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Java Sea

Java Sea

The Java Sea (Jawa Sea) is a large (310,000 km²), shallow sea in the southern Pacific Ocean. It was formed toward the end of the last ice age when two large river systems were drowned out. It lies in the midst of the Indonesian islands of Borneo to the north, Java to the south; Sumatra to the west, and Sulawesi (Celebes) to the east. To the northwest, the Karimata Strait links it to the South China Sea. Fishing is an important economic activity in the Java Sea. There are over 3,000 species of marine life in the area. The area around the Java Sea is a popular tourist destination. Scuba diving offers a chance to explore and photograph underwater caverns, wrecks, coral, sponges, and other marine life. A number of national parks exist in the area. Near Jakarta, in the Thousand Islands, is Ujung Kulon National Park. Karimun Java is a national park comprising twenty-seven islands. Menjagan Island, near Bali, is in a secluded national park. The Java Sea was the site of one of the costliest (to the Allies) naval battles of World War II, in February and March of 1942. The naval forces of the Netherlands, Britain, Australia, and the U.S. were nearly completely destroyed trying to defend Java from Japanese attack. Category:Seas Category:Geography of Indonesia

Ice age

An ice age is a period of long-term downturn in the temperature of Earth's climate, resulting in an expansion of the continental ice sheets, polar ice sheets and mountain glaciers ("glaciation"). Glaciologically, ice age is often used to mean a period of ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres; by this definition we are still in an ice age (because the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets still exist). More colloquially, when speaking of the last few million years, ice age is used to refer to colder periods with extensive ice sheets over the North American and European continents: in this sense, the last ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. This article will use the term ice age in the former, glaciological, sense; and use the term 'glacial periods' for colder periods during ice ages and 'interglacial' for the warmer periods. During the last few million years, there have been many glacial periods, occurring initially at 40,000-year frequency but more recently at 100,000-year frequencies. These are the best studied. There have been four major ice ages in the further past.

Origin of ice age theory

The idea that, in the past, glaciers had been far more extensive was folk knowledge in some alpine regions of Europe (Imbrie and Imbrie, p25, quote a woodcutter telling de Charpentier of the former extent of the Swiss Grimsel glacier). No single person invented the idea [http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/agassiz/glacial.htm]. Between 1825 and 1833, Jean de Charpentier assembled evidence in support of this idea. In 1836 Charpentier convinced Louis Agassiz of the theory, and Agassiz published it in his book Étude sur les glaciers of 1840. At this early stage of knowledge, what were being studied were the glacial periods within the past few hundred thousand years, during the current ice age. The far earlier ice ages' very existence was unsuspected.

Major ice ages

There have been at least four major ice ages in the Earth's past. The earliest hypothesized ice age is believed to have occurred around 2.7 to 2.3 billion (10⁹) years ago during the early Proterozoic Age. :Main article: Snowball Earth. The earliest well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last 1 billion years, occurred from 800 to 600 million years ago (the Cryogenian period) and it has been suggested that it produced a Snowball Earth in which permanent sea ice extended to or very near the equator. It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent Cambrian Explosion, though this theory is recent and controversial. A minor ice age occurred from 460 to 430 million years ago, during the Late Ordovician Period. There were extensive polar ice caps at intervals from 350 to 260 million years ago, during the Carboniferous and early Permian Periods. early Permian The present ice age began 40 million years ago with the growth of an ice sheet in Antarctica, but intensified during the Pleistocene (starting around 3 million years ago) with the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere. Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000 and 100,000 year time scales. The last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago. The timing of ice ages throughout geologic history is in part controlled by the position of the continental plates on the surface of the Earth. When landmasses are concentrated near the polar regions, there is an increased chance for snow and ice to accumulate. Small changes in solar energy can tip the balance between summers in which the winter snow mass completely melts and summers in which the winter snow persists until the following winter. Due to the positions of Greenland, Antarctica, and the northern portions of Europe, Asia, and North America in polar regions, the Earth today is considered prone to ice age glaciations. Evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching, glacial moraines, drumlins, valley cutting, and the deposition of till or tillites and glacial erratics. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence, making it difficult to interpret. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out. Analyses of ice cores and ocean sediment cores unambiguously show the record of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years.

Interglacials

glacial erratic In between ice ages, there are multi-million year periods of more temperate climate, but also within the ice ages (or at least within the last one), temperate and severe periods occur. The colder periods are called 'glacial periods', the warmer periods 'interglacials', such as the Eemian interglacial era. We are in an interglacial period now, the last retreat ending about 10,000 years ago. There appears to be a folk wisdom that "the typical interglacial period lasts ~12,000 years" but this is hard to substantiate from the evidence of ice core records. For example, an article in Nature [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v429/n6992/abs/nature02599_fs.html] argues that the current interglacial might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years. Nonetheless, fear of a new glacial period starting soon does exist (See: global cooling). However, many now believe that anthropogenic (manmade) forcing from increased "greenhouse gases" would outweigh any Milankovitch (orbital) forcing; and some recent considerations of the orbital forcing have even argued that in the absence of human perturbations the present interglacial could potentially last 50,000 years.

Causes of ice ages

The cause of ice ages remains controversial for both the large-scale ice age periods and the smaller ebb and flow of glacial/interglacial periods within an ice age. The general consensus is that it is a combination of up to three different factors: atmospheric composition (particularly the fraction of CO₂ and methane), changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun known as Milankovitch cycles (and possibly the Sun's orbit around the galaxy), and the arrangement of the continents. The first of these three factors is probably responsible for much of the change, especially for the first ice age. The "Snowball Earth" hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late Proterozoic was both caused and ended by changes in CO₂ levels in the atmosphere. However, the other two factors do matter. An abundance of land within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles appears to be a necessity for an ice age, probably because the landmasses provide space on which snow and ice can accumulate during cooler times and thus trigger positive feedback processes like albedo changes. The Earth's orbit does not have a great effect on the long-term causation of ice ages, but does seem to dictate the pattern of multiple freezings and thawings that take place within the current ice age. The complex pattern of changes in Earth's orbit and the change of albedo may influence the occurrence of glacial and interglacial phases — this was first explained by the theory of Milutin Milankovic. The present ice ages are the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by ice cores that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milankovic orbital forcing periods is so good that orbital forcing is the generally accepted explanation. The combined effects of the changing distance to the sun, the precession of the Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of the Earth's axis can change and significantly redistribute the sunlight received by the Earth. Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis, which impact the intensity of seasons. For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north latitude is calculated to vary by as much as 25% (from 400 W/m² to 500 W/m², see graph at [http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/ice_ages/insolation_graph.html]). It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too mild to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter. Some workers believe that the strength of the orbital forcing appears to be too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like CO₂ may explain this mismatch. While Milankovic forcing predicts that cyclic changes in the Earth's orbital parameters can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial/interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800 thousand years, the dominant inter/glacial oscillation has been 100 thousand years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's eccentricity and orbital inclination, and yet is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovic. During the period 3.0 — 0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41 thousand year period of changes in Earth's obliquity (tilt of the axis). The reasons for preferring one frequency to another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in the Earth's climate system. The "traditional" Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. Richard A. Muller and Gordon J. MacDonald [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/16/8329] [http://muller.lbl.gov/pages/glacialmain.htm] [http://muller.lbl.gov/papers/sciencespectra.htm] and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100 thousand year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as the earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the "predicted" periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Rial [http://pangea.stanford.edu/Oceans/GES290/Rial1999.pdf]. Another worker, Ruddiman has suggested a plausible model that explains the 100,000 cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000 year cycle) on precession (23,000 year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000 and 23,000-year cycles. Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the 2nd or 3rd cycle triggers an ice age. This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80 and 120 thousand years. This theory is consistent with the existing uncertainties in dating, but not widely accepted at present (Nature 434, 2005, [http://web.mit.edu/~phuybers/www/Doc/Obliquity_HuybersWunsch.pdf]).

