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January 30

January 30

January 30 is the 30th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 335 days remaining, (336 in leap years).

Events

- 1648 - The Treaty of Münster is signed, ending the Eighty Years' War between the Netherlands and Spain.
- 1649 - King Charles I of England is beheaded.
- 1661 -Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England is formally executed- after having been dead for two years.
- 1790 - The first boat specialized as a lifeboat is tested on the River Tyne.
- 1820 - Edward Bransfield lands on the Antarctic mainland.
- 1835 - A mentally ill man named Richard Lawrence attempts to assassinate President Andrew Jackson in the United States Capitol -- the first assassination attempt against a President. Both of Lawrence's pistols misfire, and Jackson proceeds to beat his would-be assassin with his cane.
- 1847 - Yerba Buena, California is renamed San Francisco.
- 1862 - The first American ironclad warship, the USS Monitor is launched.
- 1889 - Archduke Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown, was found dead with his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera in Mayerling. How they died remains a mystery.
- 1900 - United Kingdom forces fighting Boers in South Africa ask for reinforcements.
- 1911 - The destroyer USS Terry makes the first airplane rescue at sea saving the life of James McCurdy 10 miles from Havana, Cuba.
- 1911 - The Canadian Naval Service becomes the Royal Canadian Navy.
- 1913 - House of Lords rejects Irish Home Rule Bill.
- 1925 - Government of Turkey throws Patriarch Constantine VI out of Istanbul.
- 1933 - Adolf Hitler is sworn in as Chancellor of Germany.
- 1933 - The first of 2,956 episodes of The Lone Ranger radio series airs on station WXYZ in Detroit, Michigan.
- 1944 - United States troops invade Majuro, Marshall Islands.
- 1945 - KdF Ship Wilhelm Gustloff sunk in the Baltic Sea - deadliest maritime disaster in known history killing roughly 9,000.
- 1948 - Indian pacifist and leader Mahatma Gandhi is murdered by a Hindu extremist.
- 1948 - 1948 Winter Olympics open in St. Moritz, Switzerland.
- 1962 - Two of the high-wire Flying Wallendas are killed when their famous seven-person pyramid collapses during a performance in Detroit, Michigan.
- 1964 - Ranger 6 is launched by NASA. Its mission is to carry television cameras and to crash-land on the moon.
- 1968 - Vietnam War: The Tet Offensive begins when Viet Cong forces launch series of a surprise attacks in South Vietnam.
- 1969 - The Beatles' last public performance, on the roof of Apple Records. The impromptu concert was broken up by the police.
- 1972 - Bloody Sunday: United Kingdom British Paratroopers murder fourteen Roman Catholic civil rights /anti internment marchers in Northern Ireland- Bloody Sunday (1972)
- 1972 - Pakistan withdraws from the British Commonwealth.
- 1975 - First faroese stamp issued
- 1980 - Australian Sitcom Kingswood Country starts on ATN-7.
- 1983 - Super Bowl XVII: The Washington Redskins defeat the Miami Dolphins, 27-17, thus winning their first NFL championship since 1942.
- 1989 - The American embassy in Kabul, Afghanistan closes.
- 1994 - Péter Lékó becomes the youngest grand master in chess.
- 1994 - The Dallas Cowboys win their fourth Super Bowl title, 30-13 over the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII.
- 1995 - Workers from the National Institutes of Health announce the success of clinical trials testing the first preventive treatment for sickle-cell disease.
- 1996 - Suspected leader of the Irish National Liberation Army Gino Gallagher is killed while in line for his unemployment benefit.
- 1999 - A 7-year old boy dies of choking on a Pokémon Power Bouncer ball toy.
- 2000 - Off the coast of Côte d'Ivoire, Kenya Airways Flight 431 crashes into the Atlantic Ocean, killing 169.
- 2000 - In a dramatic finish to Super Bowl XXXIV, the St. Louis Rams defeat the Tennessee Titans, 23-16.
- 2002 - Slobodan Milošević accuses the United Nations war crimes tribunal of an "evil and hostile attack" against him.
- 2003 - Belgium legally recognizes same-sex marriage.
- 2005 - Amid violence and threats to boycott the results, Iraq holds an election for its National Assembly, the country's first free election since 1953.

