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January 29

January 29

January 29 is the 29th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 336 days remaining, (337 in leap years).

Events

- 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Pope Christopher.
- 1595 - William Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet is probably first performed.
- 1676 - Feodor III becomes Tsar of Russia.
- 1814 - France defeated Russia and Prussia in the Battle of Brienne.
- 1845 - The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe is published for the first time (New York Evening Mirror).
- 1850 - Henry Clay introduces the Compromise of 1850 to the U.S. Congress.
- 1856 - Queen Victoria institutes the Victoria Cross.
- 1861 - Kansas is admitted as the 34th U.S. state.
- 1863 - Bear River Massacre
- 1886 - Karl Benz patents the first successful gasoline-driven automobile.
- 1891 - Liliuokalani is proclaimed Queen of Hawaii, its last monarch.
- 1900 - The American League is organized in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania with 8 founding teams.
- 1916 - World War I: Paris is first bombed by German zeppelins .
- 1929 - The Seeing Eye Dog organization is formed.
- 1933 - President of Germany Paul von Hindenburg appoints Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany.
- 1936 - The first inductees into the Baseball Hall of Fame are announced.
- 1944 - The battleship USS Missouri is launched.
- 1944 - World War II: The Battle of Cisterna takes place in central Italy.
- 1944 - World War II: About 300 men, women, and children die in the Massacre in Koniuchy in Poland.
- 1959 - Sleeping Beauty, the last animated feature produced by Walt Disney to be based upon a fairy tale, was first released.
- 1963 - First inductees into the Pro Football Hall of Fame are announced.
- 1964 - 1964 Winter Olympic Games open in Innsbruck, Austria.
- 1958 - Police capture Charles Starkweather in Wyoming.
- 1966 - The first of 608 performances of Sweet Charity opens at the Palace Theatre in New York City.
- 1986 - Yoweri Museveni is sworn in as President of Uganda.
- 1990 - The trial of the former skipper of the Exxon Valdez, Joseph Hazelwood, begins in Anchorage, Alaska. He is accused of negligence that resulted in America's worst oil spill.
- 1995 - Super Bowl XXIX: The San Francisco 49ers defeat the San Diego Chargers 49-26 and become the first NFL team to win five Super Bowl titles.
- 1996 - President Jacques Chirac announces a "definitive end" to French nuclear testing.
- 1996 - La Fenice, Venice's opera house, is destroyed by fire.
- 1996 - First release of Duke Nukem 3D.
- 1998 - In Birmingham, Alabama, a bomb explodes at an abortion clinic, killing one and severely wounding another. Serial bomber Eric Robert Rudolph is suspected as the culprit.
- 2001 - Thousands of student protesters in Indonesia storm parliament and demand that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals.
- 2002 - In his State of the Union Address, United States President George W. Bush describes "regimes that sponsor terror" as an Axis of Evil.
- 2004 - A whale explodes in the town of Tainan, Taiwan. A build-up of gas in the decomposing 56-foot long Sperm whale is suspected of causing the explosion.

Births

- 1584 - Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange (d. 1647)
- 1632 - Johann Georg Graevius, German classical scholar and critic (d. 1703)
- 1688 - Emanuel Swedenborg, Swedish scientist and philosopher (d. 1772)
- 1711 - Giuseppe Bonno, Austrian composer (d. 1788)
- 1715 - Georg Christoph Wagenseil, Austrian composer (d. 1777)
- 1717 - Jeffrey Amherst, British military leader (d. 1797)
- 1718 - Paul Rabaut, French Huguenot pastor (d. 1794)
- 1737 - Thomas Paine, American patriot (d. 1809)
- 1749 - King Christian VII of Denmark (d. 1808)
- 1754 - Moses Cleaveland, founder of the city of Cleveland (d. 1806)
- 1782 - Daniel Auber, French composer (d. 1871)
- 1843 - William McKinley, 25th President of the United States (d. 1901)
- 1860 - Anton Chekhov, Russian writer (d. 1904)
- 1862 - Frederick Delius, English composer (d. 1934)
- 1866 - Romain Rolland, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1944)
- 1874 - John D. Rockefeller Jr., American entrepreneur (d. 1960)
- 1876 - Havergal Brian, British composer (d. 1972)
- 1880 - W.C. Fields, American actor (d. 1946)
- 1885 - Leadbelly, American musician (d. 1949)
- 1891 - Elizaveta Gerdt, Russian ballerina (d. 1975)
- 1905 - Barnett Newman, American painter (d. 1970)
- 1911 - Peter von Siemens, German industrialist (d. 1986)
- 1913 - Peter von Zahn, German journalist and writer (d. 2001)
- 1915 - Victor Mature, American actor (d. 1999)
- 1918 - John Forsythe, American actor
- 1923 - Paddy Chayefsky, American writer (d. 1981)
- 1923 - Ivo Robic, Croatian singer and songwriter (d. 2000)
- 1924 - Luigi Nono, Italian composer (d. 1990)
- 1926 - Franco Cerri, Italian musician
- 1926 - Abdus Salam, Pakistani physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1996)
- 1927 - Edward Abbey, American environmentalist (d. 1989)
- 1928 - Lee Shau Kee, Hong Kong SAR property developer
- 1929 - Gordon Solie, wrestling announcer (d. 2000)
- 1932 - Tommy Taylor, English footballer (d. 1958)
- 1939 - Germaine Greer, Australian feminist writer
- 1940 - Katharine Ross, American actress
- 1942 - Claudine Longet, French singer and dancer
- 1945 - Tom Selleck, American actor
- 1947 - Linda B. Buck, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1948 - Marc Singer, Canadian actor
- 1950 - Ann Jillian, American actress
- 1950 - Jody Scheckter, South African race car driver
- 1952 - Tommy Ramone, Hungarian-born musician and record producer (The Ramones)
- 1954 - Richard 'Handsome Dick' Manitoba - American born rock singer, radio dj.
- 1954 - Oprah Winfrey, American actress, talk show host, producer, and publisher
- 1960 - Gia Carangi, American model (d. 1986)
- 1960 - Sean Kerly, British field hockey player
- 1960 - Greg Louganis, American diver
- 1960 - Steve Sax, American baseball player
- 1960 - J. G. Thirlwell, Australian-born musician
- 1962 - Nicholas Turturro, American actor
- 1964 - Andre Reed, American football player
- 1965 - Dominik Hasek, Czech hockey player
- 1966 - Romário, Brazilian footballer
- 1968 - Edward Burns, American actor
- 1969 - Thomas Jane, American actor
- 1970 - Heather Graham, American actress
- 1970 - Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore, Indian shooter
- 1973 - Jason Schmidt, baseball player
- 1975 - Sara Gilbert, American actress
- 1979 - Sui Feifei, Chinese basketball player
- 1981 - Jonny Lang, American musician

