Richard Fox, English churchman
- Georg von Frundsberg, German Knight and landowner (born 1473)
- Matthias Grünewald, German artist (born 1470)
- Balthasar Hubmaier, influential German/Moravian Anabaptist leader (born 1480)
- Pánfilo de Narváez, Spanish conqueror and soldier in the Americas (born 1480)
- Palma Vecchio, Italian painter
- Peter Vischer the Younger, German sculptor (born 1487) Category:1528 ko:1528년

Gustav I of Sweden

Gustav Vasa (May 12, 1496 – September 29, 1560), originally Gustav Eriksson (Vasa) (as most Swedes at the time, he used no family name), was King of Sweden from 1523 until his death. He was elected regent in 1521 after leading the rebellion against Christian II of Denmark, who controlled most of Sweden. During his reign Protestantism was introduced in the Sweden-Finland realm. Gustav Vasa was an enigmatic person who has been referred to as both a liberator of the country and as a tyrannic ruler, which has made him the subject of many books. When he got to power in 1523, he was largely unknown, and he became the ruler of a still divided country without a central government. Yet, he managed to remain in power for 37 years, and at his death left behind him a strong central power with uniform rules. In traditional Swedish history he has been labeled the founder of modern Sweden, and the country's liberator. Gustav liked to compare himself to Moses, who liberated his people and established a state. As a person, Gustav was known for ruthless methods and a bad temperament, but he also loved music, and had a certain sly wit.

Early life

Gustav's family descended from Birgitta Gustafsdotter (Sture), the sister of childless Regent Sten Sture the Elder who had died in 1503 when Gustav was a baby. According to genealogical research, Birgitta and Sten Sture (and consequently also Gustav Vasa) descended from King Sverker II of Sweden, through King Sverker's granddaughter Benedikte Sunesdotter (who was married to Svantepolk Knutsson, son of Duke of Reval). The Vasa family belonged to the highest level of hereditary Swedish nobility (högfrälse) and they possessed some wealth: several manors etc. Gustav Vasa's father Erik Johansson (Vasa) was involved in the party of Sten Sture the Younger fighting against the Danes in the early 16th century. When the Danes under Christian II conquered Sweden and took the capital Stockholm in 1517, several members of the Sture party were executed in the Stockholm Bloodbath in October that year, among whom was Erik Johansson. The young Gustav survived by hiding. He got involved in some of the revolts against the Danish king. At the battle of Brännkyrka on October 2, 1518, he was among those captured and taken prisoner in Denmark. But he managed to escape, and on May 31, 1520, he returned by ship to Kalmar, on the southeastern side of Sweden. From there, he travelled all the way up to the province of Dalarna, in (what was then) northwestern Sweden. He tried to gather troops to take down the Danish government, but had little success initially. According to popular history, as depicted in the 19th century in Swedish schoolbooks, Gustav encountered many adventures while he was fleeing around Dalarna. Their historical validity is however questioned. In 1521 he had managed to gather a small army in Dalarna and become its leader. He also received help by troops from Leipzig, Germany. By August 1521, the men of Dalarna had elected him regent of Sweden, whereafter two years of battle followed whereby the Danish troops were gradually defeated. In 1523, Gustav was able to be crowned in Strängnäs, south of the capital Stockholm, on June 6. The date has later been celebrated as the Swedish national day. His troops had besieged the capital, and on June 24, they finally could march into Stockholm. The country was however in no way united in support of the king at that time.

Reformation

After seizing power, the previous Archbishop Gustav Trolle, who at the time held to a post of some kind of chancellor, was exiled from the country. Gustav sent a message to the pope requesting the acceptance of a new archbishop selected by Gustav himself: Johannes Magni. The Pope sent back his decision demanding the unlawful expulsion of Archbishop Gustav Trolle to be reverted, and that the archbishop was to be reinstated. Here Sweden's remote geographical location proved to have a marked impact – for the former Archbishop had been allied with the Danish king, or at least was considered to have been in contemporary Stockholm, and to reinstate him would be close to impossible for the king. The king let the Pope know the impossibility of the request, and the possible results if the Pope persisted, but – for better or worse – the Pope did persist, and refused to accept the king's suggestions of archbishops. At the time, incidentally and for different reasons, there were also four other unoccupied bishop's seats, where the king made suggestions to the Pope about candidates, but the Pope only accepted one of the candidates. As the Pope refused to budge on the issue of Gustav Trolle, the king, influenced by Lutheran scholar Olaus Petri, in 1531 took it upon himself to appoint a new archbishop, namely the brother of Olaus, Laurentius Petri. Hereby in effect, the Pope had lost any influence over the Swedish Church. In the 1520's, the Petri brothers' were driving a campaign, almost, for the introduction of Lutheranism. The decade saw many events which can be seen as gradual introductions of Protestantism, for instance the marriage of Olaus Petri – a consecrated priest, and several texts published by him, advocating Lutheran dogmas. A translation of the New Testament had also been published in 1526. After the reformation, a full translation was published in 1540-41, called the Gustav Vasa Bible. However, knowledge of Greek and Hebrew among Swedish clergymen were not sufficient for a translation from the original sources; instead the work followed the German translation made by Martin Luther in 1534.