Births

- 133 - Marcus Severus Didius Julianus, Roman Emperor (d.193)
- 1505 - Thomas Tallis, English composer (d. 1585)
- 1563 - Franciscus Gomarus, Dutch theologian (d. 1641)
- 1615 - Thomas Rolfe, American colonial settler
- 1661 - Charles Rollin, French historian (d. 1741)
- 1687 - Johann Balthasar Neumann, German architect (d. 1753)
- 1697 - Johann Joachim Quantz, German flutist and composer (d. 1773)
- 1720 - Charles De Geer, Swedish industrialist and entomologist (d. 1778)
- 1754 - John Lansing, Jr., American statesman (d. 1829)
- 1781 - Adelbert von Chamisso, German writer (d. 1838)
- 1841 - Félix Faure, President of France (d. 1899)
- 1861 - Charles Martin Loeffler, German-born composer (d. 1935)
- 1878 - Anton Hansen Tammsaare, Estonian author (d. 1940)
- 1882 - Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United States (d. 1945)
- 1894 - King Boris III of Bulgaria (d. 1943)
- 1899 - Max Theiler, South African virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1972)
- 1901 - Rudolf Caracciola, German race car driver (d. 1959)
- 1902 - Nikolaus Pevsner, German-born art historian (d. 1983)
- 1910 - C Subramaniam, Indian politician (d. 2000)
- 1911 - Roy Eldridge, American musician (d. 1989)
- 1912 - Barbara W. Tuchman, American historian (d. 1989)
- 1914 - John Ireland, Canadian actor (d. 1992)
- 1915 - Joachim Peiper, German military leader (d. 1976)
- 1915 - John Profumo, British cabinet minister
- 1920 - Delbert Mann, American director
- 1922 - Dick Martin, American comedian
- 1924 - Lloyd Alexander, American writer
- 1925 - Douglas Engelbart, American computer scientist
- 1925 - Dorothy Malone, American actress
- 1927 - Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden (d. 1986)
- 1928 - Hal Prince, American stage producer and director
- 1930 - Samuel J. Byck, American attempted assassin of Richard Nixon
- 1930 - Gene Hackman, American actor
- 1930 - Magnus Malan, South African politician
- 1931 - Allan W. Eckert, American historian, naturalist, and author
- 1931 - Shirley Hazzard, Australian-born author
- 1932 - Knock Yokoyama, Japanese comedian and politician
- 1933 - Louis Rukeyser, American journalist
- 1935 - Richard Brautigan, American writer and poet (d. 1984)
- 1937 - Vanessa Redgrave, English actress
- 1937 - Boris Spassky, Russian chess player
- 1939 - Alejandro Toledo, President of Peru
- 1941 - Gregory Benford, American author and scientist
- 1941 - Dick Cheney, Vice President of the United States
- 1943 - Marty Balin, American musician
- 1945 - Michael Dorris, American author (d. 1997)
- 1947 - Les Barker, English poet
- 1947 - Steve Marriott, English musician (The Small Faces) (d. 1991)
- 1948 - Nick Broomfield, British actor
- 1949 - Peter Agre, American biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
- 1951 - Phil Collins, English musician
- 1951 - Charles S. Dutton, American actor
- 1955 - Judith Tarr, American author
- 1957 - Payne Stewart, American golfer (d. 1999)
- 1959 - Jody Watley, American singer
- 1962 - Mary Kay Letourneau, American teacher
- 1974 - Christian Bale, Welsh actor
- 1976 - Andy Milonakis, American comedian
- 1980 - Wilmer Valderrama, American actor
- 1981 - Dimitar Berbatov, Bulgarian football player
- 1981 - Peter Crouch, English footballer
- 1990 - Jake Thomas, American actor

Deaths

- 1030 - William V, Duke of Aquitaine (b. 969)
- 1181 - Emperor Takakura of Japan (b. 1161)
- 1384 - Louis II of Flanders (b. 1330)
- 1574 - Damião de Góis, Portuguese philosopher (b. 1502)
- 1606 - Everard Digby, English conspirator (b. 1578)
- 1649 - King Charles I of England (executed) (b. 1600)
- 1836 - Betsy Ross, American seamstress (b. 1752)
- 1858 - Coenraad Jacob Temminck, Dutch zoologist (b. 1778)
- 1867 - Emperor Komei of Japan (b. 1831)
- 1889 - Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria (b. 1858)
- 1926 - Barbara La Marr, American actress (b. 1896)
- 1928 - Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger, Danish scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1867)
- 1948 - Mohandas Gandhi, Indian politician (b. 1869)
- 1948 - Orville Wright, American aviation pioneer (b. 1871)
- 1951 - Ferdinand Porsche, Austrian automotive engineer (b. 1875)
- 1958 - Jean Crotti, Swiss artist (b. 1878)
- 1962 - Manuel de Abreu, Brazilian physician (b. 1894)
- 1963 - Francis Poulenc, French composer (b. 1899)
- 1969 - Georges Pire, Belgian monk, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1910)
- 1980 - Professor Longhair, American musician (b. 1918)
- 1982 - Lightnin' Hopkins, American musician (b. 1912)
- 1991 - John Bardeen, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1908)
- 1991 - John McIntire, American actor (b. 1907)
- 1994 - Pierre Boulle, French author (b. 1912)
- 1995 - Gerald Durrell, British naturalist, zookeeper, author, and television presenter (b. 1925)
- 1999 - Huntz Hall, American actor (b. 1919)
- 1999 - Ed Herlihy, American writer (b. 1909)
- 2001 - Jean-Pierre Aumont, French actor (b. 1911)

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/30 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/1/30 Today in History: January 30] ---- January 29 - January 31 - December 30 — listing of all days ko:1월 30일 ms:30 Januari ja:1月30日 simple:January 30 th:30 มกราคม

January 30

January 30 is the 30th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 335 days remaining, (336 in leap years).

