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January Uprising

January Uprising

," by Jan Matejko, 1864, oil on canvas, 156 x 232 cm, National Museum, Kraków. Pictured is the aftermath of the failed January 1863 Uprising. Captives await transportation to Siberia. Russian officers and soldiers supervise a blacksmith placing shackles on a woman (Polonia). The blonde next to her may represent Lithuania.]] The January Uprising was the longest Polish uprising against Tsarist Russia: it began January 22, 1863, and the last insurgents were not captured until 1865. It started as a spontaneous protest by young Poles against conscription into the Russian Army. The uprising was soon joined by various politicians and high ranking Polish officers from the tsarist army. The insurrectionists, severely outnumbered and lacking any serious outside support, were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare tactics. The insurrectionists failed to win any major military victory, and throughout the campaign, not one major city or fotress in Russian-occupied Poland was recaptured. The uprising did, however, succeed in blunting the effect of the Tsar's abolition of serfdom in the Russian partition, which had been designed to win Polish peasants away from supporting the rest of the Polish nation. In the aftermath of the uprising, severe reprisals against the Poles, such as public executions or deportations to Siberia, led many Poles to abandon armed struggle and turn instead to the idea of "organic work" - the economic and cultural self-improvement.

History

The uprising broke out at a moment when general quiet prevailed in Europe and in Russia, and when the Revolutionary Party had not sufficient means to arm and equip the bands of young men who were hiding in forests to escape Alexander Wielopolski's order of conscription into the Russian army. Altogether about 10,000 men rallied around the revolutionary banner; they were recruited chiefly from the ranks of the city working classes and minor clerks, although there was also a considerable admixture of the younger sons of the poorer szlachta and a number of priests of lower rank. To deal with these ill-armed bands the government had at its disposal a well trained army of 90,000 men under General Ramsay in Poland, 60,000 troops in Lithuania and 45,000 in Volhynia. It looked as if the rebellion would be crushed in a short while. The die was cast, however, and the provisional government applied itself to the great task with fervor. It issued a manifesto in which it pronounced "all sons of Poland free and equal citizens without distinction of creed, condition and rank." It declared that land cultivated by the peasants, whether on the basis of rent-pay or service, henceforth should become their unconditional property, and compensation for it would be given to the landlords out of the general funds of the State. The revolutionary government did its very best to supply and provision the unarmed and scattered guerrillas who, during the month of February, met the Russians in eighty bloody encounters. Meanwhile, it issued an appeal to the nations of western Europe, which was received everywhere with a genuine and heartfelt response, from Norway to Portugal. Pope Pius IX ordered a special prayer for the success of the Polish arms, and was very active in arousing sympathy for the suffering nation. Pius IX Uprising unit organized by François Rochebrune. Drawing (published 1909) by K. Sariusz-Wolski, from a photograph. From left: Count Wojciech Komorowski, Col. Rochebrune, Lt. Bella.]] The provisional government counted on a revolutionary outbreak in Russia, where the discontent with the autocratic regime seemed at the time to be widely prevalent. It also counted on the active support of Napoleon III, particularly after Prussia, foreseeing an inevitable armed conflict with France, made friendly overtures to Russia and offered her assistance in suppressing the Polish uprising. On the 14th day of February arrangements had already been completed, and the British Ambassador in Berlin was able to inform his government that a Prussian military envoy "has concluded a military convention with the Russian Government, according to which the two governments will reciprocally afford facilities to each other for the suppression of the insurrectionary movements which have lately taken place in Poland. The Prussian railways are also to he placed at the disposal of the Russian military authorities for the transportation of troops through Prussian territory from one part of the Kingdom of Poland to another." This step of Bismarck's led to protests on the part of several governments and roused the Polish nation. The result was the transformation of the insignificant uprising into another national war against Russia. Encouraged by the promises made by Napoleon III, the whole nation, acting upon the advice of Wladyslaw Czartoryski, the son of Prince Adam, took to arms. Indicating their solidarity with the nation, all the Poles holding office under the Russian Government, including the Archbishop of Warsaw, resigned their positions and submitted to the newly constituted Polish Government, which was composed of five most prominent representatives of the Whites. This transformation of the insurrection into a war changed the whole aspect of the situation. An army of 30,000 men was soon organized and new additions were made. The rich elements in the cities as well as in the country offered large sums of money. The nobility of Galicia and the Duchy of Poznań supported the war with money, supplies and men. Lithuania rose under the command of Konstanty Kalinowski and soon the flame of war spread over Samogitia, Livonia, Belarus, Volhynia, Podolia and even in some places in Ukraine. The diplomatic intervention of the Powers in behalf of Poland, not sustained, except in the case of Sweden, by a real determination on their part to do something effective for her, did more harm than good, as mere verbosity often does. It alienated Austria which hitherto had maintained a friendly neutrality with reference to Poland and had not interfered with the Polish activities in Galicia. It prejudiced public opinion among the radical groups in Russia who, until that time, had been friendly because they regarded the uprising as of a social rather than a national character and it stirred the Russian Government to more energetic endeavors toward the speedy suppression of hostilities which were growing in strength and determination. Galicia Uprising.]] In addition, to the thousands who fell in battles, 128 men were executed by Mikhail Muravyov's order, and 9,423 men and women were exiled to Siberia (2,500 men according to very lowered Russian data). Whole villages and towns were burned down; all activities were suspended and the szlachta was ruined by confiscation and exorbitant taxes. Count Berg, the newly appointed Governor-General of Poland, followed in Muravyov's footsteps, employing inhumanly harsh measures against the country. The Reds criticized the Conservative government for its reactionary policy with reference to the peasants but, deluded in its hopes by Napoleon III, the Government counted on French support and persisted in its tactics. It was only after the highly respected and wise Romuald Traugutt took matters in hand that the aspect of the situation became brighter. He reverted to the policy of the first provisional government and endeavored to bring the peasant masses into active participation by granting to them the land they worked and calling upon all classes to rise. The response was generous but not universal. The wise policy was adopted too late. The Russian Government had already been working among the peasants in the manner above described and giving to them liberal parcels of land for the mere asking. They were completely satisfied, and though not interfering with the revolutionaries to any great extent, became lukewarm to them. Fighting continued intermittently for several months. Among the generals Count Joseph Hadke distinguished himself most as a commander of the revolutionary forces and took several cities from the vastly superior Russian army. When Romuald Traugutt and the four other members of the Polish Government were apprehended by Russian troops and executed at the Warsaw citadel, the war in the course of which six hundred and fifty battles and skirmishes were fought and twenty-five thousand Poles killed, came to a speedy end in the latter half of 1864, having lasted for eighteen months. It is of interest to note that it persisted in Zmudz and Podlasie, where the Uniate population, outraged and persecuted for their religious convictions, clung longest to the revolutionary banner. The uprising was finally crushed by Russia in 1864. 1864.]] After the collapse of the uprising, harsh reprisals followed. According to Russian official information, 396 persons were executed and 18,672 were exiled to Siberia. Large numbers of men and women were sent to the interior of Russia and to Caucasus, Urals and other sections. Altogether about 70,000 persons were imprisoned and subsequently taken out of Poland and stationed in the remote regions of Russia. The government confiscated 1,660 in Poland and 1,794 in Lithuania. A 10% income tax was imposed on all estates as a war indemnity. Only in 1869 was this tax reduced to 5% on all incomes. Besides the land granted to the peasants, the Russian Government gave them additional forest, pasture and other privileges (known under the name of servitutes) which have proven to be a source of incessant irritation between the landowners and peasants, and of serious difficulty to rational economic development. The government took over all the church estates and funds, and abolished monasteries and convents. With the exception of religious instruction, all other studies in the schools were ordered to be in Russian. Russian also became the official language of the country, used exclusively in all offices of the general and local government. All traces of the former Polish autonomy were removed and the kingdom was divided into ten provinces, each with an appointed Russian military governor and all under complete control of the Governor-General at Warsaw. All the former government functionaries were deprived of their positions.