Further reign

Gustav encountered resistance from some areas of the country. In 1542, people from Dalarna rebelled, as they considered the king to have been too harsh on everyone he perceived as a supporter of the Danish. People down in Smalandia rebelled later, and initially gave Gustav difficulties in the dense forests. What he did was to send a letter to the people of Dalarna, and requesting that they should send out letters to every Swedish province, saying that Dalarna would support the king with troops, and urging every other province to do the same. Gustav got his troops, with which help he managed to defeat the rebels. The leader of the rebels, Nils Dacke, has traditionally been seen as a traitor to Sweden. Historical records state that Nils was seriously wounded during a battle, taking bullet wounds to both legs; if this is true, his survival may have been surprising with contemporary medical techniques. Nils was eventually betrayed by his own relatives, caught, and quartered; it is said that his body parts were displayed througout Sweden as a warning to other would-be rebels. Modern Swedish scholarship has toned down criticism of Nils Dacke, sometimes making him into a hero in the vein of Robin Hood, particularly in Småland. Difficulties with the continuation of the Church also troubled Gustav Vasa. The 1540's saw death sentences from his hand for both the Petri brothers, as well as his former chancellor Laurentius Andreae. All of them were however granted amnesty, after spending several months in jail.

End of his reign

Laurentius Andreae In the late 1550's, Gustav was broken by bodily troubles. This has been confirmed when his grave was opened in 1945 and his corpse examined. It was discovered that he suffered chronic infections of a leg and in his jaw. He held a so called "last speech" in 1560 to the chancellors, his children and other noblemen whereby he encouraged them to remain united. In September 29, the same year, Gustav died of a severe colonic disease. He is buried together with his three wiwes in the Cathedral of Uppsala.

Heritage

Gustav's heritage has been disputed. In 19th century Swedish history, a folklore developed wherein Gustav was to have experienced all kinds of adventures when he liberated Sweden from the Danes. The memory of Gustav has been honored greatly, resulting in embroidered history books, memory coins, and the annual ski event Vasaloppet (the largest ski event in the world with 10,000 participants). The city of Vaasa in Finland was named after the royal house of Wasa in 1606. However, today most of these stories are regarded to have no other foundation than legend, and a skillful propaganda by Gustav himself during his time. Gustav has by some been regarded as a power-hungry man who wished to control everything: the Church, the economy, the army and all foreign affairs. But in doing this, he also did manage to unite Sweden, a country that had previously not had a standardized language, and where individual provinces held a strong regional power.

Gallery

Gustav Vasa had a series of paintings made during his reign. The originals are lost but watercolor reproductions of unknown date remain. These paintings show Gustav's triumphs, showing what Gustav himself considered important to depict. Image:Gustav Vasa triumphs 1.jpg|Part one. Year 1521-23, Outside Stockholm Image:Gustav Vasa triumphs 2.jpg|Part two. Year 1525, Inside Stockholm Image:Gustav Vasa triumphs 3.jpg|Part three. Year 1527, Inside and outside Västerås Image:Gustav Vasa triumphs 4.jpg|Part four. Year 1542, the Dacke rising. Image:Gustav Vasa triumphs 5.jpg|Part five. year 1541, in Brömsebro with Christian III of Denmark Image:Fem kronor Sweden.jpg|The five kronor bank note that was in print in the 1970's and 1980's

Family

Gustav's first wife was Catherine of Saxe-Lauenburg (1513 – 1535), whom he married on 24 September 1531. They had a son: #Eric XIV (1533 – 1577) On 1 October 1536 he married his second wife, Margareta Leijonhufvud (1514 – 1551). Their children were: #John III (Johan III) (1537 – 1592) #Katharina (1539 – 1610). A great-grandmother of Adolf Friedrich II of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. #Cecilia (1540 – 1627) #Magnus (1542 – 1595) #Carl (1544) #Anna Maria (1545 – 1610) #Sten (1546 – 1549) #Sofia (1547 – 1611) #Elisabeth (1549 – 1598) #Charles IX (Carl IX) (1550 – 1611) In 1552 he married his third wife, Katarina Stenbock (1535 – 1621).