Events

Births

Deaths

External links

Leap year

A leap year (or intercalary year) is a year containing an extra day or month in order to keep the calendar year in sync with an astronomical or seasonal year. Seasons and astronomical events do not repeat at an exact number of days, so a calendar which had the same number of days in each year would over time drift with respect to the event it was supposed to track. By occasionally inserting (or intercalating) an additional day or month into the year, the drift can be corrected. Leap years (which keep the calendar in sync with the year) should not be confused with leap seconds (which keep clock time in sync with the day).

Gregorian calendar

The Gregorian calendar, the current standard calendar in most of the world, adds a 29th day to February in all years evenly divisible by 4, except for century years (those ending in -00), which receive the extra day only if they are evenly divisible by 400. Thus 1996 was a leap year whereas 1999 was not, and 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years but 1700, 1800, 1900 and 2100 are not. The reasoning behind this rule is as follows:
- The Gregorian calendar is designed to keep the vernal equinox on or close to March 21, so that the date of Easter (celebrated on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after 21 March) remains correct with respect to the vernal equinox.
- The vernal equinox year is currently about 365.242375 days long.
- The Gregorian leap year rule gives an average year length of 365.2425 days. This difference of a little over 0.0001 days means that in around 8,000 years, the calendar will be about one day behind where it should be. But in 8,000 years' time the length of the vernal equinox year will have changed by an amount we can't accurately predict (see below). So the Gregorian leap year rule does a good enough job. Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png

Which day is the leap day?

The Gregorian calendar is a modification of the Julian calendar first used by the Romans. The Roman calendar originated as a lunar calendar (though from the 5th century BC it no longer followed the real moon) and named its days after three of the phases of the moon: the new moon (calends, hence "calendar"), the first quarter (nones) and the full moon (ides). Days were counted down (inclusively) to the next named day, so 24 February was ante diem sextum calendas martii ("the sixth day before the calends of March"). Since 45 BC, February in a leap year had two days called "the sixth day before the calends of March". The extra day was originally the second of these, but since the third century it was the first. Hence the term bissextile day for 24 February in a bissextile year. Where this custom is followed, anniversaries after the inserted day are moved in leap years. For example, the former feast day of Saint Matthias, 24 February in ordinary years, would be 25 February in leap years. This historical nicety is, however, in the process of being discarded: The European Union declared that, starting in 2000, 29 February rather than 24 February would be leap day, and the Roman Catholic Church also now uses 29 February as leap day. The only tangible difference is felt in countries that celebrate feast days.

Julian calendar

The Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4. This rule gives an average year length of 365.25 days. The excess of about 0.0076 days with respect to the vernal equinox year means that the vernal equinox moves a day earlier in the calendar every 130 years or so.

Revised Julian Calendar

The Revised Julian calendar adds an extra day to February in years divisible by 4, except for years divisible by 100 that do not leave a remainder of 200 or 600 when divided by 900. This rule agrees with the rule for the Gregorian calendar until 2799. The first year that dates in the Revised Julian calendar will not agree with the those in the Gregorian calendar will be 2800, because it will be a leap year in the Gregorian calendar but not in the Revised Julian calendar. This rule gives an average year length of 365.242222… days. This is a very good approximation to the mean tropical year, but because the vernal equinox tropical year is slightly longer, the Revised Julian calendar does not do as good a job as the Gregorian calendar of keeping the vernal equinox on or close to 21 March.

Chinese calendar

The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, so a leap year has an extra month, often called an embolismic month after the Greek word for it. In the Chinese calendar the leap month is added according to a complicated rule, which ensures that month 11 is always the month that contains the northern winter solstice. The intercalary month takes the same number as the preceding month; for example, if it follows the second month then it is simply called "leap second month".

Hebrew calendar

The Hebrew calendar is also lunisolar with an embolistic month. In the Hebrew calendar the extra month is called Adar Alef (first Adar) and is added before Adar, which then becomes Adar Sheni (second Adar). According to the Metonic cycle, this is done seven times every nineteen years, specifically, in years, 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In addition, the Hebrew calendar has postponement rules that postpone the start of the year by one or two days. The year before the postponement gets one or two extra days, and the year whose start is postponed loses one or two days. These postponement rules reduce the number of different combinations of year length and starting day of the week from 28 to 14, and regulate the location of certain religious holidays in relation to the Sabbath.