Famous insurgents


- Władysław Niegolewski (1819-1885) was a liberal Polish politician and member of parliament, an insurgent in the Greater Poland Uprisings of 1846 and 1848 and of the January 1863 Uprising, and a co-founder (1861) of the Central Economic Society (TCL) and (1880) the People's Libraries Society (CTG).

Trivia


- In the initial draft of Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea by Jules Verne, Captain Nemo was a Polish nobleman whose family had been brutally murdered by the Russians during the January 1863 Uprising. Since France had only recently signed an alliance with Tsarist Russia, in the novel's final version Verne's editor, Pierre-Jules Hetzel, made him obscure Nemo's motives.

See also


- Insurgence
- Polish Uprisings
- Great Emigration

References

Category:1863 Category:Guerrilla wars Category:History of Lithuania Category:History of Poland Category:History of Ukraine Category:History of Belarus

Jan Matejko

] Jan Matejko, also Jan Mateyko (b. June 24, 1838 in Kraków — November 1, 1893 in Kraków, Poland) was a prominent Polish painter. He is well known for his historical and military works like Battle of Grunwald, as well as for the gallery of Polish kings. He is also known for his portrayals of the famous court jester Stańczyk.

Famous paintings

His most famous paintings can be viewed in the article Jan Matejko’s Gallery.

See also


- List of Polish painters Matejko, Jan Matejko, Jan Matejko, Jan Matejko, Jan = External links =
- [http://malarze.com/artysta.php?id=56 Jan Matejko's artwork at malarze.com]
- [http://malarze.com/artysta.php?id=225 Matejko's Gallery of Polish Kings]

1864

1864 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events

January - March


- January 21 - Maori Wars: The Tauranga Campaign starts.
- February 1 - Danish-Prussian War (Second war of Schleswig) begins. 57.000 Austrian and Prussian troops cross Eider River to Denmark.
- February 27 - American Civil War: The first Northern prisoners arrive at the Confederate prison at Andersonville, Georgia.
- March 1- Alejandro Mon Menéndez takes office as Prime Minister of Spain
- March 10 - American Civil War: The Red River Campaign begins as Union troops reach Alexandria, Louisiana.
- March 11 - A reservoir near Sheffield bursts; 250 dead

April - June


- April 18 - Danish-Prussian War (Second War of Schleswig): Battle of Dybbøl. The Prussian army fielding 10,000 men defeats the Danish defending army of 9,200 at Dybbøl Mill after an artillery bombardment from April 7 to April 18.
- April 22 - The U.S. Congress passes the Coinage Act of 1864 which mandates that the inscription "In God We Trust" be placed on all coins minted as United States currency.
- May 5 - American Civil War: The Battle of the Wilderness begins in Spotsylvania County, Virginia.
- May 7 - American Civil War: The Army of the Potomac, under General Ulysses S. Grant, breaks off from the Battle of the Wilderness and moves southwards.
- May 11 - American Civil War: Battle of Yellow Tavern - Confederate General JEB Stuart is mortally wounded at Yellow Tavern, Virginia.
- May 12 - American Civil War: Battle of Spotsylvania Court House: The "Bloody Angle" - thousands of Union and Confederate soldiers die.
- May 13 - American Civil War: Battle of Resaca - the battle begins with Union General Sherman fighting toward Atlanta.
- May 15 - American Civil War: Battle of New Market, Virginia - Students from the Virginia Military Institute fight alongside the Confederate Army to force Union General Franz Sigel out of the Shenandoah Valley.
- May 18 - Civil War gold hoax - New York World and the New York Journal of Commerce publish a fake proclamation that president Abraham Lincoln has issued a draft of 400,000 more soldiers
- May 20 - American Civil War: Battle of Ware Bottom Church - In the Virginia Bermuda Hundred Campaign, 10,000 troops fight in this Confederate victory
- May 26 - Montana is organized as a United States territory.
- June 5 - American Civil War: Battle of Piedmont - Union forces under General David Hunter defeat a Confederate army at Piedmont, West Virginia, taking nearly 1,000 prisoners.
- June 10 - American Civil War: Battle of Brice's Crossroads - Confederate troops under Nathan Bedford Forrest defeat a much larger Union force led by General Samuel D. Sturgis in Mississippi.
- June 12 - American Civil War: Battle of Cold Harbor: - General Ulysses S. Grant pulls his troops from their positions at Cold Harbor, Virginia and moves south.
- June 15 - Arlington National Cemetery is established when 200 acres (0.8 km²) of Arlington Mansion are officially set-aside as a military cemetery by U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton.
- June 15 - American Civil War: Battle of Petersburg begins - Union forces under General Grant and troops led by Confederate General Robert E. Lee battle for the last time.