Deaths

- 1119 - Pope Gelasius II
- 1342 - Louis I, Duke of Bourbon (b. 1279)
- 1597 - Elias Ammerbach, German organist (b. 1530)
- 1608 - Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg (b. 1557)
- 1647 - Francis Meres, English writer (b. 1565)
- 1676 - Tsar Alexis I of Russia (b. 1629)
- 1678 - Jeronimo Lobo, Portuguese Jesuit missionary (b. 1593)
- 1706 - Charles Sackville, 6th Earl of Dorset, English poet and courtier (b. 1638)
- 1730 - Tsar Peter II of Russia (b. 1715)
- 1737 - George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney, British soldier (b. 1666)
- 1743 - Cardinal André-Hercule de Fleury, Bishop of Fréjus, chief minister under Louis XV of France (b. 1653)
- 1763 - Louis Racine, French poet (b. 1692)
- 1820 - King George III of the United Kingdom (b. 1738)
- 1829 - Paul François Jean Nicolas Barras, French politician (b. 1755)
- 1870 - Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany (b. 1797)
- 1906 - King Christian IX of Denmark (b. 1818)
- 1928 - Douglas Haig, British soldier (b. 1861)
- 1933 - Sara Teasdale, American poet (b. 1884)
- 1934 - Fritz Haber, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1868)
- 1946 - Harry Hopkins, American politician (b. 1890)
- 1951 - Frank Tarrant, Australian cricketer (b. 1880)
- 1956 - H. L. Mencken, American journalist (b. 1880)
- 1962 - Fritz Kreisler, Austrian violinist (b. 1875)
- 1963 - Robert Frost, American poet (b. 1874)
- 1964 - Alan Ladd, American actor (b. 1913)
- 1969 - Allen Dulles, American Central Intelligence Agency director (b. 1893)
- 1970 - Basil Liddell Hart, British military historian (b. 1895)
- 1977 - Buster Nupen, South African cricketer (b. 1902)
- 1977 - Freddie Prinze, American actor and comedian (b. 1954)
- 1980 - Jimmy Durante, American actor, singer, and comedian (b. 1893)
- 1986 - Leif Erickson, American actor (b. 1911)
- 1989 - Halina Konopacka Polish athlete (b. 1900)
- 1991 - Yasushi Inoue, Japanese historian (b. 1907)
- 1992 - Willie Dixon, American composer and musician (b. 1915)
- 1998 - Joseph Alioto, Mayor of San Francisco (b. 1916)
- 1999 - Lili St. Cyr, American dancer (b. 1918)
- 2002 - Dick "Night Train" Lane, American football player (b. 1928)
- 2002 - Harold Russell, Canadian-born actor (b. 1914)
- 2003 - Frank Moss, U.S. Senator from Utah (b. 1911)
- 2004 - M. M. Kaye, British writer (b. 1908)
- 2004 - Joe Viterelli, American actor (b. 1937)
- 2005 - Eric Griffiths, Welsh guitarist (The Quarrymen) (b. 1940)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/29 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050129.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- January 28 - January 30 - December 29 - February 29 — listing of all days ko:1월 29일 ms:29 Januari ja:1月29日 simple:January 29 th:29 มกราคม

Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

Pope Sergius III

Pope Sergius III, scion of Benedictus, of a noble Roman family, reigned in two intervals between 897 and April 14, 911, during a period of feudal violence and disorder in central Italy, where the Papacy was a pawn of warring aristocratic factions. It was also the dawn of an age of powerful women. The pontificate of Sergius III, so far as is known through the Liber pontificalis and a partisan and spiteful later chronicler, Liutprand of Cremona, was remarkable for the rise of the "pornocracy," or rule of the harlots, as papal chroniclers dubbed the reversal of the natural order as they saw it, with women in power: Theodora, whom Liutprand revealingly characterized as a "shameless whore..[who] exercised power on the Roman citizenry like a man" and her daughter Marozia, the mother of Pope John XI and reputed to be the mistress of Sergius III, largely upon a remark by Liutprand (see Brook link below). Sergius owed his rise to the power of his patron, the military commander Theophylact, Count of Tusculum who held the position of vestarius in control of the disbursements at the top of papal patronage. He and his party opposed Pope Formosus, who ordained Sergius bishop of Caere (Cerveteri)— in order to remove him from Rome, as an unsympathetic source records. He was his faction's unsuccessful candidate for the papacy in 896; when John IX was elected instead, he excommunicated Sergius, who had to withdraw from his see at Cerveteri for safety. Elected Pope in 897, Sergius was forcibly exiled by Lambert, duke of Spoleto, and all the official records were destroyed; consequently most of the surviving documentation about Sergius comes from his opponents. When the (anti)pope Christopher seized the seat of St. Peter by force, the Theophylact faction of Romans revolted and ejected him in 903/4. They then invited Sergius to come out of retirement. His return is marked as January 29 904. Back in power, Sergius now in his turn annulled all the ordinations of Formosus, and demanded all bishops ordained by Formosus be re-ordained, an unwelcomed decision reversed again after his death. His nemeses, Pope Leo V and the antipope Christopher, both died in 904, alleged to have been strangled in prison, a claim, however, that the Catholic Encyclopedia called "extremely doubtful." Sergius allegedly honoured Pope Stephen VII who had been responsible for the infamous "Cadaver Synod" that had condemned and mutilated the corpse of Pope Formosus, by expanding on the mutilation. Sergius reportedly had the much-abused corpse of Formosus exhumed once more, tried and found guilty again, and beheaded. He even went so far as to place a laudatory remark on Stephen VII's tombstone. Sergius restored the Lateran Palace, which had been shattered by an earthquake in 896. He is the first pope to be pictured wearing the triple-crowned Papal tiara.