Recent glacial and interglacial phases

Richard A. Muller See Timeline of glaciation.

Glaciation in North America

The Wisconsinan glaciation has had a considerable effect on the landscape of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, the Great Lakes and the Finger Lakes were carved by ice's deepening of old valleys. The old Teays River drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the Ohio River drainage system. Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as the Niagara, which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall near Syracuse, New York is now dry. Long Island was formed from glacial till, and the watersheds of Canada were so severely disrupted that they are still sorting themselves out — the plethora of lakes on the Canadian Shield in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of loess many dozens of feet thick in the Missouri Valley. Isostatic rebound continues to reshape the Great Lakes and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets. The Driftless Zone, around the junction of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa, was not covered by glaciers.

Reference

- Imbrie, John and Katherine Palmer Imbrie. Ice ages: Solving the Mystery. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1979, 1986 (reprint). ISBN 089490020X; ISBN 0894900153; ISBN 0674440757.

External links

- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ice/ Cracking the Ice Age] from PBS
- http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/samson/climate_patterns/ Category:Glaciology Category:History of climate ms:Zaman air batu ja:氷河期

Indonesia

The Republic of Indonesia is located in the Malay Archipelago, the world's largest archipelago, between Indochina and Australia, between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world and the fourth most populous overall. It has had free elections since the 1998 Revolution which led to the resignation of President Suharto, who came to power in 1965.

History

Under the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism, several kingdoms formed on the islands of Sumatra and Java from the 7th to 14th century. The arrival of Arab traders from Gujarat, India, later brought Islam, which became the dominant religion in many parts of the archipelago after the collapse of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. When the Portuguese came in the early 16th century, they found a multitude of small states. These states were vulnerable to the Portuguese, and later other Europeans, who were in pursuit of dominating the spice trade. In the 17th century, the Dutch emerged as the most powerful of the Europeans, ousting the Spanish and Portuguese (except for their colony of Portuguese Timor on the island of Timor). The Dutch influence started with trading by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), a private enterprise, which gradually expanded its region of influence and its grip on political matters. Following the dissolution of the VOC in 1799, as well as the political instability from the Napoleonic Wars, the East Indies were awarded to the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. From this time onward, the East Indies were officially ruled as colonies of the Dutch crown. Under the nineteenth-century Cultivation System (Cultuurstelsel), large plantations and forced cultivation were established on Java, finally creating the profit for the Netherlands that the VOC was unable to produce. In a more liberal period of colonial rule after 1870 the Cultivation System was abolished, and after 1901 the Dutch introduced the Ethical Policy, which included limited political reform and increased investment in the colony. During World War II, with the Netherlands under German occupation, in December 1941 Japan began a five prong campaign towards Java and the vital fuel supplies of the Dutch East Indies. Though Japan captured Java by March 1942, it was unable to find any national leader willing to cooperate with the Japanese government against the Dutch, eventually the Japanese commander ordered that Sukarno be released from his prison island and in July 1942 Sukarno arrived in Jakarta. Sukarno, with colleagues, cooperated with the Japanese occupiers. In 1945, with the war drawing to a close, Sukarno was made aware of an opportunity to declare an independence. Upon lobbying, Japan agreed that Sukarno established a committee to plan for independence. Sukarno, and Mohammad Hatta, declared independence on 17 August. In an effort to regain control of their previously occupied colonies, the Allies sent in their armies, together with the Netherlands' Army. Indonesia's war for independence lasted from 1945 until 27 December, 1949, when, under heavy international pressure, the Netherlands acknowledged Indonesia's independence. Sukarno became the country's first president, with Mohammad Hatta as the first vice president. See Indonesian National Revolution. It was not until 16 august 2005 that the Dutch government recognised 1945 as the country's year of independence and expressed its regrets over the Indonesian deaths caused by the Netherlands' Army. The 1950s and 1960s saw Sukarno's government aligning itself first with the emerging non-aligned movement and later with the socialist bloc. The 1960s saw Indonesia in a military confrontation against neighboring Malaysia, and increasing frustration over domestic economic difficulties. Army general Suharto became president in 1967 with the excuse of securing the country against an alleged Communist coup attempt against a weakening Sukarno. In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands people were killed or imprisoned in a backlash against alleged Communist supporters. Suharto's administration is commonly called the New Order era. Suharto invited major foreign investment into the country, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through widespread corruption and he was forced to step down amid massive popular demonstrations and a faltering economy by the Indonesian Revolution of 1998. In the period of 1998 to 2001, the country had three presidents: Bacharuddin Jusuf (BJ) Habibie, Abdurrahman Wahid and Megawati Sukarnoputri. In 2004 the largest one-day election in the world and Indonesia's first direct Presidential election was held and was won by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. Parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh, were devastated by a massive earthquake and tsunami on 26 December 2004. See Impact of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Indonesia

Politics

The highest legislative body is the Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR, head: Hidayat Nur Wahid) or 'People's Consultative Assembly', consisting of the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR, head: Agung Laksono) or People's Representative Council, elected for a five-year term, and the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD, head: Ginandjar Kartasasmita) or Regional Representatives Council. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral parliament, with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber.

Provinces

Currently, Indonesia has 33 provinces (of those, 2 are special territories and 1 capital city territory). The provinces are subdivided in districts, which are in turn split up in sub-districts and municipalities. The provinces are: Bali, Bangka-Belitung, Banten, Bengkulu, Central Java, Central Kalimantan, Central Sulawesi, East Java, East Kalimantan, East Nusa Tenggara, South Sumatra, Gorontalo, Jambi, Lampung, Maluku, North Maluku, North Sulawesi, North Sumatra, Papua (Irian Jaya), Riau, Riau Kepulauan, South East Sulawesi, South Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, West Irian Jaya, West Java, West Kalimantan, West Nusa Tenggara, West Sulawesi, West Sumatra The special territories (daerah istimewa) are Aceh (or Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam) and Yogyakarta. Special territories have more autonomy from the central government than other territories, and as a result they have unique legislative privileges: the Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system and instituted a form of sharia (Islamic Law) in 2003; Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan (currently the wildly popular Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X) is the territory's de facto governor for life. The capital city territory is Jakarta. Though Jakarta is a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province. For example, Jakarta has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems. East Timor was a province of Indonesia from its annexation in 1976 until Indonesia relinquished sovereignty in 1999. Following a period of transitional administration by the UN, it became an independent state in 2002.