July - September


- July 18 - President Lincoln issues a true proclamation of conscription of 500.000 men for the US Civil War
- July 20 - American Civil War: Battle of Peachtree Creek - Near Atlanta, Georgia, Confederate forces led by General John Bell Hood unsuccessfully attack Union troops under General William T. Sherman.
- June 21 - Maori Wars: The Tauranga Campaign ends.
- July 22 - American Civil War: Battle of Atlanta - Outside of Atlanta, Georgia, Confederate General Hood leads an unsuccessful attack on Union troops under General Sherman on Bald Hill.
- July 24 - American Civil War: Battle of Kernstown - Confederate General Jubal Early defeats Union troops led by General George Crook in an effort to keep the Yankees out of the Shenandoah Valley.
- July 28 - American Civil War: Battle of Ezra Church begins - Confederate troops led by General Hood make a third unsuccessful attempt to drive Union forces under General Sherman from Atlanta, Georgia.
- July 29 - American Civil War: Confederate spy Belle Boyd is arrested by Union troops and detained at the Old Capitol Prison in Washington, DC.
- July 30 - American Civil War: Battle of the Crater - Union forces attempt to break Confederate lines by exploding a large bomb under their trenches.
- August 1 - foundation of Elgin Watch Company in Elgin, Illinois
- August 5 - American Civil War: Battle of Mobile Bay begins - At Mobile Bay near Mobile, Alabama, Admiral David Farragut leads a Union flotilla through Confederate defenses and seals one of the last major Southern ports.
- August 18 - American Civil War: Battle of Weldon Railroad - Forces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant try to cut a vital Confederate supply-line into Petersburg, Virginia, by attacking the Weldon Railroad forcing the Confederates to use wagons.
- August 22 - International Red Cross founded in Geneva, Switzerland.
- September 1 - American Civil War: Confederate General Hood evacuates Atlanta after a four month siege mounted by Union General Sherman.
- September 1 - 8 - Delegates from the Canadian colonies meet at the Charlottetown Conference to discuss Canadian Confederation.
- September 2 - American Civil War: Union forces under General Sherman enter Atlanta a day after the Confederate defenders fled the city.
- September 7 - American Civil War: Atlanta, Georgia is evacuated on orders of Union General William Tecumseh Sherman.

October - December


- October 2 - American Civil War: Battle of Saltville - Union forces attack Saltville, Virginia but are defeated by Confederate troops.
- October 5 – Cyclone kills 70.000 in Calcutta, India
- October 9 - American Civil War: Battle of Tom's Brook - Union cavalrymen in the Shenandoah Valley defeat Confederate forces at Tom's Brook, Virginia.
- October 28 - American Civil War: Second Battle of Fair Oaks ends - Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant withdraw from Fair Oaks, Virginia, after failing to breach the Confederate defenses around Richmond, Virginia.
- October 30 - Second war of Schleswig concluded. Denmark renounces all claim to Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg, which come under Prussian and Austrian administration.
- October 30 - Helena, Montana is founded after four prospectors discover gold at "Last Chance Gulch."
- October 31 - Nevada is admitted as the 36th U.S. state
- November 4 - American Civil War: Battle of Johnsonville - At Johnsonville, Tennessee, troops under the command of Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest bombard a Union supply base with artillery and destroy millions of dollars in materiel.
- November 8 - U.S. presidential election, 1864: Abraham Lincoln is reelected in an overwhelming victory over George McClellan.
- November 15 - American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea begins - Union General Sherman burns Atlanta and starts to move south, destroying everything in his path in order to punish the Confederates for starting the war.
- November 22 - American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea: Confederate General John Bell Hood invades Tennessee in an unsuccessful attempt to draw Union General Sherman from Georgia.
- November 29 - Indian Wars: Sand Creek Massacre - Colorado volunteers led by Colonel John Chivington massacre at least 400 Cheyenne and Arapahoe noncombatants at Sand Creek, Colorado (where they had been given permission to camp).
- November 30 - American Civil War: Battle of Franklin - The Army of Tennessee led by General Hood mounts a dramatically unsuccessful frontal assault on Union positions around Franklin, Tennessee (Hood lost six generals and almost a third of his troops).
- December 4 - American Civil War: Sherman's March to the Sea - At Waynesboro, Georgia, forces under Union General Judson Kilpatrick prevent troops led by Confederate General Joseph Wheeler from interfering with Union General Sherman's campaign of destroying a wide swath of the South on his march to the Gulf of Mexico (Union forces did suffer more than three times the casualties as the Confederates, however).
- December 15-16- American Civil War: Union forces decisively defeat the Confederate Army of Tennessee at the Battle of Nashville
- Imperial forces assault the Taiping capital of Nanking in the last great battle of the civil war.
- James Clerk Maxwell discovers microwaves
- First Geneva Convention
- Danevirke destroyed
- Syllabus errorum: Pope Pius IX condemns theological liberalism as an error and claims for the supremacy of Roman Catholic Church authority over the civil society. He also condemns rationalism and socialism
- Russia completes its conquest of the North Caucasus, annexing Abkhazia and Circassia and expelling many of the Abkhazians and all of the Ubykhs
- Haiti declares independence
- Brazil invades Uruguay in support of Venancio Flores. Paraguay attacks Brazil.
- John Wisden publishes first edition of Wisden Cricketer's Almanack. It goes on to become the major annual cricket publication.
- Asa Mercer travels from Seattle to the US East Coast and recruits 11 "Mercer Girls", potential wives for men on the West Coast

Births


- January 1 - Alfred Stieglitz, American photographer (d. 1946)
- January 8 - Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence (d. 1892)
- January 13 - Wilhelm Wien, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1928)
- January 24 - Marguerite Durand, French actress, journalist, and feminist leader (d. 1936)
- March 13 - Alexej von Jawlensky, Russian impressionist painter (d. 1941)
- March 15 - Johan Halvorsen, Norwegian composer (d. 1935)
- March 19 - Charles Marion Russell, American artist (d. 1926)
- April 21 - Max Weber, German sociologist (d. 1920)
- May 10 - Léon Gaumont, French film pioneer (d. 1946)
- June 11- Richard Strauss, German composer (d. 1949)
- June 25 - Walther Nernst, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1941)
- July 13 - John Jacob Astor IV, American businessman and inventor (d. 1912)
- July 20 - Erik Axel Karlfeldt, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1931)
- August 9 - Roman Dmowski, Polish politician (d. 1939)
- September 14 - Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood, English politician and diplomat, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1958)
- October 25 - Alexander Gretchaninov, Russian composer (d. 1956)
- November 11 - Alfred Hermann Fried, Austrian writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1921)
- November 20 - Erik Axel Karlfeldt, Swedish writer (d. 1931)
- November 23 - Henry Bourne Joy, American business leader (d. 1936)
- November 24 - Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, French painter (d. 1901)
- December 6 - William S. Hart, American film actor (d. 1946)
- December 12 - Paul Elmer More, American critic and essayist (d. 1937)
- Cosmo Lang, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1945)

Date unknown


- Bishop James Cannon, Jr., American religious and temperance movement leader (d. 1944)

Deaths


- January 13 - Stephen Foster, American composer (b. 1826)
- May 19 - Nathaniel Hawthorne, American author (b. 1804)
- June 1 - Hong Xiuquan, Chinese rebel (b. 1812)
- October 12 - Roger Taney, United States Supreme Court Justice (b. 1777)
- November 6 - Tuanku Imam Bonjol, Indonesian religious and military leader (b. 1772)
- December 8 - George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (b. Nov. 2 1815)
- December 19 - Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, French anarchist (b. 1809)
- Emil Nobel, younger brother of Alfred Nobel (killed in an explosion) ko:1864년 ms:1864 simple:1864 th:พ.ศ. 2407

Siberia

:Siberia is also an album by Echo & The Bunnymen. Echo & The Bunnymen Siberia (, common English transliterations: Sibir’, Sibir; from the Tatar for “sleeping land”) is a vast region of Russia and northern Kazakhstan constituting almost all of northern Asia. It extends eastward from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific Ocean and southward from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and the borders of both Mongolia and China. All but the extreme south-western area of Siberia lies in Russia, and it makes up about 56% of that country's territory.