External links

- [http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/pope0119.htm Catholic Forum.com]: Pope Sergius III
- [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13729a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia:] Pope Sergius III
- [http://www.societaschristiana.com/Encyclopedia/P/Pornocracy.html Societas Christianae Encyclopedia:] The "Pornocracy"
- [http://fmg.ac/FMG/Popes.pdf Lindsay Brook, "Popes and pornocrats: Rome in the Early Middle Ages"] offers some more specific documentation Sergius III Sergius III Sergius 3 Sergius III ko:교황 세르지오 3세

Pope Christopher

Christopher reigned as pope from 903 to 904. Some say he was an antipope, but although he did not become pope in the usual way, he was officially recognized as pope some time later. He is included in most modern lists of popes. Christopher became pope by forcibly dethroning his predecessor, Pope Leo V, and putting him into prison, seemingly about October 903. As Leo appears to have soon died in his prison, Christopher has been regarded as his successor. This was during a corrupt time in papal Rome, and it is hard to tell what was true or not about Christopher. It is believed he was the first pope who stated that the Holy Ghost proceeded "from the Father and from the Son". Other than this and little else, nothing is known for certain about Pope Christopher. He was driven from the papacy by his successor, Pope Sergius III in January 904. He then ended his days as a religious man, and some people say he was later strangled in prison. However, even this is mysterious. Christopher Christopher

1595

Events

- January 30 - William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet is performed for the first time.
- William Shakespeare writes A Midsummer Night's Dream.
- May 24 - Nomenclator of Leiden University Library appears, the first printed catalog of an institutional library.
- June 9 - Battle of Fontaine-Française. Henry IV of France defeats the Spanish, but is nearly killed due to his rashness.
- September 15 - Group of pupils of Edinburgh High School barricade themselves in because of a dispute about holidays. When adults break in, pupil William Sinclair shoots city bailie John McMorane dead. Boys are arrested but acquitted later
- October 28 - Battle of Guirgevo. Transylvanian forces under Sigismund Bathory, allied to the Habsburgs, defeat the Turkish army of Sinan Pasha, securing Transylvanian control over Wallachie.
- Mehmed III succeeds Murad III as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire
- The Austrians incite a rebellion against the Ottomans in Bulgaria.
- The Spanish navigator and explorer, Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira leads the voyage that discovers (for Europeans), the first known islands of Polynesia, the Marquesas.

Births

- January 6 - Claude Favre de Vaugelas, French grammarian and man of letters (died 1650)
- June 9 - King Wladislaus IV of Poland (died 1648)
- December 4 - Jean Chapelain, French poet (died 1674)
- December 5 - Henry Lawes, English musician (died 1662)
- Dirck van Baburen, Dutch painter (died 1624)
- Bihari, Indian writer (died 1664)
- Thomas Carew, English poet (died 1645)
- Miles Corbet, English Puritan politician (died 1662)
- Jean Desmarets, French writer (died 1676)
- Henry Herbert, English official (died 1673)
- Lars Kagg, Swedish soldier and politician (died 1661)
- Jan Marek Marci, Bohemian physician and scientist (died 1677)
- Thomas May, poet and historian (died 1650)
- Henri II de Montmorency (died 1632)
- Bartholomaeus Nigrinus, Polish Rosicrucian (died 1646)
- Pocahontas, Algonquian princess
- Mikolaj Potocki, Polish politician (died 1651)
- Albrycht Stanislaw Radziwill, Lithuanian chancellor (died 1656)
- Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, Dutch colonist and merchant (died 1644)
- Robert Sempill the younger, English royalist writer
- Cornelius Vermuyden, Dutch engineer
- Georg Wilhelm, Elector of Brandenburg (died 1640) See also :Category:1595 births.

Deaths

- January 15 - Murad III, Ottoman Sultan (born 1546)
- January 24 - Archduke Ferdinand II of Austria, regent of Tyrol and Further Austria (born 1529)
- February 12 - Archduke Ernest of Austria, Governor of the Spanish Netherlands (born 1553)
- February 21 - Robert Southwell, Jesuit priest and poet (born 1561)
- April 25 - Torquato Tasso, Italian poet (born 1544)
- May 25 - Valens Acidalius, German critic and poet (born 1567)
- May 26 - Philip Neri, Italian churchman (born 1515)
- August 24 - Thomas Digges, English astronomer (born 1546)
- August 26 - Antonio, Prior of Crato, claimant to the throne of Portugal (b. 1531)
- October 19 - Philip Howard, 20th Earl of Arundel, English nobleman (born 1537)
- November 12 - John Hawkins, English shipbuilder and trader (born 1532)
- November 29 - Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga, Basque soldier and poet (b. 1533)
- Grzegorz Branicki, Polish nobleman
- Jeremias II of Constantinople, Patriarch of Constantinople
- Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon (born 1535)
- Turlough Luineach O'Neill, Irish chief of Tyrone (born 1530)
- Robert Sempill, Scottish ballad-writer (born None)
- Luis Barahona de Soto, Spanish poet (born 1548) See also :Category:1595 deaths. Category:1595 ko:1595년

Romeo and Juliet

Romeo and Juliet is a famous play by William Shakespeare concerning the fate of two young lovers. It is, perhaps, the most famous of his plays today. William Shakespeare]

History of the story

The story originates from a 1476 story of Mariotto and Gianozza by Masuccio Salernitano, in Il Novelino. Luigi da Porto's Istoria novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti gave the story much of its modern form, renaming the lovers to Romeus and Giulietta and shifting the action from Siena to Verona. Da Porto's story was taken up and included by Matteo Bandello in his Novelle of 1554, and translated to English by Arthur Brooke, whose narrative poem "Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet", written in 1562, was the source for Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Shakespeare enriched its texture through his vivid characterizations of both major and minor characters, in particular the Nurse and Mercutio.

Plot

Mercutio.]] The play begins with a 14-line prologue in the form of a sonnet. The chorus explains to the audience that the story concerns two noble families of Verona, the Montagues and the Capulets, that have feuded for generations. The chorus also tells how the tragic suicide of the lovers "[buries] their parents' strife," ending the conflict.