Geography

2002 Indonesia's 18,108 islands, of which about 6,000 are inhabited, are scattered around the equator, giving the country a tropical climate. The largest populated islands are Java, one of the most densely populated regions on Earth, where about half of the population lives, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea) and Sulawesi. The country borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo (Indonesian: Kalimantan), Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea and East Timor on the island of Timor. In addition to the capital city of Jakarta, principal Indonesian cities of high population include Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, Palembang, and Semarang. Its location on the edges of tectonic plates, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian, means Indonesia is frequently hit by earthquakes and the resulting tsunamis. Indonesia is also rich in volcanoes, the most famous being the now vanished Krakatau (Krakatoa), which was located between Sumatra and Java. Flora and fauna differ markedly between Kalimantan, Bali, and western islands on the one hand and Sulawesi, Lombok, and islands further to the east on the other hand. This ecological boundary has been called the Wallace line after its discoverer. The line is often given as the boundary between Asia and Australasia, as such making Indonesia a bicontinental country. See also: Map of Asia

Economy

Indonesia's economy suffered greatly in the late 1990s, in part as a result of the financial crisis that struck most of Asia at the time. The economy has stabilized somewhat since then. The country has extensive natural resources outside of Java, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper and gold. Indonesia is the world's second largest exporter of natural gas, though it has recently become a net importer of crude oil. Major agricultural products include rice, tea, coffee, spices and rubber. Indonesia's major trading partners are Japan, the United States and the surrounding nations of Singapore, Malaysia and Australia. The central bank of Indonesia is Bank Indonesia [http://www.bi.go.id] The economy is now undergoing a process of rebuilding after the tsunami that struck in December of 2004.

Demographics

Indonesia's population can be roughly divided into two groups. The west of the country is Asian and the people are mostly Malay, while the east is more Pacific and people on New Guinea are Papuan, with roots in the islands of Melanesia. There are, however, many more subdivisions, which is logical given the fact that Indonesia spans an area the size of Europe or the USA and that it consists of many islands that to a large degree had their own separate development. Many Indonesians identify with a more specific ethnic group that is often linked to language and regional origins; examples of these are Javanese, Sundanese, or Batak. But there are also quite different groups within many islands, such as Borneo, with its Dayak and Punan, who have different lifestyles and skintones. Most Indonesians speak a local language (bahasa daerah) as their first tongue, but the official national language, Indonesian (locally called Bahasa Indonesia or simply Bahasa, meaning language) is almost universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. Originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia (and thus closely related to Malay), it was accepted by the Dutch as the de facto language for the colony and declared the official language after independence. The formerly large, influential Eurasian community (locally known as Indos) has largely left the country for the Netherlands, California and Australia, although a few still remain in Indonesia and are highly esteemed models and soap opera stars. There are also serious ethnic tensions in Indonesia, predominately between Indonesians of Chinese ethnicity and the Pribumi peoples, who are natives of Indonesia. The riotings in Jakarta in 1997 and 1998 highlight this recurring tension. Ethnic relations are strained mostly due to the high level of economic power that the Chinese-Indonesians have relative to the Pribumi peoples, which in turn propels anti-Chinese sentiment. Positions of power and influence in the business sphere are consistently held by ethnic Chinese Indonesians. The Indonesian government is attempting to remedy this problem, but due to widespread corruption and discontent experienced by the poorer citizens of Indonesia ethnic harmony is slow in coming. Corruption, collusion, and nepotism which characterized Suharto's presidency clearly define the origins of Indonesia’s ethnic tensions today. Islam is Indonesia's main religion, with almost 88% of all Indonesians declared as Muslim according to the 2000 religious census, making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. Prior to the arrival of the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity and Islam in the Malay Archipelago, the popular beliefs in region had been thoroughly influenced by Indic religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. After independence syncretism and intermarriage has decreased somewhat and religious divides sharpened, leading to communal violence in many of the eastern islands as well as in Java. Although Islam was once mainly practiced in Java and parts of Sumatra, the transmigration program has increased the number of Muslims living in Bali, Borneo, the Celebes, the Moluccas, and Papua. The remaining population is 8% Christian (of which roughly three quarters are Protestant, with the remainder mainly Catholic, and a substantial charismatic minority), 3% Hindu and 1% Buddhist with small communities of Jews. Indonesians are required to declare themselves as one of these official religions. As a result, many Indonesian "Muslims" are non-practicing, follow Indonesia's animist traditions (a fact that the government strenuously denies), or are entirely secular.

Culture

Art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. The famous Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology. Also well-known are the Javanese and Balinese wayang kulit shadow theatre shows, displaying several mythological events. Several islands are famous for their batik and ikat cloth. Silat is a unique martial art originating from the archipelago.

Miscellaneous topics

- Agama Hindu Dharma
- Communications in Indonesia
- Foreign relations of Indonesia
- Hinduism in Southeast Asia
- Indonesian calendars
- Indonesian car number plates
- Indonesian Chinese
- Islam in Indonesia
- Islands of Indonesia
- List of famous Indonesians
- Military of Indonesia
- Music of Indonesia
- Public holidays in Indonesia
- Transportation in Indonesia
- Indonesian Civil War
- History of Indonesia

External links

Official sites (owned and operated by the government of Indonesia and its agencies)
- [http://www.antara.co.id/ Antara] — National News Agency
- [http://www.bi.go.id/ Bank Indonesia] — Indonesian Central Bank
- [http://www.info-ri.com/ Info-RI] — National Information Portal (in Indonesian)
- [http://www.deplu.go.id/?language=en&embassy=1& List of Indonesian embassies and consulates worldwide] (Department of Foreign Affairs)
- [http://www.indonesia.go.id/ National Portal of Republic of Indonesia] (in Indonesian)
- [http://www.rri-online.com/ RRI] — National Radio Network
- [http://www.tvri.co.id/ TVRI] — National Television Network (in Indonesian) Other sites (not owned nor operated by the government of Indonesia and its agencies)
-
- [http://www.business-indonesia.com/ Business Indonesia]
- [http://www.kompas.com/ Kompas] - Indonesia's most widely circulated Newspaper (in Indonesian)
- [http://www2.iisg.nl/indoc/ INDOC Database on Indonesian Labour]
- [http://www.indonesia-house.org/ Indonesia House] (in English and in Dutch)
- [http://www.insideindonesia.org/ Inside Indonesia Journal]
- [http://www.aseannewsnetwork.com/indonesia.html News from Indonesia] (in English and in Indonesian) Category:ASEAN member states Category:Island nations Category:Republics Category:Southeast Asian countries Category:Bicontinental countries zh-min-nan:Ìn-nî ko:인도네시아 ms:Indonesia ja:インドネシア simple:Indonesia th:ประเทศอินโดนีเซีย

Borneo

]] Borneo (politically divided between Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei) is the third largest island in the world. It has an area of 743,330 km² (287,000 mi²), and is located at the centre of the Malay archipelago and Indonesia. Borneo is considered part of the geographic region of Southeast Asia.

Geography

Borneo is surrounded by the South China Sea to the north and northwest, the Sulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes Sea and the Makassar Strait to the east, and the Java Sea and Karimata Strait to the south. Karimata StraitTo the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south is Java. To the east is the island of Sulawesi (Celebes). To the northeast is the Philippines. Borneo's highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, with an elevation of 4,095 m above sea level.

Administration

Borneo is divided politically into:
- The Indonesian provinces of East, South, West and Central Kalimantan.
- The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak.
- The independent sultanate of Brunei in two parts.