Administrative subdivisions

China Geographically, Siberia includes the federal subjects of the Urals Federal District, Siberian Federal District and Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, which is a part of the Far Eastern Federal District (see a list of subjects below). From the historical point of view, the whole Russian Far East is considered a segment of Siberia.
- Altai Krai, administrative center — Barnaul
- Altai Republic, capital — Gorno-Altaisk
- Buryat Republic, capital — Ulan Ude
- Chita Oblast, administrative center — Chita
- Irkutsk Oblast, administrative center — Irkutsk
- Republic of Khakassia, capital — Abakan
- Kemerovo Oblast, administrative center — Kemerovo
- Koryakia Autonomous District, administrative center — Palana
- Krasnoyarsk Krai, administrative center — Krasnoyarsk
- Novosibirsk Oblast, administrative center — Novosibirsk
- Omsk Oblast, administrative center — Omsk
- Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, capital — Yakutsk
- Tomsk Oblast, administrative center — Tomsk
- Tuva Republic, capital — Kyzyl Major cities include:
- Irkutsk
- Krasnoyarsk
- Novosibirsk
- Omsk
- Tomsk

History

Main article: History of Siberia Siberia was occupied by differing groups of nomads such as the Yenets, the Nenets, the Huns, and the Uyghurs. The Khan of Sibir in the vicinity of modern Tobolsk was known as a prominent figure who endorsed Kubrat as Khagan in Avaria in 630. The area was conquered by the Mongols in the 13th century and eventually became the autonomous Siberian Khanate. The growing power of Russia to the east began to undermine the Khanate in the 16th century. First groups of traders and Cossacks began to enter the area, and then the imperial army began to set up forts further and further east. The towns like Mangazeya, Tara, Yeniseysk, and Tobolsk sprang up, the latter being declared the capital of Siberia. By the mid-17th century, the Russian-controlled areas had been extended to the Pacific. Siberia remained a mostly unexplored and uninhabited area. During the following few centuries, only a few exploratory missions and traders inhabited Siberia. The other group that was sent to Siberia consisted of prisoners exiled from western Russia. The first great change to Siberia was the Trans-Siberian railway, constructed in 1891 - 1905. It linked Siberia more closely to the rapidly-industrializing Russia of Nicholas II. Siberia is filled with natural resources and during the 20th century these were developed, and industrial towns cropped up throughout the region.

Geography and geology

With an area of over 9,653,000 km2, Siberia makes up roughly two thirds of the total area of Russia. If Siberia were to secede from Russia, it would be the world's second-largest country, with only Canada being larger. Major geographical zones include the West Siberian Plain and the Central Siberian Plateau. The West Siberian Plain consists mostly of Cenozoic alluvial deposits and is extraordinarily flat, so much so that a rise of fifty metres in sea level would cause all land between the Arctic Ocean and Novosibirsk to be inundated. Many of the deposits on this plain result from ice dams; having reversed the flow of the Ob and Yenisei Rivers, so redirecting them into the Caspian Sea (perhaps the Aral as well). It is very swampy and soils are mostly peaty Histosols and, in the treeless northern part, Histels. In the south of the plain, where permafrost is largely absent, rich grasslands that are an extension of the Kazakh Steppe formed the original vegetation (almost all cleared now). The Central Siberian Plateau is an extremely ancient craton (sometimes called Angaraland) that formed an independent continent before the Permian (see Siberia (continent)). It is exceptionally rich in minerals, containing large deposits of gold, diamonds, and ores of manganese, lead, zinc, nickel, cobalt and molybdenum. Only the extreme northwest was glaciated during the Quaternary, but almost all is under exceptionally deep permafrost and the only tree that can thrive, despite the warm summers, is the deciduous Siberian Larch (Larix sibirica) with its very shallow roots. Soils here are mainly Turbels, giving way to Spodosols where the active layer becomes thicker and the ice content lower. Eastern and central Sakha comprise numerous north-south mountain ranges of various ages. These mountains extend up to almost three thousand metres in elevation, but above a few hundred metres they are devoid of vegetation to an extraordinary degree. The Verkhoyansk Range was extensively glaciated in the Pleistocene, but the climate was too dry for glaciation to extend to low elevations. At these low elevations are numerous valleys, many of them deep, and covered with larch forest except in the extreme north, where tundra dominates. Soils are mainly Turbels and the active layer tends to be less than a metre deep except near rivers.

Lakes and rivers


- Anabar River
- Angara River
- Indigirka River
- Irtysh River
- Kolyma River
- Lake Baikal
- Lena River
- Ob River
- Tunguska River
- Uvs Nuur Lake
- Yana River
- Yenisei River

Mountain ranges


- Anadyr Range
- Chersky Range
- Dzhugdzhur Mountains
- Gydan Mountains
- Koryak Mountains
- Sayan Mountains
- Ural Mountains
- Verkhoyansk Mountains
- Yablonoi Mountains A harsh climate has limited Siberia's development and population growth. The region has an abundance of natural resources, including many minerals, vast oil fields, rich forests, and grasslands in the extreme southwest that are good for farming. However, the winters are long and bitter. Ice and snow cover most of the region for about six months of the year. The temperature can drop below -68°C (-90°F). Most of the coastal waters, lakes, and rivers freeze for much of the year.

Demographics

Siberia has a population density of only 3 persons per square kilometer. Most Siberians are Russians and Russified Ukrainians. Ethnic Russians are descended from Slavs who lived in Eastern Europe several hundred years ago. Such Mongol and Turkic groups as Buryats, Tuvinians, and Yakuts lived in Siberia originally, and descendants of these peoples still live there. Other ethnic groups include: Evenks, Chukchis, Koryaks, Yukaghirs. See the Northern indigenous peoples of Russia article for more. About 70% of Siberia's people live in cities. Most city people are crowded into small apartments. Many people in rural areas live in simple, but more spacious, log houses. Novosibirsk is the largest city in Siberia, with a population of about 1.5 million. Tobolsk, Tomsk, Irkutsk and Omsk are the older, historical centers. With a lowest record temperature of -71.2 Celsius, Oymyakon has the distinction of being the coldest town on Earth.

On Film


- "Dersu Uzala" (1974). Survival in Siberia in the year 1900. Directed by Akira Kurosawa.