Act I

The action starts with a typical street-brawl between the two families, started by their servants and put down by the Prince of Verona. The Prince declares that the heads of the two families (known simply as "Montague" and "Capulet") will be held personally accountable (with their lives) for any further breach of the peace, and disperses the crowd. Paris, a young nobleman, talks to Capulet about marrying his thirteen-year-old daughter Juliet. Capulet demurs, citing the girl's tender years, and invites him to attract the attention of Juliet during a ball that the family is to hold a day later. Meanwhile Juliet's mother tries to persuade her young daughter to accept Paris's wooing during their coming ball. Juliet does not want Paris, but, being a dutiful daughter, accedes to her mother's wishes. This scene also introduces Juliet's nurse, the comic relief of the play, who recounts a bawdy anecdote about Juliet at great length and with much repetition. In the meantime, Montague and his wife fret to their nephew Benvolio about their son Romeo, who has long been moping for reasons unknown to them. Benvolio promises Montague that he will try to determine the cause. Benvolio queries Romeo and finds that his melancholy has its roots in his unrequited love for Capulet's niece, a girl named Rosaline (an unseen character). Romeo is infatuated but laments that she will not "ope her lap to saint-seducing gold." Benvolio tries to snap Romeo out of his dark mood, to no avail: despite the good-natured taunts of his fellows, including the witty nobleman Mercutio (who gives his well known Queen Mab speech), Romeo resolves to attend the masque at the Capulet house, relying on not being spotted in his costume, in the hopes of meeting up with Rosaline. Romeo attends the ball as planned, but he does not see Rosaline and falls instead for Juliet. They proclaim their love for one another with their "love sonnet". Tybalt, Juliet's hot-blooded cousin, recognizes Romeo under his disguise and calls for his sword. Capulet, however, speaks kindly of Romeo and, having resolved that his family will not be first to violate the Prince's decree, sternly forbids Tybalt from confronting Romeo. Tybalt stalks off in a huff. Before the ball ends, the Nurse identifies Juliet for Romeo, and (separately) identifies Romeo for Juliet.

Act II

Emboldened, Romeo risks his life by remaining on the Capulet estate after the party breaks up, to catch another glimpse of Juliet at her room, and in the famous balcony scene, the two eloquently declare their love for each other. The young lovers decide to marry without informing their parents, because they would undoubtedly disallow it due to the hate between the clans and the planned union between Paris and Juliet. Juliet sends the nurse to find Romeo. Accompanied by one Peter, who carries her fan, the nurse exchanges some spicy raillery with the bawdy Mercutio. With the help of Juliet's Nurse and the Franciscan priest Friar Lawrence, the two are wedded the next day. Friar Lawrence performs the ceremony, hoping to bring the two families to peace with each other through their mutual union.

Act III

Things take a darker turn in the next Act. Tybalt, still smarting from the incident at the Capulets' ball, meets up with Romeo and attempts to provoke a sword fight. Romeo refuses to fight Tybalt because they are now kinsmen - although Tybalt doesn't know it, as he doesn't yet know that Romeo has married Juliet. Mercutio, who is also unaware of the marriage, is incensed by Tybalt's insolence - and Romeo's seeming indifference - and takes up the challenge himself. In the ensuing swordplay, Romeo attempts to allay Mercutio's anger, momentarily placing his arm around him. By doing so, however, Romeo inadvertently allows Mercutio to be fatally wounded by Tybalt. Mercutio dies, wishing "a plague on both your houses." Romeo, in his anger, slays Tybalt. Although under the Prince of Verona's proclamation Romeo (and Montague and Capulet, as well) would be subject to the death penalty, the Prince instead fines the head of each house, and reduces Romeo's punishment to exile in recognition that Tybalt had killed Mercutio, who had not only been Romeo's friend but a relative of the Prince. Romeo flees to Mantua after making love to Juliet. Just after Romeo leaves Juliet's bedroom unseen, Capulet breaks the news to his daughter Juliet that he has agreed to fix the date of Paris and Juliet's wedding as three days hence. Unwilling to enter this arranged marriage, telling her parents that she will not marry, and when she does, "it shall be Romeo, whom you know I hate." Capulet flies into a rage.

Act IV

Friar Lawrence, a dabbler in herbal medicines and potions, gives Juliet a potion and a plan: the potion will put her in a death-like coma for two and forty hours; she is to take it before her marriage day, and when discovered dead, she will be laid in the family crypt. Meanwhile, the Friar will send a messenger to inform Romeo, so that he can rejoin her when she awakes. The two can then leave for Mantua and live happily ever after. Juliet takes the potion, and things proceed as planned.

Act V

The Friar's messenger is unable to reach Romeo due to Mantua being under quarantine, and Romeo learns only of Juliet's supposed "death" through a family servant. Grief-stricken, he buys some strong poison, returns to Verona in secret, and proceeds to the Capulets' crypt, determined to join Juliet in death. Upon arrival he encounters Paris, who has also come to mourn privately for his lost love. After killing Paris in a duel, Romeo drinks the poison after seeing Juliet one last time, exclaiming: "O true apothecary! Thy drugs are quick. Thus with a kiss I die.." (Act 5. Scene III) Friar Lawrence then arrives and, entering upon the room, finds the dead bodies of Romeo and Paris. It is at this point that Juliet awakes and, seeing the surrounding death, seeks answers. Friar Laurence, afraid of being apprehended by the city guards, urges Juliet to flee with him. Knowing all is lost, she replies to the Friar's offer with "Go, get thee hence, for I will not away." (Act 5. Scene III) Juliet cannot imagine a rewarding life without Romeo and so she stabs herself fatally with his dagger. The two lovers lie dead side by side, devoted until the last breath of life. Romeo, Juliet, and Paris are found dead shortly thereafter by a squire, who runs off to alert others. As word spreads throughout Verona about the deaths, the two feuding families and the Prince converge upon the tomb. They are horrified to find Romeo, Juliet, and Paris all lying dead, and Friar Laurence (who has hurried to the crypt but is too late to prevent the tragedy) reveals to them the love and secret marriage of Romeo and Juliet. The feuding families are reconciled by their children's deaths and agree to end their violent feud, as explained by the prologue. The play ends with the Prince saying, "A glooming peace this morning with it brings; The sun for sorrow will not show his head. Go hence, to have more talk of these sad things; Some shall be pardon'd, and some punished; For never was a story of more woe Than this of Juliet and her Romeo."