History

The whole Borneo was controlled by Brunei Empire during its golden age from the 15th to 17th centuries. Borneo was the main site of the confrontation between Indonesia and Malaysia between 1962 and 1966.

Natural resources

Malaysia The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area is shrinking rapidly due to heavy logging for the needs of the Malaysian plywood industry and also multinational companies such as Mitsubishi take their share. One half of the annual tropical timber acquisition of the whole world comes from Borneo. Furthermore, palm plantations are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest. The rainforest was also greatly destroyed due to the forest fires in 1997 to 1998 which were started by man and coincided with an exceptional drought season of El Niño. During the great fire, hotspots could be seen on satellite images and a haze was created that affected Brunei, Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore. The remaining Borneo rainforest is the only natural habitat for the endangered Bornean orangutan. It is also an important refuge for many endemic forest species, and the Asian Elephant, the Sumatran Rhinoceros and the Clouded Leopard. In order to combat overpopulation in Java, the Indonesian government started a massive migration of poor farmers to Borneo, called transmigrasi to farm the logged areas, albeit with little success as the fertility of the land has been removed with the trees and what soil remains is washed away in tropical downpours. Indigenous people (e.g. Kayan, Kenyah, Punan Bah and Penan) living on the island have been fighting for decades for their rights to preserve their environment against loggers and transmigrasi settlers. The type of rainforests found in Borneo include rare peat-swamp forests and heath forest.

References

- Gudgeon, L. W. W. 1913. British North Borneo. Adam and Charles Black, London. (An early well-illustrated book on "British North Borneo", now known as Sabah.)

External links

- [http://www.insightnewstv.com/d54 Borneo: Eco Warriors] - Online documentary
- [http://www.shopborneo.com Shopborneo.com] Category:Islands Category:Geography of Indonesia Category:Geography of Malaysia ko:보르네오 섬 ms:Kepulauan Borneo ja:ボルネオ島 th:เกาะบอร์เนียว

Sumatra

Sumatra (also spelled Sumatara and Sumatera) is the sixth largest island of the world (approximately 470,000 km²) and is the largest part of Indonesia.

Geography

The longest axis of the island runs approximately northwest - southeast, crossing the equator near the center. The interior of the island is dominated by two geographical regions: the Barisan Mountains in the west and swampy plains in the east. To the southeast is Java, separated by the Sunda Strait. To the north is the Malay Peninsula, separated by the Straits of Malacca. To the east is Borneo, across the Karimata Strait. West of the island is the Indian Ocean. The backbone of the island is the Barisan mountains chain. The volcanic activity of this region endowed the region with fertile land and beautiful sceneries, for instance around the Lake Toba. It also contains deposits of coal and gold. To the east, big rivers carry silt from the mountain, forming the vast lowland interspersed by swamps. Even if mostly unsuitable for farming, the area is currently of great economic importance for Indonesia. It produces oil "from above the soil and underneath", the palm oil and petroleum. Most of Sumatra used to be covered by tropical rainforest, home to species such as orangutans, tapirs, and Sumatran tigers, and some unique plants like the Rafflesia. Unfortunately, economic development coupled with corruption and illegal logging has severely threatened its existence. Conservation areas have not been spared from destruction, either. See also: Islands of Indonesia, Riau islands

History

An ancient name for Sumatra was Swarna Dwipa, (Sanskrit for Isle of Gold), apparently based on the fact that mines in the Sumatran highlands were exporting gold from fairly early times. With its location in the India-China sea trade route, several trading towns flourished, especially in the eastern coast, and were influenced by Indian religions. The most notable of these were the Srivijaya and the Sumudra。Srivijaya was a Buddhist monarchy centered in what is now Palembang. Dominating the region through trade and conquest throughout the 7th-9th century, the kingdom helped spread the Malay culture throughout Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. The empire was thalassocratic, a maritime power that extended its influence from island to island. Srivijaya influence waned in the 11th century. The island was then subject to conquests from Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and subsequently Majapahit. At the same time, Islam made its way to Sumatra, spreading through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the monarch of Samudra kingdom (now in Aceh) had converted to Islam. Ibn Battuta, who visited the kingdom during his journey, pronounced the kingdom "Sumatra", hence the name of the island. Samudra was succeeded by the powerful Aceh Sultanate, which survived to the 20th century. With the coming of the Dutch, the many Sumatran princely states gradually fell under their control. Aceh, in the north, was the major obstacle, as the Dutch were involved in the long and costly Aceh War (1870-1905). On 26 December 2004, the western coast and islands of Sumatra, particularly Aceh province, were devastated by a nearly 15 metre high tsunami following the 9.0-magnitude Indian Ocean earthquake. The death toll surpassed 170,000 in Indonesia alone, primarily in Aceh. In 2005 there was an 8.7 magnitude aftershock of the previous earthquake in December 2004. See 2005 Sumatran Earthquake.

Administration

2005 Sumatran Earthquake The administrative regions of Sumatra (or the smaller islands nearby) are:
- Aceh
- Bangka-Belitung
- Bengkulu
- Jambi
- Lampung
- Riau- capital: Pekanbaru
- Sumatera Barat (West Sumatra) - capital: Padang
- Sumatera Selatan (South Sumatra) - capital: Palembang
- Sumatera Utara (North Sumatra) - capital: Medan

Demographics

Sumatra is not very heavily populated, about 85 people per sq.km (with more than 40 million people in an area the size of Germany). The most populous regions includes most of Sumatra Utara and central highland in Sumatra Barat, while the major urban centre are Medan and Palembang. The people are of Malay stock composed of many different tribes, speaking 52 different languages. Most of these groups, however, share many similar traditions and the different tongues are closely related. Malay-speaking people dominate the eastern coast, while people in the southern and central interior speak languages related to Malay, such as Lampung and Minangkabau. The highland of northern Sumatra is inhabited by the Bataks, while the northernmost coast is dominated by Acehs. Ethnic Chinese minorities are also present in urban centers. A majority of people in Sumatra are Muslims. Most central Bataks, meanwhile, are Protestant Christians - the religion was spread by the Dutch. The rest follow Hinduism, Buddhism, Catholicism, and Chinese traditional beliefs.

Flora and fauna

- Sumatran Pine
- Rafflesia
- Orangutan
- Orang Pendek

External links

- http://indahnesia.com/indonesia.php?code=SUBHIS: offers a brief history of the Minangkabau region (West Sumatra)
- Category:Islands of Indonesia zh-min-nan:Sumatra ko:수마트라 섬 ms:Sumatera ja:スマトラ島 th:เกาะสุมาตรา

Sulawesi

Sulawesi (formerly Celebes) is a large island in Indonesia. It is the world's eleventh largest island, covering an area of 174,600 km². world's eleventh largest island] The island is surrounded in the west by Borneo, the north by the Philippines, east by Maluku, and to the south by Flores and Timor. The island has a distinctive shape, dominated by four large peninsulas (see Sulawesi peninsulas). The central part of the island is ruggedly mountainous, such that the island's peninsulas have traditionally been remote from each other, with better connections by sea than by road. The island is subdivided into six provinces: Gorontalo, West Sulawesi, South Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, and North Sulawesi. The largest cities on the island are Makassar, on the southwestern coast of the island, and Manado, on the northern tip. 229,000 hectares of the island is devoted to Lore Lindu National Park. Red-Knobbed Hornbills and the Giant Civet can also be found here.