References

- Robert, M: The Early Vasas: A History of Sweden 1523-1611 (1968)
- Åberg/Aberg, Alf: Gustav Vasa 500 år / The official anniversary book (1996) Category:1496 births Category:1560 deaths Gustav 1 Gustav 1 Category:Reformation Category:Rebels ja:グスタフ1世 (スウェーデン王) ko:구스타브 1세 바사

Sweden

The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: ) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. It is bordered by Norway on the west, Finland on the northeast, the Skagerrak Strait and the Kattegat Strait on the southwest, and the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia on the east. Sweden has a low population density except in its metropolitan areas, with most of the inland consisting of forests and mountainous wilderness. Following the decline of the Viking Age, Sweden spent a couple of centuries fighting with its neighbouring countries Denmark (from the 12th century 1710), and Norway (in the 16th and 17th century). In the 17th and 18th centuries Sweden extended its territory through warfare and became a Great Power, twice its current size. The extended territory was subsequently lost within a century. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a policy of keeping free of alliances. Sweden was one of the poorest countries in Europe in the 19th century, shaped by heavy alcohol consumption, until improved transportation and communication allowed it to utilize natural assets from different parts of the country, most notably timber and iron ore, which allowed the creation of a welfare state in the early 20th century. Today, the country is defined by liberal tendencies and a strong national quest for equality, and usually ranks among the top nations in the UN Human Development Index.

History

Pre-history

For details, see: Prehistoric Sweden Soon after the recession of the last ice age, Sweden became populated by hunters and gatherers, during the Stone Age (6000 BC – 4000 BC). The region developed rather slowly compared to southern Europe; while the Romans wrote poetry, Scandinavia had just entered the Iron Age. Sweden was first mentioned in the 1st century, by Roman historian Tacitus, who wrote that the Suiones tribe lived out in the sea and were powerful in both arms and ships. This referred to the inhabitants of eastern Sweden: Svealand, primarily around lake Mälaren; towns of Stockholm, Sigtuna, and Birka. From this tribe, Sweden derived its name. The southern parts, on the other hand, were inhabited by Geats (Götar) in the Götaland territory. Little is known for certain about that time, but chronicles based on Norse sagas and the Beowulf epos go back about 2,000 years. During the Viking Age of the 9th and 10th century, Swedish vikings travelled east setting its mark on the Baltic countries, Russia, the Black Sea, further through the rivers of Russia down south to Constantinople and southern Europe.

Middle Ages

For details, see: Early Swedish history and Foundation of Modern Sweden With Christianization in the 12th century, the country became consolidated, with its centre in the water-ways of the northern Baltic and the Gulf of Finland. In the 14th century Sweden, like the rest of Europe, was struck by the Black Death (the Plague), with all its effect. During the middle ages, the expansion of Sweden into the northern wilderness of Laplandia, the Scandinavian peninsula, and present-day Finland continued. Finland was a part of Sweden proper from 1362 until 1809. In 1389, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under a single monarch in a treaty known as the Kalmar Union. After several wars and disputes between these nations, King Gustav I of Sweden (House of Vasa) broke free in 1521 and established a nation state, considered the foundation of modern Sweden. Shortly afterwards he rejected Catholicism and led Sweden to the Protestant Reformation. Gustav I is considered to be Sweden's "Father of the Nation". He was the first monarch from the House of Vasa. The House of Vasa also ruled between 1587 and 1668 in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Between 1592 and 1599 Sweden and Poland were ruled in a personal union by Sigismund I Vasa.

A major power

Sigismund I Vasa (orange) overlayed by present day Sweden (red)]] For details, see: Rise of Sweden as a Great Power, Swedish Empire, Sweden and the Great Northern War, Absolute Monarchy in Sweden, Sweden-Finland and Union between Sweden and Norway The 17th century saw the rise of Sweden as one of the great powers in Europe, due to successful participation, initiated by King Gustav II Adolph, in the Thirty Years' War and by Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the The Deluge of Poland. Mighty as it was, it crumbled in the 18th century with Imperial Russia taking the reins of northern Europe in the Great Northern War, and finally in 1809 when the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland was created out of the eastern half of Sweden. After Denmark was defeated in the Napoleonic wars, Norway was ceded to Sweden in the Treaty of Kiel. This led to the Campaign against Norway, which was fought in 1814, and ended with the Convention of Moss, which forced Norway into a union with Sweden that was not dissolved until 1905. But the campaign also signified the last of the Swedish wars and its 200 years of peace are arguably unique in the world today.

Modern history

For details, see: Modernization of Sweden The 19th century saw a significant population increase, generally attributed to peace, vaccination, and potatoes, doubling the population from 1750 to 1850. Many people in the countryside, where most Swedes lived, found themselves unemployed. The result was poverty, alcoholism, and massive emigration; it is believed that between 1850 and 1910 more than one million Swedes moved to the United States alone. In the early 20th century, more Swedes lived in Chicago than in Sweden's second biggest city, Gothenburg. However, as the Industrial revolution progressed during the century, people gradually began moving into cities to work in factories, and became involved in Socialistic unions. A threatening Socialist revolution was avoided in 1917, following the re-introduction of Parliamentarism, and the country was democratized.