Commentary

Like most of Shakespeare's plays, the greater part of Romeo and Juliet is written in iambic pentameter. However, the play is also notable for its copious use of rhymed verse, notably in the sonnet contained in Romeo and Juliet's dialogue in the scene where they first meet. This sonnet figures Romeo as a blushing pilgrim (palmer) praying before an image of the Virgin Mary, as many persons in early-sixteenth-century England did at shrines such as the shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham.[http://www.galbithink.org/sense-s5.htm] Because of its use of rhyme, its extravagant expressions of love, its Italian theme, and its implausible plot, Romeo and Juliet is considered to belong to Shakespeare's "lyrical period", along with the similarly poetic plays A Midsummer Night's Dream and Richard II. Romeo and Juliet is one of the earlier works in the Shakespearean canon, and while it is often classified as a tragedy, it does not bear the hallmarks of the 'great tragedies' like Hamlet and Macbeth. Some argue that Romeo and Juliet's demise does not stem from their own individual flaws, but from the actions of others or from accidents. Unlike the great tragedies, Romeo and Juliet is more a tragedy of mistiming and ill fate. However, others consider rashness and youth to be the tragic flaws of Romeo and Juliet. The play's most famous line is widely misunderstood. The word "wherefore" means "why", not "where", so when Juliet calls from the balcony, "O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?" she is asking why his name (by implication, his family's name) makes him an enemy of her family, as the next lines make clear: "Deny thy father, and refuse thy name ... that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet." (This instance has led to a more widespread misuse of "wherefore".)

Farce

It has been noted that the plot of Romeo and Juliet is more that of a farce or comedy of errors than a tragedy, except that it lacks the vital last-minute save and everyone dies at the end instead of living happily ever after. It can also be argued that not all is woe at the end. A long-running feud is ended, although at the price of the two lovers' lives, thus, no doubt, future deaths have been prevented.

Italy

In this pre-modern time Italy did not yet exist and its warring Communes stood divided, many of them against the interests of the Catholic Church - particularly in the Verona and Venice areas, (Venice would become known as a thorn in the side of the Church in the 1500s). The play attacks the Catholic Church (largely to please Queen Elizabeth).

Adaptations

There have been quite a few adaptations of Romeo and Juliet, created for many media.

Plays

Other versions of the Romeo and Juliet play had been made, which had the "culture" of where the play was made as the "setting". For instance, a version of the play which had Romeo as a Palestinian and Juliet as a Jew in Israel and the Palestinian territories was made, which criticizes the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. An updated version of Romeo and Juliet called [http://homepage.mac.com/christolley/RJR Romeo/Juliet Remixed] (or R0M30/JUL137 R3M1X3D) is set to a rave dance floor background with a kick-boxing Juliet and an Ecstasy taking Romeo. Before the play begins, this interactive show features your choice of glowsticks (pink if you choose to be a Montague, yellow if you choose to be a Capulet,) an escort to a mock dance club called "Club Verona" where you dance and mingle with the cast and other audience members as well as cheer on your crew of breakdancing Montagues or Capulets, and a chance to be on the venue's big screen. Romeo and Juliet communicate via cell phone and text messaging.

Opera

The story was converted into the opera Roméo et Juliette by Charles François Gounod in 1867 with a libretto written by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré. The Romeo and Juliet story was also the subject of Vincenzo Bellini's opera I Capuleti e i Montecchi, although Bellini and his librettist, Felice Romani, worked from Italian sources, and these were only distantly related to Shakespeare's work.

Ballet

Several ballet adaptations of the story have been made, the first written in the 18th century. The best known feature music by Sergei Prokofiev, and a variety of choreographers have used this music. The first version featuring Prokofiev's music was performed in 1938. See: Romeo and Juliet (Prokofiev)

Musical

The musical West Side Story, also made into a film, is based on Romeo and Juliet but updates the story to mid-20th century New York City and the warring families to ethnic gangs. Roméo et Juliette, de la Haine à l'Amour, a musical by Gérard Presgurvic, premiered on January 19, 2001 in the Palais de Congrès in Paris, France. It attracted already (2005) six million people. The song "Exit Music (For a Film)" by Radiohead was made for the 1996 movie version (see below) of Romeo and Juliet and is sung from the point of view of someone waking up his lover and inviting them to join them in escaping from the oppression of their respective families through suicide.

Instrumental Music

Among the instrumental pieces inspired by the play are Tchaikovsky's Romeo and Juliet, Fantasty Overture after Shakespeare and Hector Berlioz's Roméo et Juliette "Symphonie dramatique", although the latter does have substantial vocal parts. Prokofiev also created three orchestra suites and a piano suite, Romeo and Juliet: Ten Pieces for Piano, based on the music from his ballet.