Hindu Calendar

In the Hindu calendar, which is a lunisolar calendar, the embolismic month is called adhika maas (extra month). It is the month in which the sun is in the same sign of the stellar zodiac on two consecutive dark moons.

Iranian calendar

The Iranian calendar also has a single intercalated day once in every four years, but every 33 years or so the leap years will be five years apart instead of four years apart. The system used is more accurate and more complicated, and is based on the time of the March equinox as observed from Teheran. The 33-year period is not completely regular; every so often the 33-year cycle will be broken by a cycle of 29 or 37 years.

Long term leap year rules

The accumulated difference between the Gregorian calendar and the vernal equinoctial year amounts to 1 day in about 8,000 years. This suggests that the calendar needs to be improved by another refinement to the leap year rule: perhaps by avoiding leap years in years divisible by 8,000. (The most common such proposal is to avoid leap years in years divisible by 4,000 [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22gregorian+calendar%22+error+%22leap+year%22+4000]. This is based on the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the mean tropical year. Others claim, erroneously, that the Gregorian calendar itself already contains a refinement of this kind [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mleapyr.html].) However, there is little point in planning a calendar so far ahead because over a timescale of tens of thousands of years the number of days in a year will change for a number of reasons, most notably: #Precession of the equinoxes moves the position of the vernal equinox with respect to perihelion and so changes the length of the vernal equinoctial year. #Tidal acceleration from the sun and moon slows the rotation of the earth, making the day longer. In particular, the second component of change depends on such things as post-glacial rebound and sea level rise due to climate change. We can't predict these changes accurately enough to be able to make a calendar that will be accurate to a day in tens of thousands of years.

Marriage proposal

There is a tradition, said to go back to Saint Patrick and Saint Bridget in 5th century Ireland, whereby women may only make marriage proposals in leap years.

Saint Patrick and the leap year

:Saint Patrick, having driven the frogs out of the bogs was walking along the shores of Lough Neagh, when he was accosted by Saint Bridget in tears, and was told that a mutiny had broken out in the nunnery over which she presided, the ladies claiming the right of popping the question. :Saint Patrick said he would concede them the right every seventh year, when Saint Bridget threw her arms round his neck, and exclaimed, "Arrah, Pathrick, jewel, I daurn't go back to the girls wid such a proposal. Make it one year in four." Saint Patrick replied, "Bridget, acushla, squeeze me that way again, an' I'll give ye leap-year, the longest of the lot." Saint Bridget, upon this, popped the question to St Patrick himself, who, of course, could not marry: so he patched up the difficulty as best he could with a kiss and a silk gown. (Source: Evans, Ivor H, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, Cassell, London, 1988) According to a 1288 law in Scotland, fines were levied if the proposal was refused by the man; compensation ranged from a kiss to a silk gown to soften the blow. Because men felt that put them at too great a risk, the tradition was in some places tightened to restricting female proposals to 29 February.

Birthdays

A person who was born on 29 February may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they usually celebrate their birthday on 28 February or 1 March. There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of the Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Pirates of Penzance. Category:Calendars Category:Units of time als:Schaltjahr ko:윤년 ja:閏年 simple:Leap year th:ปีอธิกสุรทิน

1648

Events

- Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War.
- Chmielnicki Uprising in Republic of Both Nations (Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth).
- The Dutch and the Spanish sign the Treaty of Munster, ending the Eighty Years' War. The Spanish Empire recognizes the Dutch Republic of United Netherlands as a sovereign state, (governed by the House of Orange-Nassau and the Estates General) which was before a province of the Spanish Empire. The Netherlands becomes the first European power with a republican form of government.
- November 11 - France and Netherlands agree to divide the island of Sint Maarten/Saint Martin.
- Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Ibrahim I (1640-1648) to Mehmed IV (1648-1687)
- The Rump Parliament finds Charles I guilty of treason, and sentences him to be executed.
- Admiral Robert Blake defeats Prince Rupert and the remnants of the Royalist navy in the English Civil War.
- In India, building of the Red Fort is completed.
- Discovery of strait (Bering Strait) between Asia and North America by Semyon Dezhnev
- The west bank of Prague (including the Prague Castle) occupied and looted by Swedish armies.
- Sabbatai Zevi declares himself the Messiah at Smyrna.

Ongoing events

- English Civil War (1642-1649)

Births

- January 1 - Elkanah Settle, English writer (d. 1724)
- February 23 - Arabella Churchill, English mistress of James II of England (d. 1730)
- April 4 - Grinling Gibbons, Dutch-born woodcarver (d. 1721)
- April 7 - John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, English statesman and poet (d. 1721)
- April 9 - Henri de Massue, Marquis de Ruvigny, 1st Viscount Galway, French soldier and diplomat (d. 1720)
- April 13 - Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon, French mystic (d. 1717)
- April 26 - King Peter II of Portugal (d. 1712)
- August 9 - Johann Michael Bach, German composer (d. 1694)
- December 15 - Gregory King, English statistician (d. 1712)
- John Blow, British composer (d. 1708) See also :Category:1648 births.