Recent history

For details, see: Industrialization of Sweden and Sweden during World War II
Sweden remained neutral during World War I and World War II, although its neutrality during World War II has been disputed. Sweden was part of the Marshall aid package but continued to stay non-aligned during the Cold War, and is still not a member of any military alliance. Following the second World War, Sweden made use of its natural resources and undemolished state, making it possible to expand its industry to supply the rebuilding of Europe, leading it to be one of the richest countries in the world by 1960. During most of the post-war era, the country was ruled by the Swedish Social Democratic Party that established a welfare state, striving for a "well being for all"-policy. As other economies were re-established, Sweden was surpassed in the 1970s, and had to adjust its politics in the 1990s, but still ranks among the top nations concerning well being of its inhabitants.

Politics

Sweden has been a monarchy for almost a millennium, with its taxation controlled by the Riksdag (parliament). It consisted of four chambers, made up by representatives from the 4 estates: clerics, nobility, townsmen and peasants, until 1866 when Sweden became a Constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament. Its First Chamber was indirectly elected by local governments, and the Second Chamber directly elected in national elections every four years. local government Legislative power was (symbolically) shared between king and parliament until 1975. In 1971 the Riksdag became unicameral. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag holds supreme authority in Sweden, and its acts are not subject to judicial review. Acts of the parliament must be made inapplicable at every level if they are obviously against constitutional laws. Legislation may be initiated by the Cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a supermajority and confirmation after the following general elections. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: the Act of Royal Succession, the Freedom of Press Act and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression. Executive power was shared between the King and a noble Privy Council until 1680, followed by the King's autocratic rule initiated by the common estates of the Parliament. As a reaction to the failed Great Northern War, Parliamentarism was introduced in 1719, followed by three different flavours of Constitutional Monarchy in 1772, 1789 and 1809, the latter granting several civil liberties. The monarch remains as the formal, but merely symbolic head of state with ceremonial duties. Social Democracy has played a dominant political role since 1917, after Reformists had confirmed their strength and the revolutionaries left the party. After 1956, the Cabinets have been dominated by the Social Democrats. Only three general elections have given the centre-right bloc enough seats in Parliament to form a government. It is considered the reason for the Swedish post-war welfare state, with a government expenditure of slightly more than 50% of the gross domestic product. Some Swedish political figures that have received worldwide recognition include Joe Hill, Raoul Wallenberg, Dag Hammarskjöld, Olof Palme and Hans Blix.

Energy politics

For details, see Nuclear power phase-out After the 1973 oil crisis, the energy politics were determined to become less dependent on the import of petroleum. Since then, energy has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. Accidents at the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station (USA) prompted the Swedish parliament in 1980 after a referendum to decide that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26 per cent of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and biomass. In 1998, electricity from hydropower accounted for 76 TWh and 48 per cent of the country's production of electricity. At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 92TWh. [http://www.scientific-alliance.org/pdf/essential_programme_to_underpin_government_policy_on_nuclear_power.pdf] (PDF file) In March 2005, an opinion poll with 1027 persons asked, showed 83 per cent support for maintaining or increasing nuclear power [http://www.uic.com.au/nip39.htm]. Since then however, reports about radioactive leakages at a nuclear waste store in Forsmark, Sweden, have been published [http://www.forbes.com/finance/feeds/afx/2005/06/29/afx2116521.html]. This doesn't seem to have changed the public support of continued use of nuclear power.

Economy

PDF] The standard of living has become enviably high under this social democratic system. It features a modern distribution system, excellent internal and external communications, and a skilled labour force. Timber, hydropower, and iron ore constitute the resource base of an economy heavily oriented toward foreign trade. The engineering sector accounts for 50% of output and exports. The public and the trade unions controlled pension funds, non-profit organizations and the reserve funds of the trade-unions owns more than 50% of Sweden capital. 80% of the workforce is organized through the trade-unions. The public sector accounts for 53% of the GDP. Trade unions have the right to elect two representatives to the board in all Swedish companies with more than 25 employees. Agriculture accounts for only 2% of GDP and 2% of the jobs. The government's commitment to fiscal discipline resulted in a substantial budgetary surplus in 2001, which was cut by more than half in 2002, due to the global economic slowdown, revenue declines, and spending increases. The Swedish Riksbank is focusing on price stability with its inflation target of 2%. Growth is expected to reach 3.5% in 2004, assuming a continued moderate global recovery. However, open unemployment has steadily increased since 2001 and stood at 5.6% as of October 2005. Counting everyone who neither studies full-time or has employment, the percentage is around 14% (peaking at 20% in the summer months) . Sweden is known for having an uneven distribution of income, where the income in major towns are higher than in the countryside. Sweden's communication and transportation systems are important components of th

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