Movie versions

There have been over forty movie versions of the tale, with the first in 1900. Some of the more notable adaptations include: ;1936 - Romeo and Juliet, produced by Irving Thalberg and directed by George Cukor :The 1936 screen version was one of the more notable of Classical Hollywood. Thalberg spared no expense, and showcased his wife, Norma Shearer, in the lead role. Romeo was played by Leslie Howard, John Barrymore was Mercutio, and Andy Devine was Peter, the servant to Juliet's nurse. However, the film was criticized because Howard and Shearer were both far too old for the roles. :Academy Awards nominations: :
- Best Picture - Irving Thalberg, producer :
- Best Actor in a Supporting Role - Basil Rathbone - as Tybalt :
- Best Actress - Norma Shearer :
- Best Art Direction - Cedric Gibbons, Fredric Hope and Edwin B. Willis ;1954 - Romeo and Juliet directed by Renato Castellani. :A notable Italian production with a strong cast and a colourful setting. The cast includes Galina Ulanova, Laurence Harvey, Bolshoi Ballet, Mervyn Johns, Flora Robson, Yuri Zhdanov and Susan Shentall. ;1968 - Romeo and Juliet, directed by Franco Zeffirelli :Filmed in Italy, the performance of the young Olivia Hussey as Juliet has been considered truly inspired by some, as weak by others. It won Oscars for best cinematography and best costume design, and was nominated for Best Director. It also starred Leonard Whiting as Romeo - he was seen as 'the next big thing' in film at the time, but his career did not match up to expectations. This version is often considered the definitive one, if measured only by viewing in American high schools. ;1978 - Romeo and Juliet, directed by Alvin Rakoff :for the BBC Television Shakespeare series. This production is generally unregarded due to its inexperienced stars and low production values, although Alan Rickman's Tybalt is watchable. ;1983 - Romeo and Juliet, directed by William Woodman :This film features an excellent set of costumes. The cast includes Alex Hyde-White, Blanche Baker, Esther Rolle, Dan Hamilton, and Frederic Hehne. ;1996 - Romeo + Juliet, directed by Baz Luhrmann :Starring Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes in the title roles, Luhrmann gave the famous tale a modern setting. This radical interpretation of the play is either loved or loathed by filmgoers, but its art direction and cinematography are undeniably impressive. :At the Berlin International Film Festival 1997, it won: :
- Best Actor (Leonardo DiCaprio) :
- Alfred Bauer Prize :Academy Awards 1996 nominations: :
- Best Art Direction (Catherine Martin) :
- Set Decoration (Brigitte Broch) ;1996 - Tromeo and Juliet, directed by Lloyd Kaufman :The Troma team put their own inimitable spin on the story, setting it in Manhattan in a punk milieu. Lemmy from Motörhead narrates. ;2005 - Romeo & Juliet directed by Dave LaChapelle :Featuring Tamyra Gray as Juliet, Gus Carr as Romeo, and Mary J. Blige, this is a 10 minute promotional advertisement for the H&M clothing company. Released in September 2005, this commercial was shown online ([http://www.hm.com/corporate/inspiration/campaigns/denim/index.jsp?clang=us&version=2005-44b H&M website]) and during the trailers of certain theatrical films, and featured the new & denim selection. In this musical remake which features background music provided by Mary J. Blige, Romeo is gunned down in a drive-by shooting and Juliet sings over his body while he bleeds to death on the street. Due to many complaints that the commercial glamorized gang violence and was H&M's attempt to use gun culture to sell their jeans to teenagers, H&M subsequently withdrew the ad from Canadian & U.S. markets and issued an apology. The film West Side Story set in 1960's New York City was based on the story of Romeo and Juliet, with Capulet and Montague exchanged for the Jets and Sharks. Shakespeare in Love is a fictional account of how Shakespeare writes the play against the clock inspired by his love of an upper-class woman.

Allusions

- Dire Straits' 1980 album Making Movies had a hit song "Romeo and Juliet", in which the lovestruck singer imagines himself in Romeo's image, as his girlfriend's parents disapprove of him. The Indigo Girls covered this song on their album Rites of Passage.
- The 2003 musical remake of Reefer Madness featured a song "Romeo and Juliet" in which a pair of young lovers compare themselves to Romeo and Juliet, having only read the first half of the play, and mistakenly assuming the ending to be happy.
- The Arctic Monkeys song I Bet You Look Good On the Dance Floor mentions the Montagues and Capulets.
- The Blue Öyster Cult song "Don't Fear the Reaper" mentions Romeo and Juliet.

External links

- [http://www.italicon.it/index_biblio.asp?MNUEICON=04&Lettera=M&autore=34&titolo=51 Romeo and Juliet] - The electronic text in Italian of the original story
- [http://www.asksam.com/ebooks/shakespeare/romeo_juliet.asp Search and analyze Romeo and Juliet on-line or in a downloadable eBook.]
- [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/1112 Romeo and Juliet] - plain vanilla text from Project Gutenberg
- [http://www.shakespeare-literature.com/Romeo_and_Juliet/ Romeo and Juliet] - searchable, indexed version from shakespeare-literature.com
- [http://william-shakespeare.classic-literature.co.uk/romeo-and-juliet/ Romeo and Juliet] - HTML version of this title.
- [http://the-tech.mit.edu/Shakespeare/romeo_juliet/full.html Romeo and Juliet] - HTML version at MIT
- [http://www.bookrags.com/notes/rj/ Study guide of the play]
- [http://www.operaworld.com/belcanto/capsrome.shtml The history of the story] at OperaWorld.com
- [http://www.mondophoto.net/europe/italy/verona/verona01.html Mondophoto.net] - 212 photos of Verona Category:English Renaissance plays Category:Shakespearean tragedies ja:ロミオとジュリエット simple:Romeo and Juliet

1676

Events

- January 29 - Feodor III becomes Tsar of Russia
- July 17 - In France, Marie-Madeleine-Marguerite d'Aubray, Marquise de Brinvilliers is executed for poisoning his father and brothers. Case also scares the king Louis XIV to start a series of investigations about possible poisonings and witchcraft, later called the Poison affair
- November 16 - The Nantucket Island Prison founded on Nantucket Island in the English colony of Massachusetts
- First measurement of the speed of light, by Ole Rømer
- Bacon's Rebellion
- Russo-Turkish Wars commence.
- King Philip's War between the settlers in New England and the indigenous tribes led by Metacomet.

Births

- May 8 - Frederick I of Sweden (d. 1751)
- March 17 - Thomas Boston, Scottish church leader (d. 1732)
- April 23 - King Frederick I of Sweden (d. 1751)
- May 28 - Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician (d. 1754)
- June 21 - Anthony Collins, English philosopher (d. 1729)
- July 3 - Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau, Prussian field marshal (d. 1747)
- July 14 - Caspar Abel, German theologian, historian, and poet (d. 1763)
- August 26 - Robert Walpole, first Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1745)
- September 19 - Eberhard IV Ludwig, Duke of Württemberg (d. 1733)
- October 8 - Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro, Spanish scholar (d. 1764)