See also


- Tunguska event
- Afanasy Shchapov
- West Siberian Plain
- Gulag

External links


-
- [http://www.altaionline.com Tourism in Siberia]
- [http://www.baikalinfo.com Tourism around Lake Baikal and the Sayan Mountains]
- [http://frontiers.loc.gov/ Meeting of Frontiers: Siberia, Alaska, and the American West] Category:Geography of Russia Category:Asia
- ko:시베리아 ja:シベリア

Shackle

A shackle is a U-shaped piece of metal secured with a pin or bolt across the opening, or a hinged metal loop secured with a quick-release locking pin mechanism. They are very commonly used in outdoor activities such as sailing. A carabiner is a special kind of shackle used in mountaineering.

Types

Pin shackle

A pin shackle is closed with a clevis pin. Primarily used above the deck, pin shackles used to be the most common shackle used aboard boats. Pin shackles can be inconvenient to work with at times because they are secured using something else, usually a cotter pin or seizing wire.

Threaded shackle

The pin is threaded and one leg of the shackle is tapped. The pin may be "captive", to prevent it from being dropping loose. The threads may gall if over-tightened or have been corroding in the salt air, so a liberal coating of lanolin or a heavy grease is not out of place on any and all threads. A shackle key or metal marlin spike are useful tools for loosing a tight nut.

Mousing

For safety, it is common to mouse a threaded shackle that is going to be left done up for some time in anything like a critical application. This is done by passing a couple of turns of mousing wire through the hole provided for this purpose in the unthreaded end of the pin and around the body of the shackle's hoop. Alternatively, some threaded shackles are provided with a hole through the threaded end of the pin beyond where it emerges from the threaded hole. A cotter pin or a couple of loops of mousing wire through this hole serves the same purpose and secures the shackle in a closed position. In this context, 'mouse' and 'mousing' are often pronounced with a harder 's', like mouze and mouzing.
Galvanic corrosion
See main article Galvanic corrosion Note that when mousing, the introduction of any other metal into permanent, direct contact with a safety-critical shackle may seriously reduce its (or the other metal's) useful life, especially under water and more especially under sea water. Frequent wetting or immersion, followed by exposure to the air again, is absolutely the worst combination. This is particularly relevant to shackles that form part of permanent moorings and anchor cables. For this reason, specially alloyed mousing wire is available and should be exclusively used for this purpose at all times. Normal, galvanised and stainless steel cotter pins have similar drawbacks, though in these cases it is often the cotter pin that does not last.

Snap shackle

As the name implies, a snap shackle is a fast action fastener which can be implemented single handed. It uses a spring activated locking mechanism to close a hinged shackle, and can be unfastened under load. This is a potential safety hazard, but can also be extremely useful at times. The snap shackle is not as secure as any other form of shackle, but can come in handy for temporary uses or in situations which must be moved or replaced often, such as a sailor's harness tether.

D-shackle

A narrow shackle shaped like a loop of chain, usually a pin or threaded pin closure. This is probably the most common shackle type, and most others are a variation on the theme. The small loop can take high loads primarily in line. Side and racking loads may twist or bend this shackle.

Headboard shackle

This longer version of a D-shackle is used to attach halyards to sails, especially sails fitted with a headboard such as on Bermuda rigged boats. Headboard shackles are often stamped from flat strap stainless steel, and feature an additional pin between the top of the loop and the bottom so the headboard does not chafe the spliced eye of the halyard.

Twist shackle

A twist shackle is usually somewhat longer than the average, and features a 90° twist so the top of the loop is perpendicular to the pin. One of the uses for this shackle include attaching the jib halyard block to the mast, or the jib halyard to the sail, to reduce twist on the luff and allow the sail to set better.

Bow shackle

With a larger "O" shape to the loop, this shackle can take loads from many directions without developing as much side load. However, the larger shape to the loop does reduce its overall strength.

References


- Edwards, Fred (1988). Sailing as a Second Language. Camden, ME: International Marine Publishing. ISBN 0-87742-965-0.
- Hiscock, Eric C. (1965). Cruising Under Sail. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-2175222-X.
- Marino, Emiliano (1994). The Sailmaker's Apprentice: A guide for the self-reliant sailor. Camden, ME: International Marine Publishing. ISBN 0-07-157980-X. Category:Sailing vessels and rigging

Lithuania

The Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuva; full - Lietuvos Respublika) is a republic in northeastern Europe. One of the three Baltic States along the Baltic Sea, it shares borders with Latvia to the north, Belarus to the southeast, Poland to the south, and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia to the southwest.

History

Main article: History of Lithuania First mentioned in a medieval German manuscript, the Quedlinburg Chronicle, on February 14 1009, Lithuania became a significant state in the Middle Ages. The official crowning of Mindaugas as King of Lithuania in Voruta on July 6 1253 marked Lithuania's birth, as warring dukes united to support his reign. Later, during Gediminas' conquests, the nation grew into the independent, multi-ethnic Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which joined the lands of modern Belarus and Ukraine. By the 15th century, the Grand Duchy stretched across Eastern Europe from the Baltic to the Black Sea. When Grand Duke Jogaila was crowned King of Poland on February 2, 1386, Lithuania and Poland became unified under one monarch. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania formally merged into a single state called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This union remained in place until the adoption of the May Constitution of 1791, which abolished all subdivisions of the states and merged them into the Kingdom of Poland. In 1795, this new state was soon dissolved by the third Partition of Poland, which ceded its lands to Russia, Prussia and Austria. On February 16, 1918, Lithuania re-established its independence in severely limited territories that had been designated Lithuanian, with non-Lithuanian areas of the Grand Duchy that had fallen to the Soviet Union remaining under Soviet control. From the outset, territorial disputes with Poland (over the Vilnius region and the Suvalkai region) and Germany (over the Klaipėda region, German: Memelland) plagued the new nation. During the interwar period, the constitutional capital of Lithuania was Vilnius, although the city itself was then ocupied by Polish (see History of Vilnius for more details). The Lithuanian government at the time was seated in Kaunas, which officially held the status of temporary capital. In 1940, at the height of World War II, the Soviet Union occuppied and annexed Lithuania in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. It later came under German occupation, during which time 90% of Lithuanian Jews were killed, one of the worst death rates of the Holocaust. Ultimately Lithuania fell again to the Soviet Union in 1945. Fifty years of communist rule ended with the advent of glasnost, and Lithuania, led by Sąjūdis, an anti-communist and anti-Soviet independence movement, proclaimed its renewed independence on March 11, 1990. Lithuania was the first Soviet republic to do so, though Soviet forces unsuccessfully tried until August 1991 to suppress this secession, including an incident at Vilnius' TV Tower in January 1991 that resulted in the death of several Lithuanian civilians. The last Russian troops left Lithuania on August 31, 1993 — even earlier than those in East Germany. On February 4, 1991, Iceland became the first country to recognize Lithuanian independence, and Sweden the first to open an embassy in the country. The United States of America never recognized the Soviet claim to Lithuania or the other two Baltic republics. Lithuania joined the United Nations on September 17, 1991. On May 31, 2001, Lithuania became the 141st member of the World Trade Organization. Since 1988, Lithuania has sought closer ties with the West, and so on January 4, 1994, it became the first of the Baltic States to apply for NATO membership. On November 21, 2002, NATO invited Lithuania to start membership negotiations, and on March 29, 2004, it became a full and equal NATO member. On February 1, 1998, it became an Associate Member of the EU, and on April 16, 2003, it signed the EU Accession Treaty. 91% of Lithuanians backed EU membership in a referendum held on May 11, 2003 and on May 1, 2004, Lithuania joined the European Union.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Lithuania The Lithuanian head of state is the president, elected directly for a five-year term, who also functions as the commander-in-chief and oversees foreign and security policy. The president, on the approval of the parliament, also appoints the prime minister and on the latter's nomination, appoints the rest of the cabinet, as well as a number of other top civil servants and the judges for all courts, including the Constitutional Court (Konstitucinis Teismas). The unicameral Lithuanian parliament, the Seimas, has 141 members that are elected to four-year terms. About half of the members of this legislative body are elected in single constituencies (71), and the other half (70) are elected in a nationwide vote by proportional representation. A party must receive at least 5% of the national vote to be represented in the Seimas.