Deaths

- February 2 - George Abbot, English writer
- February 28 - Christian IV, King of Denmark and Norway (b. 1577)
- March 12 - Tirso de Molina, Spanish writer
- March 14 - Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron, English general (b. 1584)
- May 20 - King Wladislaus IV of Poland (b. 1595)
- May 26 - Vincent Voiture, French poet (b. 1597)
- August 12 - Ibrahim I, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1615)
- August 20 - Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury, English diplomat, poet, and philosopher (b. 1583)
- September 1 - Marin Mersenne, French mathematician (b. 1588)
- November 17 - Thomas Ford, English composer See also :Category:1648 deaths. Category:1648 ko:1648년

Treaty of Münster

The Peace of Westphalia, also known as the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, refers to the series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War and officially recognized the United Provinces and Swiss Confederation. The Spanish treaty which ended the Eighty Years' War was signed on January 30, 1648. The treaty signed October 24, 1648 was between the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand III, the other German princes, France, and Sweden. The Treaty of the Pyrenees, signed in 1659, ending the war between France and Spain is also often considered part of the treaty.

Locations

The peace negotiations were held after initial talks held in the cities of Münster and Osnabrück, which lie about 50 km apart in the present day states of North Rhine-Westphalia and Lower Saxony. These cities were favoured by Sweden whereas Hamburg and Cologne were proposed by the French. Two locations were needed as the Protestant and Catholic leaders refused to meet each other. The city of Münster was used by the Catholics, while Osnabrück was used by the Protestants.

Results

The results of the treaty were wide ranging. Among other things, the Netherlands gained independence from Spain, ending the Eighty Years' War, and Sweden gained Pomerania, Wismar, Bremen and Verden. The power of the Holy Roman Emperor was broken, and the rulers of the German states were again able to determine the religion of their lands. The treaty also gave Calvinists legal recognition. Three new great powers arose from this peace: Sweden, the United Provinces and France. Sweden's time as a Great Power was to be short lived, however. The majority of the treaty's terms can be attributed to the work of Cardinal Mazarin, who was the de facto leader of France at the time. France came out of the war in a far better position than any other Power and was able to dictate much of the treaty. Another important result of the treaty was that it laid rest to the idea of the Holy Roman Empire having secular dominion over the entire Christian world. The nation-state would be the highest level of government, subservient to no others.

Tenets

The major tenets of the Peace of Westphalia were:
- The Peace of Prague was incorporated into the Peace of Westphalia (which incorporated the Peace of Augsburg, though its landholdings which were reestablished by the Peace of Prague were again reestablished from 1624 to 1627, which aided the Protestants. The Calvinists were thus recognized internationally, and the Edict of Restitution was again rescinded. The first Diet of Speyer was accepted internationally).
- There were also territorial adjustments:
- France got the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, Verdun, and all of Alsace except Strasbourg and Mulhouse. It also acquired a vote in the Imperial German Diet.
- Sweden got Western Pomerania and the bishoprics of Bremen and Stettin. It won control of the mouth of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser Rivers, and also acquired a vote in the Imperial German Diet.
- Bavaria acquired a vote in the Imperial Council of Electors (which elected the Holy Roman Emperor).
- Brandenburg (later Prussia) received Eastern Pomerania, and the bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, whose first secular governor was the Elector of Brandenburg's representative, Joachim Friedrich von Blumenthal.
- Switzerland was recognized as a fully independent nation.
- The Republic of the seven United Provinces of the Netherlands (Protestant Netherlands) was recognized as an independent nation (before its rebellion a century earlier, it had been a possession of the Habsburg family and thus of Spain).
- The various independent German states (about 360) were given the right to exercise their own foreign policy, but they could not wage war against the Holy Roman Emperor. The Empire as a whole still could wage wars and sign treaties.
- The election of Roman emperors vivente imperatore (election of next emperor before the death of the one who actually rules) was banned.
- The Palatinate (Pfalzgraviate of the Rhine) was divided between the re-established Elector Palatine Charles Louis (son and heir of Frederick V) and Elector-Duke Maximilian of Bavaria (and thus between the Protestants and the Catholics). Charles Louis obtained the western part, near the Rhine (including the laterRhenish Palatinate and the area around Heidelberg), and Maximilian kept the Upper Palatinate (in present northern Bavaria).

Significance

It is often said that the Peace of Westphalia initiated modern diplomacy, as it marked the beginning of the modern system of nation-states (or "Westphalian states"). Subsequent European wars were not about issues of religion, but rather revolved around issues of state. This allowed Catholic and Protestant Powers to ally, leading to a number of major realignments.