Deaths

- January 14 - Francesco Cavalli, Italian composer (b. 1602)
- January 29 - Tsar Alexis I of Russia (b. 1629)
- February 14 - Abraham Bosse, French engraver and artist
- March 21 - Henri Sauval, French historian (b. 1623)
- April 5 - John Winthrop, the Younger, Governor of Connecticut (b. 1606)
- April 29 - Michiel Adriaanszoon de Ruijter, Dutch admiral (b. 1607)
- June 7 - Paul Gerhardt, German hymnist
- July 5 - Carl Gustaf Wrangel, Swedish soldier (b. 1613)
- July 22 - Pope Clement X (b. 1590)
- July 25 - François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac, French writer (b. 1604)
- August 11 - Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, German writer
- September 10 - Gerrard Winstanley, English religious reformer (b. 1609)
- October 28 - Jean Desmarets, French writer (b. 1595)
- November 1 - Gisbertus Voetius, Dutch theologian (b. 1589)
- December 25 - Matthew Hale, Lord Chief Justice of England (b. 1609)
- December 25 - William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle, English soldier, politician, and writer (b. 1592) Category:1676 ko:1676년

Feodor III of Russia

Feodor (Theodore) III of Russia (In Russian: Фёдор III Алексеевич) (June 9, 1661 - May 7, 1682) was the Tsar of all Russia, during whose short reign (1678-82) the Polish cultural influence in the Kremlin was paramount. Feodor was the eldest surviving son of Tsar Alexius and Maria Miloslavskaya. In 1676 he succeeded his father on the throne. He was endowed with a fine intellect and a noble disposition; he had received an excellent education at the hands of Simeon Polotsky, the most learned Slavonic monk of the day, knew Polish, and even possessed the unusual accomplishment of Latin; but, horribly disfigured and half paralyzed by a mysterious disease, supposed to be scurvy, he had been a hopeless invalid from the day of his birth. He spent most of the time with young nobles, Yazykov and Likhachov, who would later introduce the Russian court to Polish ceremonies, dress, and language. On July 28, 1680 he married a Ukrainian noblewoman Agatha Gruszewska and assumed the sceptre. His native energy, though crippled, was not crushed by his terrible disabilities; and he soon showed that he was as thorough and devoted a reformer as a man incompetent to lead armies and obliged to issue his orders from his litter, or his bed-chamber, could possibly be. The atmosphere of the court ceased to be oppressive; the light of a new liberalism shone in the highest places; and the severity of the penal laws was considerably mitigated. He founded the academy of sciences in the Zaikonospassky monastery, where everything not expressly forbidden by the Orthodox church, including Slavonic, Greek, Latin and Polish, was to be taught by competent professors. Polish The chief difference between the Feodorean and the later Petrine reforms was that while the former were primarily, though not exclusively, for the benefit of the church, the latter were primarily for the benefit of the state. The most notable reform of Feodor III, however, was the abolition, at the suggestion of Vasily Galitzine, of "place priority," which had paralyzed the whole civil and military administration of Muscovy for generations. Henceforth all appointments to the civil and military services were to be determined by merit and the will of the sovereign, while pedigree (nobility) books were to be destructed. Feodor's consort, Agatha, shared his progressive views. She was the first to advocate beard-shaving. On her death (4th of July 1681) Feodor married Martha Apraksina. He died on May 7, 1682, without issue.

References

- Category:1661 births Category:1682 deaths Category:Romanov Category:Russian tsars ja:フョードル3世 (ロシア皇帝)

Tsar

:For the US community of Czar, see Czar, West Virginia. Tsar (Bulgarian цар, Russian царь, ; often spelled Czar or Tzar and sometimes Csar or Zar in English), was the title used for the autocratic rulers of the Bulgarian Empire in 913-1396/1422 and 1908-1946, in Serbia in the middle of the 14th century, and in Russia from 1547 to 1917 (although this usage is only technically correct until 1721).

History of usage

The title tsar was first adopted and used in Bulgaria by Simeon I following a decisive victory over the Byzantine Empire in 913. It was also used by all of Simeon I's successors until the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule in 1396. After Bulgaria's liberation from the Ottomans in 1878, its new monarchs adopted the title tsar again and used it between 1908 and 1946. In 1547, Ivan IV of Russia changed his title from "Veliki Kniaz (Grand Duke) of the whole Rus" to "tsar of the whole Rus" as a symbol of change in the nature of the Russian state. In 1721 Peter I adopted the title Emperor (Император [Imperator]), by which he and his heirs were recognised, and which came to be used interchangeably with Tsar. The title "Tsar" was also used by Serbian rulers in the middle of the 14th century. Often the word tsar is translated as emperor and vice versa, tsar was also used for other emperors; for example, the title of the Japanese emperor was translated as "tsar of Japan". However, in 1721, Tsar Peter the Great of Russia took the additional title of Imperator (Emperor), which, at least officially, superseded the older title of Tsar, which was henceforth formally used only for peripheral parts of the Empire. The word "tsar" is sometimes informally applied to earlier Russian and Bulgarian rulers which were not formally crowned as tsars. The domain or rule of a tsar is sometimes referred to as a tsardom. Rulers that were called tsars may be found in the following lists.
- List of Bulgarian monarchs
- List of Serbian monarchs
- List of Russian rulers

Etymology and spelling

The word tsar is derived from the Latin title Caesar by way of the Old Slavonic tsesar (цесарь). The word is cognate with German Kaiser and Gothic Káisar. The contraction of цесарь into царь occurred by the way of shorthand writing of titles in old Slavonic church manuscripts, see Titlo article. One may see the examples of this, e.g., in the older copies of the Slavic Primary Chronicle. The spelling tsar is the closest possible transliteration of the Russian using standard English spelling. Both czar and tsar have been accepted in English for the last century as a correct usage. French adopted the form tsar during the 19th century, and it became more frequent in English towards the end of that century, following its adoption by The Times. (see the Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition). The spelling tzar with 'z' is also very common, and represents an alternative transliteration of the first letter ц. The spelling czar originated with the Austrian diplomat Baron Sigismund von Herberstein, whose Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii (1549) (literally Notes on Muscovite Affairs) was the main source of knowledge of Russia in early modern western Europe. It is not found in any of the Slavic languages, but is the primary spelling adopted by Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th Edition, 2003), with tsar offered only as a variant. Modern usage seems to have standardized on the use of tsar to describe former rulers of Russia, while czar is used to informally describe an expert in charge of implementing policy (especially in the US): economics czar, drug czar, et cetera. The original Russian pronunciation of tsar is (in IPA notation) though many if not most English-speaking people pronounce it considerably differently: or . This is because although English has in words like cats it is unusual for this sound to start an English word.