External links

- Category:Islands of Indonesia ko:술라웨시 섬 ms:Sulawesi ja:スラウェシ島

Karimata Strait

The Karimata Strait is the wide strait that connects the South China Sea to the Java Sea, between the islands of Sumatra and Borneo in Indonesia. The strait is about 150 km wide, as measured from Borneo to the island of Belitung. Belitung is separated from Bangka Island to the east by the Gaspar Strait. Bangka lies close to the east coast of Sumatra, separated by the Bangka Strait. The Karimata islands lie in the strait, northeast of Belitung and closer to Borneo. Category:Straits ja:カリマタ海峡

South China Sea

The South China Sea is a marginal sea, part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from Singapore to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 km². It is the largest sea body after the five oceans. The minute South China Sea Islands, collectively an archipelago, number in the hundreds. A number of nations know it as different names, objecting to the name "South China Sea", in that it implies Chinese sovereignty over the sea, which they dispute. The Vietnamese call it Biển Đông (Sea East) while the Philippines call it Luzón Sea.

Geography

Philippines The International Hydrographic Organization defines the sea as stretching in a southwest to northeast direction, whose southern border is 3 degrees South latitude between South Sumatra and Kalimantan (Karimata Strait), and whose northern border is the Strait of Taiwan from the northern tip of Taiwan to the Fujian coast of mainland China. The Gulf of Thailand covers the western portion of the South China Sea. States and territories with borders on the sea (clockwise from north) include: the People's Republic of China, Macao, Hong Kong, Republic of China (Taiwan), the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

Islands

Within the sea, there are over 200 identified islands and reefs, most of them within the Spratly Islands. The Spratly Islands spread over a 810 by 900 km area covering some 175 identified insular features, the largest being Taiping Island (Itu Aba) at just over 1.3 km long and with its highest elevation at 3.8 metres.

Non-insular structures

There is a 100-km wide seamount called Reed Tablemount in NE Spratlys, separated from Palawan Island of the Philippines by the Palawan Trench. Now about 20m under the sea level it was an island until it sunk about 7,000 years ago due to the increasing sea level after the last ice age.

Rivers

Many rivers flow into the South China Sea, including:
- Pearl River
- Min River
- Jiulong River
- Red River
- Mekong
- Rajang River, etc.

Resources

It is a extremely significant body of water in a geopolitical sense. It is the second most used sea lane in the world, while in terms of world annual merchant fleet tonnage, over 50% passes through the Straits of Malacca, the Sunda Strait, and the Lombok Strait. Over 1.6 million m³ (10 million barrels) of crude oil a day are shipped through the Strait of Malacca, where there are regular reports of piracy, but much less frequently than before the mid-20th century. The region has proven oil reserves of around 1.2 km³ (7.7 billion barrels), with an estimate of 4.5 km³ (28 billion barrels) in total. Natural gas reserves are estimated to total around 7,500 km³ (266 trillion cubic feet).

Politics

Competing territorial claims over the South China Sea and its resources are numerous. Because the 1982 United Nations Law of the Sea allows for a country's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to extend 200 nm (370.6 km) beyond territorial waters, all the nations surrounding the sea can lay claim to great portions of it. The People's Republic of China (PRC) has stated its claim to almost the entire body. Areas with potential problems include:
- Indonesia and the PRC over waters NE of the Natuna Islands.
- The Philippines and the PRC over the Malampaya and Camago gas fields.
- Vietnam and the PRC over waters west of the Spratly Islands. The islands themselves are also disputed between Vietnam, the PRC, Malaysia, and the Philippines.
- The Paracel Islands are disputed between the PRC and Vietnam.
- Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam over areas in the Gulf of Thailand. The PRC and Vietnam have both been vigorous in prosecuting their claims. The Paracel Islands was seized by China in 1974 and 18 soldiers were killed. The Spratly Islands have been the site of a naval clash, in which over seventy Vietnamese sailors were killed just south of Chigua Reef in March 1988. Disputing claimants regularly report clashes between naval vessels.

External links

- [http://www.middlebury.edu/SouthChinaSea/ South China Sea Virtual Library]
- [http://www.iccwbo.org/ccs/imb_piracy/weekly_piracy_report.asp Weekly Piracy Report]
- [http://www.miceage.com/ South China News] Category:Seas ko:남중국해 ms:Laut China Selatan ja:南シナ海 th:ทะเลจีนใต้

Scuba diving

Scuba diving is the use of independent breathing equipment to stay underwater for long periods of time for recreational diving and professional diving. Generally the diver swims underwater, but walking and the use of diver propulsion vehicles is possible while breathing from scuba equipment. The word 'SCUBA' is an acronym for "Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus", but it is grammatically acceptable to refer to 'scuba equipment' or 'scuba apparatus' in conversation. The two types of scuba equipment are the "open-circuit" Aqua-lung, developed by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and the "closed-circuit" rebreather.

History of diving

Men and women have practiced breath-hold diving for centuries. Indirect evidence comes from ancient artifacts of undersea origin found on land (e.g. mother-of-pearl ornaments), and depictions of divers in ancient drawings. In ancient Greece breath-hold divers are known to have hunted for sponges and engaged in military exploits. Of the latter, the story of Scyllis (sometimes spelled Scyllias; about 500 B.C.) is perhaps the most famous, as told by the 5th century B.C. Greek historian Herodotus (and quoted in numerous modern texts). During a naval campaign the Greek Scyllis was taken aboard ship as prisoner by the Persian King Xerxes I. When Scyllis learned that Xerxes was to attack a Greek flotilla, he seized a knife and jumped overboard. The Persians could not find him in the water and presumed he had drowned. Scyllis surfaced at night and made his way among all the ships in Xerxes's fleet, cutting each ship loose from its moorings; he used a hollow reed as snorkel to remain unobserved. Then he swam nine miles (15 kilometers) to rejoin the Greeks off Cape Artemisium. The desire to go under water has probably always existed: to hunt for food, uncover artifacts, repair ships (or sink them), and perhaps just to observe marine life. Until humans found a way to breathe underwater, however, each dive was necessarily short and frantic. One of the major hurdles of diving is to stay under water for a longer period of time. Breathing through a hollow reed allows the body to be submerged, but reeds more than two feet long do not work well; difficulty inhaling against water pressure effectively limits snorkel length. Breathing from an air-filled bag brought under water was also tried, but it failed due to rebreathing of carbon dioxide. In the 16th century people began to use diving bells supplied with air from the surface, the first effective means of staying under water for any length of time. The bell was held stationary a few feet from the surface, its bottom open to water and its top portion containing air compressed by the water pressure. A diver standing upright would have his head in the air. He could leave the bell for a minute or two to collect sponges or explore the bottom, then return for a short while until air in the bell was no longer breathable. In 16th century England and France, full diving suits made of leather were used to depths of 60 feet. Air was pumped down from the surface with the aid of manual pumps. Soon helmets were made of metal to withstand even greater water pressure and divers went deeper. By the 1830s the surface-supplied air helmet was perfected well enough to allow extensive salvage work. Starting in the 19th century, two main avenues of investigation one scientific, the other technologic - greatly accelerated underwater exploration. Scientific research was advanced by the work of Paul Bert and John Scott Haldane, from France and Scotland, respectively. Their studies helped explain effects of water pressure on the body, and also define safe limits for compressed air diving. At the same time, improvements in technology - compressed air pumps, carbon dioxide scrubbers, regulators, etc., - made it possible for people to stay underwater for long periods. Used with permission from Lawrence Martin, M.D. Web Site of Origin: [http://www.lakesidepress.com/abcindex.htm www.lakesidepress.com/abcindex.htm]. The web pages containing the scuba book are inoperative at present, and have not yet been moved to a new site. The above URL is the global or index web site. And see Timeline of underwater technology.