Modern views

In 1998 on a Symposium on the Political Relevance of the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, then–NATO Secretary General Javier Solana said that "humanity and democracy [were] two principles essentially irrelevant to the original Westphalian order" and levied a criticism that "the Westphalian system had its limits. For one, the principle of sovereignty it relied on also produced the basis for rivalry, not community of states; exclusion, not integration." [http://www.nato.int/docu/speech/1998/s981112a.htm] In 2000, German Foreign Minister Joschka Fischer referred to the Peace of Westphalia in his Humboldt Speech, which argued that the system of European politics set up by Westphalia was obsolete: "The core of the concept of Europe after 1945 was and still is a rejection of the European balance-of-power principle and the hegemonic ambitions of individual states that had emerged following the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, a rejection which took the form of closer meshing of vital interests and the transfer of nation-state sovereign rights to supranational European institutions." [http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/eu_politik/ausgabe_archiv?suche=1&archiv_id=1027&bereich_id=4&type_id=3] In the aftermath of the 11 March 2004 Madrid attacks, the terrorist network al-Qaeda declared that "the international system built-up by the West since the Treaty of Westphalia will collapse; and a new international system will rise under the leadership of a mighty Islamic state". [http://www.themedialine.org/news/news_detail.asp?NewsID=5420] Also, it is often claimed that globalization is bringing an evolution of the international system past the sovereign Westphalian state.

Trivia

Adolf Hitler let his grievances be known in his book Mein Kampf about how the Treaty of Westphalia cemented Germany's internal divisions for over 200 years, hampering its unitary development.

External links

- [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/westphal.htm Treaty Text] Text of the Treaty of Westphalia, translated into English.
- [http://www.pax-westphalica.de Treaty texts] The texts of the Westphalian Treaties (IPO and IPM) and some translations (German, French, English, Italian, Spanish, Swedish).
- [http://bss.sfsu.edu/jacksonc/germany_1648.htm High resolution map of Germany after the Treaty of Westphalia] Category:Thirty Years' War Category:Eighty Years' War Westphalia Westphalia Westphalia ja:ヴェストファーレン条約

1649

Events

- January 30 - King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland is beheaded. His widow Henrietta Maria resides in her native France.
- January 30 - The Commonwealth of England, a republican form of government, replaces the monarchy as the form of government of England and later of Scotland and Ireland. Members of the Long Parliament serve as government.
- January 30 - Prince Charles Stuart declares himself King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland. At the time all three Kingdoms had not recognized him as ruler.
- February 5 - In Edinburgh, Scotland claimant King Charles II of England is declared King in his absence. Scotland is the first of the three Kingdoms to recognize his claim to the throne.
- March 11 - The Frondeurs (rebels) and the French government sign the Peace of Rueil.
- March 19 - The House of Commons pass an act abolishing the House of Lords, declaring that it is "useless and dangerous to the people of England".
- May 17 - Banbury mutiny ends - leaders of the Leveller mutineers in the New Model Army are hanged
- May 19 - [http://wikisource.org/wiki/An_Act_declaring_England_to_be_a_Commonwealth An act declaring England to be a Commonwealth] is passed by the Rump Parliament.
- Robert Blake is promoted to become an Admiral of the English fleet
- August 15 - Admiral Robert Blake blockades Prince Rupert to allow Oliver Cromwell to land in Dublin and begin the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
- September 2 - The Italian city of Castro is completely destroyed by the forces of Pope Innocent X, ending the Wars of Castro.
- Unknown date - Urga founded (now Mongolian capital)

Ongoing events

- Fronde civil war in France (1648-1653)

Births

- February 2 - Pope Benedict XIII (d. 1730)
- February 8 - Gabriel Daniel, French Jesuit historian (d. 1728)
- February 11 - William Carstares, Scottish minister (d. 1715)
- April 5 - Elihu Yale, American benefactor of Yale University (d. 1721)
- April 9 - James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, claimant to the thrones of England, Scotland, and Ireland (d. 1685)
- June 13 - Adrien Baillet, French scholar and critic (d. 1706)
- July 23 - Pope Clement XI (d. 1721)
- September 15 - Titus Oates, English minister and plotter (d. 1705)
- December 7 - Charles Garnier, French Jesuit missionary (b. 1606)
- December 8 - Noël Chabanel, French Jesuit missionary (b. 1613) See also :Category:1649 births.