Administrative division

Main article: Administrative division of Lithuania Administrative division of Lithuania Lithuania consists of 10 counties (Lithuanian: apskritys, singular - apskritis), each named after their principal city. The counties are subdivided into 60 municipalities (some municipalities are historically called "district municipalities", and thus shortened to "district"; others are called "city municipalities", sometimes shortened to "city", or leaving just the name of city; and some are just simply called "municipalities") (see: List of municipalities of Lithuania). The municipality is the most important unit. Each municipality has its own elected government. In the past, the election of municipality councils occurred once every three years, but now take place every four years. The council elects the mayor of the municipality and other required personnel (larger municipalities have larger councils and more officials). The municipality councils also appoint elders to the administrative division (small municipalities do not have elderships, though). Taken together, the municipalities consist of over 500 elderships. This administrative division was created in 1994 and modified in 2000. There is currently a proposal that would require mayors and elders to be elected in direct elections by the public. The whole of Lithuania is partitioned into counties, which are ruled by officials ("Rulers of Apskritis") who are sent by the central government. These officials ensure that the municipalities work according to the laws of Lithuania and the constitution. They do not, however, have substantial powers vested in them, and there has been a proposal to reduce the number of counties because of the small number of municipalities falling under each ruler's jurisdiction. One proposal is to create a new administrative unit comprised of four lands, the boundaries of which would be determined by the ethnographic regions of Lithuania. Another proposed solution is to expand the counties so that there would be five in all, each based in one of the five largest cities. Also see: Counties of Lithuania, List of municipalities of Lithuania, Elderships

Geography

Main article: Geography of Lithuania The largest and most populous of the Baltic states, Lithuania has around 99 km of sandy coastline, of which only about 38 km faces the open Baltic Sea. Lithuania's major warm-water port of Klaipėda lies at the narrow mouth of Kuršių marios (Curonian Lagoon), a shallow lagoon extending south to Kaliningrad. The main river, the Nemunas, and some of its tributaries carry international shipping vessels. Lithuanian landscape is glacially flat, except for morainic hills in the western uplands and eastern highlands that are no higher than 300 m, with the highest point being found at Juozapinės at 292 m. The terrain features numerous lakes, Lake Vištytis) for example, swamps, and a mixed forest zone covers 30% of the country. The climate lies between maritime and continental, with wet, moderate winters and summers. According to some geographers, Lithuania's capital, Vilnius, lies a few kilometres south of the geographical centre of Europe. Lithuania consists of the following historical and cultural regions:
- Aukštaitija - literally, the "Highlands"
- Samogitia - also known as Žemaitija, or literally, the "Lowlands"
- Dzūkija (Dzūkija or Dainava).
- Sudovia (Sūduva or Suvalkija). Also:
- Mažoji Lietuva - Lithuania Minor, also known as "Prussian Lithuania" (Prūsų Lietuva). Now most of it is under control by Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast).

Economy

Main article: Economy of Lithuania In 2003, prior to joining the European Union, Lithuania had the highest economic growth rate amongst all candidate and member countries, reaching 8.8% in the third quarter. In 2004, a 6.6% growth in GDP reflected impressive economic development. Prior to 1998, Lithuania was the Baltic state that conducted the most trade with Russia; however, the 1998 Russian financial crisis forced the country to orient toward the West. Lithuania has since gained membership of the World Trade Organization, and joined the European Union on May 1, 2004. According to officially published figures, accession to the EU reduced previously high unemployment to 10.6% in 2004, although some argue that this has been prompted by the high rate of emigration from Lithuania that has occurred since it joined the EU. Lithuania has nearly completed the privatization of its large, state-owned utilities. The Litas, the national currency, has been pegged to the Euro since February 2, 2002 at the rate of EUR 1.00 = LTL 3.4528, and Lithuania is expected to switch to the Euro on 1 January 2007, thus becoming one of the first of the new EU members to do so, together with Estonia and Slovenia. Although Lithuania's economy is undoubtedly growing, many people still live in abject poverty and the situation does not appear to be improving. An urban elite is now highly visible, whilst little seems to have changed for the country's poor. According to a report published by the US Department of State in October 2005, the minimum wage increased in 2005 to $197.50 per month (the first rise since June 1998), well below the poverty threshold. The average wage stands at $458 per month [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5379.htm 1]. Like other countries in the region (Estonia, Latvia and Russia) Lithuania has also adopted a flat rate of tax rather than a progressive scheme. However, at 33% of income, the tax rate is considerably higher than that of its neighbours and some suggest that this, combined with the very low wages, may be a factor influencing the current trend of mass emigration to Western Europe, something that has been made legally possible as a result of accession to the European Union in 2004 [http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/story/0,,1549075,00.html]. The Ministry of Labour estimated in 2004 that as many as 360,000 workers may have left the country by the end of that year, a prediction that is now thought to have been broadly accurate. The impact is already evident: in September 2004, the Lithuanian Trucking Association reported a shortage of 3,000-4,000 truck drivers. Large retail stores have also reported some difficulty in filling positions [http://www.state.gov/e/eb/ifd/2005/42068.htm].