Diving Issues

See Diving hazards and precautions.

Equipment to allow underwater breathing

The two most common types of equipment are:
- surface supplied diving, where the diver's breathing gas (usually air) is pumped down from the surface. Standard diving dress is a historically interesting type of surface supplied diving equipment.
- scuba, where the breathing gas supply is carried by the diver.

Need to see underwater

Diving masks and diving helmets solve this problem. Occasionally commando frogmen use special contact lenses instead.

Avoiding losing body heat

Water conducts heat from the diver 25 times better than air, which can lead to hypothermia. Except in very warm water, the diver needs the thermal insulation provided by wetsuits and drysuits. See the main article: Diving suit.

Avoiding skin cuts and grazes

Diving suits also help prevent the diver's skin being damaged by rough or sharp underwater objects and marine animals and coral.

Diving longer and deeper safely

There are a number of techniques to increase the diver's ability dive deeper and longer:
- technical diving - Diving Deeper than 130 feet and/or using mixed gases.
- surface supplied diving - use of umbilical gas supply and diving helmets
- saturation diving - long-term use of underwater habitats under pressure and a gradual release of pressure, over several days, in a decompression chamber at the end of a dive

Being mobile underwater

- The diver needs to be mobile underwater. Personal mobility is enhanced by fins worn on the feet and Diver Propulsion Vehicles. Other equipment to improve mobility includes diving bells and diving shots.

Sources

The Diving Manual, BSAC, ISBN 095389192534 Dive Leading, BSAC, ISBN 0953891941 The Club 1953-2003, BSAC, ISBN 095389195X

External links

-
- [http://www.sportdiver.com Sport Diver] - Dive magazine covering dive travel adventures, scuba diving gear reviews, and PADI Diving Society events & news. Official magazine of the PADI Diving Society.
- [http://www.fishid.com/ marine life learning center] - Marine Life identification and behavior books.
- [http://www.diversalertnetwork.org/ Divers Alert Network]
- [http://www.bsac.com British Sub-Aqua Club] - BSAC Welcome
- [http://scuba.rinkes.nl/ Brief history of diving] - From antiquity to the present.
- [http://www.scuba-guide.com Scuba Diving Guide] - Information for scuba divers.
- [http://www.thescubaguide.com The Scuba Guide] - Massive directory of gear and articles for beginning scuba divers.
- [http://www.scubamonster.com/Uwe/ForumList.aspx Scuba Monster] - Scuba Usenet discussions and archive.
- [http://www.nauiww.org/ NAUI Worldwide] is the world's oldest not-for-profit membership training agency organized solely to support and promote dive safety through education.
- [http://www.padi.com PADI International] - Professional Association of Diving Instructors.
- [http://www.ukdiving.co.uk UK Diving - Diving and Scuba resource] - Large Internet resource for divers. Category:Acronyms Category:Diving ms:Scuba ja:スキューバ・ダイビング

Sponge

:This article is about the animal. For other uses, see Sponge (disambiguation).
Calcarea
Hexactinellida
Demospongiae
Sclerospongiae The sponges or poriferans (from Latin porus "pore" and ferre "to bear") are animals of the phylum Porifera. They are primitive, sessile, mostly marine, waterdwelling filter feeders that pump water through their matrix to filter out particulates of food matter. Sponges are among the simplest of animals, with partially differentiated tissues but without muscles, nerves, or internal organs. In some ways they are closer to being cell colonies than multicellular organisms. There are over 5,000 modern species of sponges known, and they can be found attached to surfaces anywhere from the intertidal zone to as deep as 8,500 m (29,000 feet) or further. Though the fossil record of sponges dates back to the Precambrian era, new species are still commonly discovered. The structure of a sponge is simple: it is shaped like a tube, with one end stuck to a rock or other object and an open end, the osculum, open to the environment. The spongocoel, or interior of the sponge, is composed of walls perforated with microscopic pores that allow water to flow through the spongocoel.

Biology

Sponges comprise only four types of cells:
- Choanocytes (also known as "collar cells"), which line the spongocoel and function as the sponge's digestive system, are remarkably similar to the protistan choanoflagellates.
- Porocytes are tubular cells that make up the pores.
- Flat epidermal cells line the outside of the sponge and form its skin.
- Amoebocytes live between the choanocytes and the epidermis. They carry out many of the sponge's functions, such as transport of nutrients, secretion of the spicules, and production of gametes. Sponges have only three body types: asconoid, syconoid, and leuconoid. Asconoid and syconoid are both vase-like, while leuconoid take a lumpy shape much like a rock. right Although they are animals, sponges may also be considered multi-cellular colonies. A sponge can be placed in a blender and any remaining living cells will reform themselves into another sponge. If multiple sponges are blended together, each species will recombine independently (contrast animal chimera such as the geep). It is thought that the earliest multicellular life on Earth was a sponge-like creature. The earliest known multicelled animal fossils are sponges from China that are roughly 600,000,000 years old. Sponges have not been as extensively studied as some other phyla and there may be some surprises still to be found. For example, it has recently been shown that some sponges are not sessile and can move to more favorable locations as rapidly as few centimeters a day. Another sponge, the Venus Flower Basket, has some newly discovered uses involving fiber optics. fiber optics

Taxonomy

Sponges are divided into classes based on the type of spicules in their skeleton. The four kinds of sponges are bony (Calcarea), glass (Hexactenellida), spongin (Demospongiae), and a fourth kind made up of a mixture of types (the Sclerospongiae). Although 90% of modern sponges are demosponges, fossilized remains of this type are less common than those of other types because their skeletons are composed of relatively soft spongin that does not fossilize well. The fossil Archaeocyantha may also belong here, though their skeletons are solid rather than separated into spicules. It has been suggested that the sponges are paraphyletic to the other animals. Otherwise they are sometimes treated as their own subkingdom, the Parazoa. Similar fossil animals known as Chancelloria are no longer regarded as sponges.

Reproduction

Sponges are able to reproduce sexually or asexually. In sexual reproduction, sperm is released from a sponge and floats through the water, where it is taken into a sponge with eggs and internal fertilization occurs. This produces a motile larval stage of sponge. Asexual reproduction of sponges is through budding, where a small piece of sponge falls off of the main sponge and grows into a new one. When a sponge is in a hostile environment, sponges can also form small structures known as gemmules. These are similar to a bacterium's endospore. Gemmules are made up of amoebocytes surrounded by a layer of spicules and can survive conditions that would kill adult sponges. When the environment becomes less hostile, the gemmule resumes growing. spicule

Ecology

Modern sponges are predominantly marine, with some species adapted to freshwater environments, ranging from the inter-tidal zone to depths of 6,000 metres (19,680 feet). Certain types of sponges are limited in the range of depths at which they are found. Sponges are worldwide in their distribution, and range from waters of the polar regions to the tropical regions. Sponges are most abundant in both numbers of individuals and species in warmer waters. Their bodies are porous and they feed by filtering micro-organisms from the water. They lack any internal organs, a nervous system, or circulatory and digestive systems, such as are found in the higher invertebrate animals. Adult sponges live in an attached position, and tend to lack any means of locomotion. The greatest numbers of sponges are usually to be found where a firm means of fastening is provided, such as on a rocky bottom. Some kinds of sponges are able to attach themselves to soft sediment by means of a root-like base. Sponges also live in quiet clear waters, because if the sediment is agitated by wave action or by currents, it tends to block the pores of the animal.