Deaths

- January 30 - King Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland (executed) (b. 1600)
- March 9 - James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, Scottish statesman (b. 1606)
- March 9 - Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland, English soldier (executed) (b. 1590)
- March 16 - Jean de Brébeuf, French Jesuit missionary (b. 1593)
- March 19 - Gerhard Johann Vossius, German classical scholar and theologian (b. 1577)
- March 26 - John Winthrop First Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony
- May 14 - Friedrich Spanheim, Dutch theologian (b. 1600)
- June 3 - Manuel de Faria e Sousa, Portugues historian and poet (b. 1590)
- September 6 - Robert Dudley, styled Earl of Warwick, English explorer and geographer (b. 1574)
- September 15 - John Floyd, English Jesuit preacher (b. 1572)
- October 3 - Giovanni Diodati, Swiss protestant clergyman (b. 1576)
- October 16 - Isaac van Ostade, Dutch painter (b. 1621)
- November 19 - Caspar Schoppe, German scholar (b. 1576)
- December 4 - William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet (b. 1585) See also :Category:1649 deaths. Category:1649 ko:1649년

1661

Events

- January 6 - The fifth monarchy men unsuccessfully attempt to seize control of London. George Monck's regiment defeats them
- February 5 - The Shunzhi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty of China dies and is succeeded by his son the Kangxi Emperor.
- February 14 - George Monck’s regiment becomes The Lord General's Regiment of Foot Guards (which later becomes Coldstream Guards)
- April 23 - King Charles II of England, Scotland, Ireland crowned in Westminster Abbey. This is his second crowning.
- June 30 - The first Earl of Argyle is executed at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh for treason
- Dutch rule ends in Taiwan.
- First modern bank notes issued in Stockholm, Sweden
- Body of Oliver Cromwell exhumed and subjected to a posthumous execution.

Births

- January 30 - Charles Rollin, French historian (d. 1741)
- March 25 - Paul de Rapin, French historian (d. 1725)
- April 16 - Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, English poet and statesman (d. 1715)
- May 25 - Claude Buffier, French philosopher and historian (d. 1737)
- June 9 - Tsar Feodor III of Russia (d. 1682)
- July 20 - Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, French founder of the colony of Louisiana (d. 1706)
- September 2 - Georg Böhm, German organist (d. 1733)
- October 11 - Melchior de Polignac, French diplomat (d. 1742)
- November 1 - Florent Carton Dancourt, French dramatist and actor (d. 1725)
- November 4 - Karl III Philip, Elector Palatine (d. 1742)
- November 6 - King Charles II of Spain (d. 1700)
- November 15 - Christoph von Graffenried, Swiss settler in America (d. 1743)
- November 28 - Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon, British Governor of New York and New Jersey (d. 1723)
- December 5 - Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, English statesman (d. 1724)
- December 18 - Christopher Polhem, Swedish scientist and inventor (d. 1751)
- Charles Paulet, 2nd Duke of Bolton, English supporter of William III of Orange (d. 1722) See also :Category:1661 births.

Deaths

- February 2 - Lucas Holstenius, German humanist (b. 1596)
- February 5 - Shunzhi Emperor of China (b. 1638)
- March 1 - Richard Zouch, English jurist (b. 1590)
- March 9 - Jules Cardinal Mazarin, French cardinal and statesman (b. 1602)
- April 4 - Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven, Scottish soldier
- April 7 - William Brereton, English soldier and politician (b. 1604)
- May 27 - Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, Scottish dissenter (beheaded) (b. 1607)
- August 7 - Jin Shengtan, Chinese editor, writer and critic (b. 1608)
- August 16 - Thomas Fuller, English churchman and historian (b. 1608)
- October 4 - Jacqueline Pascal, French child prodigy and sister of Blaise Pascal (b. 1625)
- October 28 - Agustín Moreto y Cavana, Spanish playwright
- November 19 - Brian Walton, English clergyman and scholar (b. 1600)
- December 29 - Antoine Gérard de Saint-Amant, French poet (b. 1594) See also :Category:1661 deaths. Category:1661 ko:1661년

Oliver Cromwell

, 1657.]] Oliver Cromwell (April 25, 1599 – September 3, 1658) was an English military leader and politician. After leading the overthrow of the British monarchy, he ruled England, Scotland, and Ireland as Lord Protector, from December 16, 1653 until his death, which is believed to have been by either malaria or poisoning. After his burial he was exhumed and hanged, drawn and quartered. Cromwell was born in Huntingdon, Cambridgeshire. He studied at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, which was then a recently-founded college with a strong Puritan ethos. However, he left without taking a degree, probably due to the death of his father. At the outset of the English Civil War, Cromwell began his military career by raising a cavalry troop, known as the "Ironsides Cavalry", which became the basis of his New Model Army, as well as Cromwell's nickname, "Old Ironsides". Cromwell's leadership in the Battle of Marston Moor (in 1644) brought him to great prominence. As a leader of the Parliamentarian cause, and commander of the New Model Army, (informally known as the "Roundheads"), Cromwell defeated King Charles I, thus bringing to an end the monarchy's claims to absolute power. In 2003, Cromwell was ranked 10th in a popular BBC poll of "Great Britons."