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Lithuania 83.5% of the Lithuanian population are ethnic Lithuanians who speak the Lithuanian language (one of two surviving members of the Baltic language group), which is the official language of the state. Several sizable minorities exist, such as Poles (7%), Russians (5%), and Belarusians (1.5%). Poles are the largest minority, mostly concentrated in southeast Lithuania (the Western Vilnius region). Russians are the second largest minority, concentrated mostly in the cities and comprising a majority in Visaginas; they also constitute a large minority in Vilnius and Klaipėda. Because of the Soviet occupation, most older people and some members of the younger population still understand Russian. Most schools teach English (sometimes German) as a first foreign language, but students may also study Russian, German, or, in some schools, French. However, there are still some schools that teach Russian as a primary language. The predominant religion is Roman Catholicism, but Eastern Orthodoxy, Protestantism, Judaism, Islam and Karaism (an ancient offshoot of Judaism represented by a long-standing community in Trakai) also exist as minority religions.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Lithuania
- List of famous Lithuanians
- Lithuanian mythology
- Music of Lithuania

Lithuanians abroad


- Lithuanians in Brazil
- Lithuanians in Cleveland
- Lithuanians in France
- Little Lithuania, Chicago
- :Category:Lithuanian-Americans

Miscellaneous topics


- Communications in Lithuania
- Foreign relations of Lithuania
- Holidays in Lithuania
- Lietuvos Skautija
- List of cities in Lithuania
- List of extinct and endangered animals of Lithuania
- List of Lithuanian rulers
- Military of Lithuania
- Sports in Lithuania
- Tourism in the Baltics
- Transportation in Lithuania

External links


- [http://www.president.lt/en Prezidentas] - Official presidential site
- [http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter/w3_eng_h.home Seimas] - Official parliamentary site
- [http://www.lrv.lt/main_en.php Vyriausybe] - Official governmental site
- [http://www.lietuva.lt/index.php?Lang=5&ItemId=27616 Lithuanian Central Internet Gates] - Main Lithuanian portal
- [http://www.on.lt Lithuania Online] - Wide collection of Lithuanian links
- [http://www.travel.lt] - Lithuanian State Department of Tourism

Maps & GIS


- [http://www.maps.lt Maps of Lithuania on Maps.lt]
- [http://www.mapquest.com/maps/main.adp?country=LT Maps of Lithuania on Mapquest] Category:Republics Category:European Union member states als:Litauen roa-rup:Litva ms:Lithuania zh-min-nan:Lietuva ja:リトアニア ko:리투아니아 ms:Lithuania simple:Lithuania th:ประเทศลิทัวเนีย fiu-vro:Leedu

Tsarist Russia

Imperial Russia is the term used to cover the period of history from the expansion of Russia under Peter the Great, through the expansion of the Russian Empire from the Baltic to the Pacific Ocean, to the deposal of Nicholas II of Russia, the last tsar, at the start of the Russian Revolution of 1917.

History

Image:Gerb rosimperii.jpg|Greater Arms of the Russian Empire, adopted in 1882 Image:Russia empire.gif|Simplified Coat of Arms of the Russian Empire Image:Romanovflag.gif|Flag of Russian Empire 1858-1883 Image:1914-17.png|Flag of Russian Empire 1914-1917 The Russian state was officially named the Russian Empire () from 1721 to 1917. The capital city of the Russian Empire was Saint-Petersburg (after 1914 re-named Petrograd). At the end of the 19th century the size of the Empire was about 22,400,000 square kilometers (almost 1/6 of the Earth's landmass); its only rival in size was the British Empire. According to the 1897 census its population was about 128,200,000 people, however, a majority of them (93.4 million) lived in European Russia. More than a 100 different ethnic groups lived in the Russian Empire (ethnic Russians were about 45% of the population). In addition to today's Russia prior to 1917 Russian Empire included territories of Finland (Grand Duchy of Finland), Estonia and Latvia (Baltic provinces), most of Lithuania, Belarus, most of Ukraine, a significant part of Poland (Kingdom of Poland), Moldova (Bessarabia), Caucasus, and most of Central Asia (Russian Turkestan). In 1914 the Russian Empire consisted of 81 provinces (guberniyas) and 20 regions (oblasts). Vassals and protectorates of the Russian Empire included khanates of Bukhara, Khiva and after 1914 Tuva. The Russian Empire was a hereditary monarchy headed by an autocratic Emperor (Tsar) from a Romanov dynasty. Orthodox Christianity was the official faith of the Empire and was controlled by the monarch through the Holy Synod. Subjects of the Russian Empire were segregated into sosloviya, or social estates (classes) such as "dvoryanstvo" (nobility), clergy, merchants, cossacks and peasants. Native people of Siberia and Central Asia were officially registered as a category called "inorodtsy" (non-Russians, literally: "people of alien kind"). In addition to Russia proper, the empire consisted of the constitutional monarchies of the Kingdom of Poland (1815-1831) and the Grand Duchy of Finland (1809-1917) The coat of arms of the Russian Empire was a two-headed eagle; the national anthem - God Save the Tsar (Bozhe, tsarya khrani); the official language - Russian. After the overthrow of monarchy during the February Revolution of 1917 Russia was declared to be a republic by the Provisional Government. This period, together with overlaps with the preceding and subsequent periods, is covered in the following articles.
- Russian history, 1682-1796
- Russian history, 1796-1855
- Russian history, 1855-1892
- Russian history, 1892-1920 Russian history, 1892-1920

Rulers

Peter the Great changed his title from tsar to Emperor in 1721 and his successors kept it, but tsar/tsaritsa were still in regular popular use up to the fall of the Russian Empire.
- Peter I (the Great), (1682-1725)
- Catherine I, (1725-1727)
- Peter II, (1727-1730)
- Anna, (1730-1740)
- Ivan VI, (1740-1741)
- Elizabeth, (1741-1762)
- Peter III, (1762)
- Catherine II (the Great), (1762-1796)
- Paul I, (1796-1801)
- Alexander I, (1801-1825)
- Nicholas I, (1825-1855)
- Alexander II, (1855-1881)
- Alexander III, (1881-1894)
- Nicholas II, (1894-1917)

References


- Library of Congress Country Studies: [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/rutoc.html Russia]

External links


- [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/empire/ The Empire that was Russia]: Color photographs of Tsarist Russia
- [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/Russian_army.htm Russian Army during the Napoleonic Wars] Category:Imperial Russia Category:History of Russia Russia ja:ロシア帝国 th:จักรวรรดิรัสเซีย

1863

1863 is a common year starting on Thursday.

Events

January


- January 1 - Abraham Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the second year of the American Civil War making slavery's abolition in the rebel states an official war goal.
- January 1 - The first claim under the Homestead Act is made for a farm in Nebraska
- January 8 - Ground is broken in Sacramento, CA on the construction of the First Transcontinental Railroad in the United States.
- January 11 - American Civil War: Battle of Arkansas Post - General John McClernand and Admiral David Porter capture the Arkansas River for the Union.
- January 10 - The first section of the London Underground Railway opens (Paddington to Farringdon Street).
- January 22 - The January Uprising broke out in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. The aim of the national movement was to regain Polish-Lithuanian-Ruthenian Commonwealth from occupation of Russia.