Skeleton as absorbent

spicule In common usage, the term sponge is usually applied to the skeletons of these creatures alone, from which the animal matter has been removed by maceration and washing. The material of which these sponges are composed is spongin. Calcareous and siliceous sponges are too harsh for similar use. Commercial sponges are derived from various species and come in many grades, from fine soft "lamb's wool" sponges to the coarse grades used for washing cars. The loofah or luffa sponge, commonly sold for use in the kitchen or the shower, is not related to any animal sponge but is derived instead from a vegetable. Marine sponges come from fisheries in the Mediterranean and West Indies. The manufacture of rubber, plastic and cellulose based synthetic sponges has significantly reduced the commercial sponge fishing industry over recent years.

Geological history

fishing The fossil record of sponges is not abundant, except in a few scattered localities. Some fossil sponges have worldwide distribution, while others are restricted to certain areas. Sponge fossils such as Hydnoceras and Prismodictya are found in the Devonian rocks of New York state. In Europe the Jurassic limestone of the Swabian Alps are composed largely of sponge remains, some of which are well preserved. Many sponges are found in the Cretaceous Lower Greensand and Chalk Formations of England, and in rocks from the upper part of the Cretaceous period in France. A famous locality for fossil sponges is the Cretaceous Farringdon Sponge Gravels in Farringdon, Oxfordshire in England. Fossil sponges vary in size from 1 cm (0.4 inches) to more than 1 metre (3.3 feet). They vary greatly in shape, being commonly vase-shapes (such as Ventriculites), spherical (such as Porosphaera), pear-shaped (such as Siphonia), leaf-shaped (such as Elasmostoma), branching (such as Doryderma), irregular or encrusting. Detailed identification of many fossil sponges relies on the study of thin sections. Category:Porifera ja:海綿 th:ฟองน้ำ

Jakarta

:This page is about the capital city of Indonesia. For The Apache Jakarta project, see Jakarta Project.

Jakarta

Jakarta Project

Motto: "Jaya Raya"
(Indonesian): "Prosper and Great"

Indonesian

Founded

22 June 1527

Governor

Sutiyoso

Area

661.52 km²

Population
- Total (2004):
- Density:

8,792,000
13,290/km²

Time zone

UTC+7

Jakarta (also Djakarta or DKI Jakarta, formerly known as Batavia) is the capital and the largest city of Indonesia, located on the northwest coast of the island of Java, at . It has an area of 661.52 km² and a population of 8,792,000 (2004).

History

2004 The first recorded settlement at what is now Jakarta was the port of Kalapa, near the mouth of the Ciliwung River. Its origin can be traced to a Hindu settlement as early as the 5th century. By the 12th century, it was a major port for the Hindu kingdom of Sunda. The Portuguese were reported to be the first Europeans to visit the port of Kalapa. A Hindu king granted Portuguese traders permission to build a fort at Kalapa in the early 16th century. Jakarta's port is still called Sunda Kelapa today, after this early settlement. In 1527, the city was conquered by Fatahillah (or Faletehan), a young leader from a nearby kingdom from the north. Fatahillah changed the name Kalapa into Jayakarta (meaning "victorious and prosperous" in Javanese) on 22 June, 1527. This particular date is regarded as the official birth date of Jakarta. The Dutch came to Jayakarta at the end of the 16th century. In 1619 the forces of the Dutch East India Company, led by Jan Pieterszoon Coen, conquered the city and renamed Jayakarta to Batavia, the Latin name for a tribe that lived in the Netherlands during Roman times. Batavia was the capital of the colonial Dutch East Indies. In the early 19th century, the city was expanded as the Dutch began moving to the south, to higher-elevation areas thought to be healthier. The British captured Java in 1811 and occupied the island for five years while the Netherlands were occupied with the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, before returning it to Dutch control. With formal, direct rule by the Netherlands expanding to more parts of the archipelago during the nineteenth and early twentieth century, the importance of the colonial Batavia (Jakarta) increased. Dutch tactics to maintain control and tax revenue at times required nearly all exports from anywhere in the region to be shipped through the city, establishing for the city an overwhelming political and economic dominance that it retains today. Japan took possession of the city in 1942 during World War II and renamed it Jakarta, to gain local favor. Following Japan's defeat in 1945, the Dutch reoccupied the city despite the declaration of independence by the Indonesians on August 17, 1945. Jakarta was the center of the Dutch effort to retain control over their former colony during the war of independence that ended with the establishment of Indonesia in 1949.

Administration

1949 Unlike other cities in Indonesia, Jakarta has a special provincial status. The city is headed by a governor instead of a mayor. Jakarta is divided into five districts called kota (formerly kotamadya), each headed by a mayor (walikota).
- Central Jakarta
- East Jakarta
- North Jakarta
- South Jakarta
- West Jakarta The Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu) to the north of Jakarta is also part of Jakarta. It has the status of a regency.

Culture

Being the capital of Indonesia and the center of governance, politics, and economy, Jakarta attracts many foreign as well as domestic immigrants. As a result, Jakarta has a decidedly cosmopolitan flavor and a diverse culture. Many of the immigrants are from the other parts of Java, bringing along a mixture of dialects of Javanese and Sundanese language, and their traditional foods and customs. Orang Betawi ("people of Batavia") is a term used to describe the descendants of the people living around Batavia from around the 17th century. Orang Betawi are mostly descended from various Southeast Asian ethnic groups brought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs, including people from various parts of Indonesia. They have a culture and language distinct from the Sundanese and Javanese. Jakarta also has a large Chinese community which has been here for centuries. It is estimated that about 10% of the population is of Chinese descent. Chinese Jakarta has several performance centers, such as the Senayan center. Traditional music is often found at high-class hotels, including wayang and gamelan performances. As the largest city Jakarta has attracted many regional talents to relocate in hopes of finding a better audience and more opportunities for their arts and crafts. The concentration of wealth and political influence in the city means that it has much more noticeable foreign influence on its landscape and culture; many major international fast-food chains have locations in the city, for example.