Family

Oliver Cromwell descended from Catherine Cromwell (born circa 1483), an older sister of Tudor statesman Thomas Cromwell. Catherine was married to Morgan ap Williams, son of William ap Yevan and Joan Tudor. There is speculation that Joan was an illegitimate daughter of Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford. Although Catherine married, her children kept her name; possibly to maintain their connection with their famous uncle. The family line continued through Richard Cromwell (c. 1500–1544), Henry Cromwell (c. 1524–January 6, 1603), then to Oliver's father Robert Cromwell, Esquire (c. 1560–1617), who married Elizabeth Steward or Stewart (1564–1654) on April 25, 1599, the day she delivered him a son. Another interesting feature of the Cromwell bloodline is that the mother's maiden name, as an alternative to the argument above, might have been kept as the surname for a different purpose: to disguise the male side of the family's heritage, instead of merely accentuating the female's side from Thomas Cromwell. This heritage goes through the Tudors, de Valois, and Wittelsbach—three royal dynasties of England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire, respectively. Cromwell's alleged paternal ancestor, Jasper Tudor was a younger brother of Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, uncle to his son Henry VII of England, and son of Owen Tudor and Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France and Isabeau of Bavaria. However, the descent of Oliver Cromwell from Jasper is unverified; and is 'doubtful', in view of the tendency of Cromwell's supporters to 'fabricate' claims of his descent from the Royal line. This also occurred with the claim that Cromwell's ancestors on his mother's side could be traced back to a Scottish Stuart (from Stewart and originally Steward) prince shipwrecked on the Norfolk coast in 1406. This claim for a Scottish royal "pedigree" was unfounded, as Cromwell's Steward ancestors actually descended from the Skywards of Calais.

Member of Parliament

Having decided against following an uncle to Virginia, Cromwell instead became the Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in the Parliament of 1628–1629. His maiden speech was the defence of a radical democrat, who had argued in an unauthorised pamphlet in favour of "giving the vote to all men". Oliver was also prominent in defending the people of The Fens from wealthy landowners, who wanted to drive them off their land. Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next eleven years (having dissolved Parliament), and alienated many people with his policies of raising extra-parliamentary taxes, and imposing his Catholicized vision of Protestantism on the Church of England. When King Charles was forced by shortage of funds to call a Parliament again in 1640, Oliver Cromwell was one of many MP's who bitterly opposed voting for any new taxes until the King agreed to govern with the consent of Parliament, on both civil and religious issues. The failure to solve this crisis led directly to civil war breaking out between English "Parliamentarians" (supporters of the power of Parliament) and British "Royalists" (supporters of the King). Cromwell was a passionate supporter of the Parliament, primarily on religious grounds. Although not an accomplished speaker, Cromwell was prominent in the Parliamentary cause from the outset. He was related to a significant number of members of Parliament by blood or marriage, and his views were influential. When spies identified him as an insider to the revolt against King Charles, and soldiers were sent to arrest him, Cromwell was one of several members absent. However, he did not become a leader of the Parliamentary cause until well into the civil war, when his military ability brought him to prominence. Although he was later involved in the King's overthrow and execution, Cromwell did not start the civil war as a radical republican; rather he did so with the intention of forcing Charles to reign with the consent of Parliament, and with a more consensual, Protestant, religious policy.

Religious beliefs

Cromwell's understanding of religion and politics were very closely intertwined. Cromwell was a committed "Puritan" Protestant, believing that salvation was open to all who obeyed the teachings of the Bible and acted according to their own (individual) conscience. He was passionately opposed to the Roman Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of Papal and Clerical authority, and which he blamed for tyranny and persecution of Protestants in Europe. For this reason, he was bitterly-opposed to Charles I's "reforms" of the Church of England, which introduced Catholic-style Bishops and Prayer Books, in place of Bible study. Cromwell's feelings of association between Catholicism and persecution were deepened with the Irish Rebellion of 1641. This rebellion was marked by massacres by Irish Catholics of English and Scottish Protestant settlers, which were wildly exaggerated in Puritan circles in Britain. This would later be one of the reasons why Cromwell acted so harshly in his later military campaign in Ireland. Cromwell was also opposed to the more radical religious groups on the Protestant side of the Civil Wars. Although he co-operated with Quakers and Presbyterians, Cromwell was opposed to their authoritarian imposition of their beliefs upon other Protestants. He became associated with the "Independent" faction, which argued for religious freedom for all Protestants in a post-war settlement. Finally, Cromwell was also a firm believer in "Providentialism" - the belief that God was actively directing the affairs of the world, through the actions of 'chosen people' (whom God had "provided" for such purposes). Cromwell believed, during the Civil Wars, that he was one of these people, and he interpreted victories