February


- February 10 - The world-famous midgets General Tom Thumb and Lavinia Warren get married in New York City. P. T. Barnum takes an entrance fee
- February 10 - Alanson Crane patents the fire extinguisher.
- February 24 - Arizona is organized as a United States territory.
- February 26 - President of the United States Abraham Lincoln signs the National Currency Act into law.

March


- March 3 - Idaho Territory is organized by the U.S. Congress
- March 3 - US National Conscription Act is signed - leads a week-long New York Draft Riots
- March 10 - Marriage of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales to Princess Alexandra of Denmark
- March 30 - Prince Wilhelm Georg of Denmark is chosen as King George I of Greece.

April


- April 11 - 400-page book, Thirty-three Thousand, Five Hundred and Thirty Ways of Spelling "Scissors" , is offered for sale in London pawnshop
- April 30 - the Battle of Camerone in Mexico - 65 soldiers of the French Foreign Legion fight 2000 Mexicans - three of them survive the battle

May


- May 1 – May 4 - American Civil War: General Robert E. Lee defeats Union forces at the Battle of Chancellorsville with 13001 Confederate casualties, among them Stonewall Jackson lost to friendly fire, and 17500 Union casualties.
- May 14 - American Civil War: Battle of Jackson (MS).
- May 17 - After a two-month siege, the French army of Bazaine takes Puebla Mexico.
- May 18 - American Civil War: The Siege of Vicksburg begins (ends Saturday, July 4).8600 union 30189 confederate men surrendered
- May 21 - American Civil War: Siege of Port Hudson, Louisiana by Union forces.
- May 21 - General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists formed.
- May 23 - Ferdinand Lassalle founds the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein (General German Workers' Association, ADAV), the first socialist workers party in Germany.
- May 28 - American Civil War: The 54th Massachusetts, the first African-American regiment, leaves Boston, Massachusetts to fight for the Union.
- May 31 - First running of the Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe horse race.

June


- June 9 - American Civil War: Battle of Brandy Station, Virginia.
- June 14 - American Civil War: Second Battle of Winchester: A Union garrison is defeated by the Army of Northern Virginia in the Shenandoah Valley town of Winchester, Virginia.
- June 17 - American Civil War: Battle of Aldie in the Gettysburg Campaign.
- June 20 - West Virginia is admitted as the 35th U.S. state.

July


- July 1 - 3 - American Civil War: Union forces under George G. Meade turn back a Confederate invasion by Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg, the largest battle of the war. 28500 confederate men & 24500 union
- July 4 - American Civil War: Battle of Vicksburg - Ulysses S. Grant and the Union army capture the Confederate city Vicksburg, Mississippi after the town surrendered. The siege lasted 47 days.
- July 13 - American Civil War (New York Draft Riots): In New York City, opponents of conscription begin three days of violent rioting, which would later be regarded as the worst in the history of the United States.
- July 18 - American Civil War: The first formal African American military unit, the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, unsuccessfully assaults Confederate-held Fort Wagner but their valiant fighting still proves the worth of African American soldiers during the war. Their colonel was shot leading attack and was buried with his men. 450 union/ 175 confederate
- July 26 - American Civil War: Morgan's Raid ends - At Salineville, Ohio, Confederate cavalry leader John Hunt Morgan and 375 of his volunteers are captured by Union forces.
- July 30 - Indian Wars: Chief Pocatello of the Shoshone tribe signs the Treaty of Box Elder, promising to stop harassing the emigrant trails in southern Idaho and northern Utah.

August


- August 8 - American Civil War: Following his defeat in the Battle of Gettysburg, General Robert E. Lee sends a letter of resignation to Confederate President Jefferson Davis (Davis will refuse the request upon receipt).
- August 17 - American Civil War: In Charleston, South Carolina, Union batteries and ships bombard Confederate-held Fort Sumter. Bombardment will not end until Thursday, December 31

September


- September 6 - American Civil War: Confederates evacuate Battery Wagner and Morris Island in South Carolina.
- September 8 - American Civil War: Second Battle of Sabine Pass - On the Texas-Louisiana border at the mouth of the Sabine River, a small Confederate force thwarts a Union invasion of Texas.

October


- October 5 - The Brooklyn, Bath and Coney Island Rail Road starts operations in Brooklyn, New York; this is now the oldest right-of-way on the New York City Subway, the largest rapid transit system in the United States and one of the largest in the world.
- October 14 - American Civil War: Battle of Bristol Station - Confederate General Robert E. Lee forces fail to drive the Union army out of Virginia.
- October 15 - American Civil War: The first successful submarine, the CSS Hunley sinks during a test, killing Horace Lawson Hunley (its inventor) and a crew of seven.
- October 26 - 29, the Resolutions of the Geneva International Conference are signed
- October 29 - Sixteen countries meeting in Geneva agree to form the International Red Cross.
- October 29 - American Civil War: Battle of Wauhatchie - Forces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant ward-off a Confederate attack led by General James Longstreet. Union forces thus open a supply line into Chattanooga, Tennessee.

November


- November 16 - American Civil War: Battle of Campbell's Station - Near Knoxville, Tennessee, Confederate troops led by General James Longstreet unsuccessfully attack Union forces under General Ambrose Burnside.
- November 17 - American Civil War: Siege of Knoxville begins - Confederate forces led by General James Longstreet place Knoxville, Tennessee under siege (the two week long siege and one failed attack was unsuccessful).
- November 19 - American Civil War: Union President Abraham Lincoln delivers the Gettysburg Address at the military cemetery dedication ceremony in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
- November 23 - American Civil War: Battle of Chattanooga III begins - Union forces led by General Ulysses S. Grant reinforce troops at Chattanooga, Tennessee and counter-attack Confederate troops.
- November 24 - American Civil War: Battle of Lookout Mountain - Near Chattanooga, Tennessee, Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant capture Lookout Mountain and begin to break the Confederate siege of the city led by General Braxton Bragg.
- November 25 - American Civil War: Battle of Missionary Ridge - At Missionary Ridge in Tennessee, Union forces led by General Ulysses S. Grant break the Siege of Chattanooga by routing Confederate troops under General Braxton Bragg.
- November 26 - American Civil War: Mine Run - Union forces under General George Meade position against troops led by Confederate General Robert E. Lee (Meade's forces could not find any weaknesses in the Confederate lines and gave up trying after five days).
- November 27 - American Civil War: Confederate cavalry leader John Hunt Morgan and several of his men escape the Ohio state prison and return safely to the South.

December


- End of term for Amasa Leland Stanford, 8t