Transportation

gamelan There are railways throughout Jakarta; however, they are inadequate in providing transportation for the citizens of Jakarta. In peak hours, the number of passengers simply overloads the capacity provided. The railroad tracks connect Jakarta to its neighboring cities: Depok and Bogor to the south, Tangerang and Serpong to the west, and Bekasi, Karawang, and Cikampek to the east. The major rail stations are Gambir, Jatinegara, Manggarai, and Jakarta Kota. Buses and transport cars (local language: angkutan kota/angkot) are also popular. Like trains, they also become overloaded during peak hours. In 2003, the government formed a busway system named TransJakarta; it serves a route running from Jakarta Kota to Blok M. The busway takes less than half an hour to traverse a route which would normally take more than an hour during peak hours. The second phase of the busway will be constructed in 2005, serving the route from Pulogadung to Kalideres. Despite the presence of many large, wide boulevards, Jakarta suffers from congestion due to heavy traffic, especially in the central business district. To reduce traffic jams, some major roads in Jakarta have a three in one rule during rush hours, prohibiting vehicles carrying less than three passengers on certain roads. In 2005, this rule covers the areas of Sudirman and Gatot Subroto. Jakarta's road is notorious for behaviour of the traffic; the rules of the road are broken with impunity as a simple bribe of a few US dollars will simply make all ones legal problems disappear. Furthermore in recent years the number of motorcycles on the streets has being growing almost exponentially, ensuring many a problem due to ill-disciplined motorcyclists. Jakarta's transportation also depends on tollroads. The major tollroad is the inner ring road from Tanjung Priok-Cawang-Grogol-Tanjung Priok. The outer ring road is now being constructed and is partly operational from Cilincing-Cakung-Pasar Rebo-Pondok Pinang-Daan Mogot-Cengkareng. A tollroad connects Jakarta to the Soekarno-Hatta International airport in the north of Jakarta. Also connected via tollroad is the port of Merak and Tangerang to the west, Serpong to the southwest, Depok and Bogor to the south, and Bekasi, Cibitung and Karawang, Purwakarta and eventually to Bandung to the east. Two lines of the Jakarta Monorail are under construction: the green line serving Semanggi-Casablanca-Kuningan-Semanggi and the blue line serving Kampung Melayu-Casablanca-Tanah Abang-Roxy. In addition, there are plans for a two-line subway (MRT) system, with a north-south line between Kota and Fatmawati, with connections to both monorail lines; and an east-west line, which willl connect with the north-south line at the Sawah Besar station. The government is also considering waterbus ferries as a cheaper means of transportation along the canals in Jakarta. The primary airport for Jakarta is Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, which has daily flights from major airlines.

Education

Jakarta is the home of several universities:
- Universitas Indonesia (a big part of it is now relocated to Depok)
- [http://www.trisakti.ac.id Universitas Trisakti]
- [http://www.tarumanagara.ac.id Universitas Tarumanagara]
- [http://www.binus.ac.id Universitas Bina Nusantara]
- [http://www.ukrida.ac.id Universitas Kristen Krida Wacana]
- Universitas Kristen Indonesia
- Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta
- [http://www.atmajaya.ac.id Universitas Katolik Indonesia Atma Jaya]
- [http://www.uph.edu Universitas Pelita Harapan]
- Universitas Jayabaya
- Universitas Gunadarma
- Universitas Pembangunan Nasional
- [http://www.presuniv.com President University]

Recreational Places

- Monas
- Ragunan Zoo
- Taman Impian Jaya Ancol
- Taman Ismail Marzuki
- Taman Mini Indonesia Indah
- Thousand Islands

Shopping malls

Being the home of many of the country's political and economic elites, Jakarta boasts far more shopping venues than elsewhere in Indonesia. While these malls are too expensive to be accessible to many Jakarta residents, they dominate the high-end retail industry. Recent development of satellite cities in the surrounding areas, usually built around their own mega malls, parks, entertainment centers, and in some instances schools, has significantly expanded what is considered to be the practical border of Jakarta.

Sports

Jakarta is the home of popular football team Persija Jakarta, which regularly plays its matches in the stadium of Lebak Bulus. The biggest stadium is Bung Karno Stadium. With a capacity of more than 100,000 seats, it is one of the biggest stadiums in the world. The Senayan sports complex is comprised of several sport venues, which include: Gelora Bung Karno soccer stadium, Stadion Madya athletic stadium, Istora senayan, a shooting range, a tennis court and a golf driving range.

Problems

Istora Like many big cities in developing countries, Jakarta suffers from major urbanization problems. The population has sharply risen from 2.7 million in 1960 to 8.3 million in 2000. The rapid population growth has outgrown the government's ability to provide basic needs for its residents. As the biggest economy in Indonesia, Jakarta has attracted a large number of workers from its surrounding areas. The population during weekdays is almost double that of weeknights or weekends, due to the influx of workers residing in the surrounding areas. Because of government's inability to provide adequate transportation for its large population, Jakarta also suffers from severe traffic jams that occur almost every workday. During the wet season, Jakarta suffers from flooding due to clogged sewage pipes and waterways. Rainforest depletion due to rapid urbanization on the hill areas south of Jakarta near Bogor and Depok has also contributed to the floods.

External links

- [http://www.jakarta.go.id Official website]
-
- [http://www.indo.com/jakarta/ Jakarta Online at indo.com]
- [http://www.jsx.co.id Jakarta Stock Exchange]
- [http://www.emp.pdx.edu/htliono/jkt.html Travelling to Jakarta]
- [http://www.expat.or.id/ Living in Jakarta for expatriates]
- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-6.200409,106.851654&spn=0.330085,0.468361&t=k&hl=en Satellite picture by Google Maps]
- [http://www.hernan.ameijeiras.com/indonesie-indonesia.html Pictures from Jakarta]
- Category:Capitals in Asia Category:Cities in Indonesia Category:Coastal cities Category:Provinces of Indonesia zh-min-nan:Jakarta ms:Jakarta ja:ジャカルタ simple:Jakarta th:จาการ์ตา

Ujung Kulon National Park

The Ujung Kulon National Park is located at the westmost tip of Java, Indonesia. It includes the volcanic archipelago of Krakatoa. The park encompasses an area of 1,206 km² (443 km² marine), most of which lies on a peninsula reaching into the Indian Ocean. Being Indonesia's first national park, it has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1992 for containing the largest remaining part of lowland rainforest in Java. It is also a home for the last fifty to sixty members of the Javan Rhinoceros species. The mainland part of Ujung Kulon was formerly farmland until it was devastated and depopulated by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa and went back to the jungle.

External links

- [http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/4466/ukulon1.htm Detailed information] Category:World Heritage Sites in Indonesia ja:ウジュン・クロン国立公園

Bali

:This article is about Bali, the Indonesian island. For other uses, see Bali (disambiguation). Bali (disambiguation) Bali (disambiguation) Bali (disambiguation) Bali (disambiguation)

Java Sea

Ice age

Origin of ice age theory

Major ice ages

Interglacials

Causes of ice ages

Recent glacial and interglacial phases

Glaciation in North America

Reference

See also

External links

Indonesia

History

Politics

Provinces

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

Miscellaneous topics

Further reading

See also

External links

Borneo

Geography

Administration

History

Natural resources

References

See also

External links

Sumatra

Geography

History

Administration

Demographics

Flora and fauna

External links

Sulawesi

External links

Karimata Strait

South China Sea

Geography

Islands

Non-insular structures

Rivers

Resources

Politics

See also

External links

Scuba diving

History of diving

Diving Issues

Equipment to allow underwater breathing

Need to see underwater

Avoiding losing body heat

Avoiding skin cuts and grazes

Diving longer and deeper safely

Being mobile underwater

See also

Sources

External links

Sponge

Biology

Taxonomy

Reproduction

Ecology

Skeleton as absorbent

Geological history

Jakarta

History

Administration

Culture

Transportation

Education

Recreational Places

Shopping malls

Sports

Problems

See also