Imperium maius

In Christian Europe the use of the title emperor is more than an affectation. A king recognises that the church is an equal or superior in the religious sphere, emperors do not. This was illustrated by Henry VIII of England who started to use the word imperium in his dispute with the Pope over his first divorce. By stating that they were emperors the Russian rulers claimed to be the head of the (Russian Orthodox) church and did not recognise any superior authority but God.

Russia

Full title of Russian tsars

The full title of Russian emperors started with By the Grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias (Божию Милостию, Император и Самодержец Всероссийский [Bozhiyu Milostiyu, Imperator i Samodyerzhets Vserossiysky]) and went further to list all ruled territories. For example, according to the art. 59 of the Russian Constitution of April 23, 1906, "the full title of His Imperial Majesty is as follows: We, ------ by the grace of God, Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias, of Moscow, Kiev, Vladimir, Novgorod, Tsar of Kazan, Tsar of Astrakhan, Tsar of Poland, Tsar of Siberia, Tsar of Tauric Khersones, Tsar of Georgia, Lord of Pskov, and Grand Duke of Smolensk, Lithuania, Volhynia, Podolia, and Finland, Prince of Estonia, Livonia, Courland and Semigalia, Samogitia, Białystok, Karelia, Tver, Yugra, Perm, Vyatka, Bulgaria, and other territories; Lord and Grand Duke of Nizhni Novgorod, Chernigov; Ruler of Ryazan, Polotsk, Rostov, Yaroslavl, Beloozero, Udoria, Obdoria, Kondia, Vitebsk, Mstislav, and all northern territories ; Ruler of Iveria, Kartalinia, and the Kabardinian lands and Armenian territories - hereditary Ruler and Lord of the Cherkess and Mountain Princes and others; Lord of Turkestan, Heir of Norway, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, Stormarn, Dithmarschen, Oldenburg, and so forth, and so forth, and so forth." For example, Nicholas II of Russia was titled as follows (notice the archaic spelling): :Божію Поспѣшествующею Милостію МЫ, НИКОЛАЙ ВТОРЫЙ ИМПЕРАТОРЪ и САМОДЕРЖЕЦЪ ВСЕРОССІЙСКІЙ :Московский, Кіевскій, Владимірскій, Новгородскій, :Царь Казанскій, Царь Астраханскій, Царь Польскій, Царь Сибирскій, Царь Херсониса Таврическаго, Царь Грузинскій, :Государь Псковскій, и :Великій Князь Смоленскій, Литовскій, Волынскій, Подольскій и Финляндскій; :Князь Эстляндскій, Лифляндскій, Курляндскій и Семигальскій, Самогитскій, Бѣлостокский, Корельскій, :Тверскій, Югорскій, Пермскій, Вятскій, Болгарскій и иныхъ; :Государь и Великій Князь Новагорода низовскія земли, Черниговскій, Рязанскій, Полотскій, :Ростовскій, Ярославскій, Бѣлозерскій, Удорскій, Обдорскій, Кондійскій, Витебскій, Мстиславскій и :всея Сѣверныя страны Повелитель; и :Государь Иверскія, Карталинскія и Кабардинскія земли и области Арменскія; :Черкасскихъ и Горскихъ Князей и иныхъ Наслѣдный Государь и Обладатель; :Государь Туркестанскій; :Наслѣдникъ Норвежскій, :Герцогъ Шлезвигъ-Голстинскій, Стормарнскій, Дитмарсенскій и Ольденбургскій, и прочая, и прочая, и прочая.

Titles for Russian Tsar's family

Tsaritsa (царица) is the term used for an Empress, though in English contexts this seems invariably to be altered to tsarina. In the Imperial Russia, the official title was Empress (Императрица). Tsaritsa (Empress) could be either the ruler herself or the wife (Empress consort) of tsar. Tsesarevich (Цесаревич) (literally, "son of the tsesar") is the term for a male heir apparent, the full title was Heir Tsesarevich ("Naslednik Tsesarevich", Наследник Цесаревич), informally abbreviated in Russia to The Heir ("Naslednik") (from the capital letter). Tsarevich (царевич) was the term for a son. In older times the term was used in place of "Tsesarevich" (Цесаревич). A son who was not a heir was formally called Velikii Kniaz (Великий Князь) (Grand Duke). The latter title was also used for grandsons (through male lines). Tsarevna (царевна) was the term for a daughter and a granddaughter of a Tsar or Tsaritsa. The official title was Velikaya Kniaginya (Великая Княгиня), translated as Grand Duchess or Grand Princess. See also Grand Duchess for more details on the Velikaya Kniaginya title. Tsesarevna (Цесаревна) was the wife of the Tsesarevich.

Notes

#When Nicholas II abdicated in 1917 he abdicated not just on his own behalf but also on behalf of his teenage son, who was too ill to take up the throne. He named as his heir his own brother Michael. Michael initially considered accepting the throne, conditional upon the people accepting him as their ruler. But a day or two later he decided against this course. He saw no need to formally abdicate a throne he had never formally accepted. He was never proclaimed as "Tsar Michael II". Historians and lists of tsars differ as to whether to regard Michael or Nicholas II as the last tsar. Nicholas II was undoubtedly the last tsar to rule Russia and so was the last effective tsar. Michael, if he can be said to have been tsar at all, exercised no governmental functions and merely reigned nominally for a very short time. Michael, like his brother Nicholas, was executed by the Bolsheviks in 1918. #In 1924 Grand Duke Cyril Romanov proclaimed himself Emperor in exile. #Moscow and Saint-Petersburg are the two tsar's capitals.

1814

1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 14 - Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden in exchange for west Pomerania, as part of the Treaty of Kiel
- January 29 - French army of Emperor Napoleon I wins the Battle of Brienne
- January 31 - Gervasio Antonio de Posadas becomes Supreme Director of Argentina.
- February - Congress of Chatillon - see George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen
- February 1 - Mayon Volcano, in the Philippines, erupts, killing around 1,200 people; most devastating eruption of Mayon Volcano
- February 11 - Norway's independence is proclaimed, marking the ultimate end of the Kalmar Union
- February 14 - Napoleon wins the Battle of Vauchamps
- February 18