Home About us Products Services Contact us Bookmark
:: wikimiki.org ::
Javier Pérez De Cuéllar

Javier Pérez de Cuéllar

Javier Pérez de Cuéllar de la Guerra (born January 19, 1920 in Lima, Peru) is a Peruvian diplomat and the fifth Secretary-General of the United Nations, from January 1 1982 to December 31 1991. In 1995, he ran unsuccessfully against Alberto Fujimori for President of Peru. He was President of the Council of Ministers (or Primer Ministro, as the title is known in Peru) , as well as Minister of Foreign Affairs from November 2000 until July 2001, during the turbulent period following Fujimori's resignation over corruption charges. In September 2004, he stood down from his position as Peru's Ambassador to France, where he now resides.

Diplomatic career

Pérez de Cuéllar joined the Peruvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1940 and the diplomatic service in 1944, serving subsequently as Secretary at the Peruvian embassies in France, the United Kingdom, Bolivia, and Brazil. He later served as ambassador of Peru to Switzerland, the Soviet Union, Poland, and Venezuela. He was a member of the Peruvian delegation to the General Assembly at its first session in 1946 and a member of the delegations to the 25th through 30th sessions of the Assembly. In 1971, he was appointed permanent representative of Peru to the United Nations, and he led his country's delegation to all sessions of the Assembly from then until 1975. In 1973 and 1974, he represented his country in the Security Council, serving as President of the Council at the time of the events in Cyprus in July 1974. On 18 September 1975, he was appointed Special Representative of the Secretary-General in Cyprus – a post he held until December 1977, when he rejoined the Peruvian Foreign Service. On 27 February 1979, he was appointed as United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Special Political Affairs. From April 1981, while still holding this post, he acted as the Secretary-General's Personal Representative on the situation relating to Afghanistan. In that capacity, he visited Pakistan and Afghanistan in April and August of that year in order to continue the negotiations initiated by the Secretary-General some months earlier. Pakistan.]]

United Nations Secretary-General

On December 31 1981, Pérez de Cuéllar succeeded Kurt Waldheim as Secretary-General and was re-elected for a second term in October 1986. During his two terms, he led mediations between Britain and Argentina in the aftermath of the Falklands War and promoted the efforts of the Contadora Group to bring peace and stability to Central America. He also interceded in the negotiations for the independence of Namibia, the conflict in Western Sahara between Morocco and the Polisario Front, and the Cyprus issue. His second term as Secretary-General concluded in January 1992.

External link


- [http://www.un.org/News/ossg/sg/stories/decuellar_bio.asp Official bio UN website] Pérez de Cuellar, Javier Pérez de Cuellar, Javier Pérez de Cuellar, Javier ja:ハビエル・ペレス・デ・クエヤル

January 19

January 19 is the 19th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 346 days remaining (347 in leap years).

Events


- 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England which completed his conquest of Normandy.
- 1520 - Sten Sture the Younger, the Regent of Sweden, was mortally wounded at the Battle of Bogesund
- 1764 - John Wilkes is expelled from the British House of Commons for seditious libel.
- 1795 - Batavian Republic is proclaimed in the Netherlands. End of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands.
- 1806 - The United Kingdom occupies the Cape of Good Hope.
- 1829 - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Faust premieres.
- 1839 - British East India Company captures Aden.
- 1840 - Captain Charles Wilkes circumnavigates Antarctica, claiming what became known as Wilkes Land for the United States.
- 1853 - Giuseppe Verdi's opera Il Trovatore premieres in Rome.
- 1862 - The Confederacy suffers its first significant defeat in the American Civil War at the Battle of Mill Springs.
- 1883 - The first electric lighting system employing overhead wires begins service (Roselle, New Jersey) It was built by Thomas Edison.
- 1893 - Henrik Ibsen's play The Master Builder premieres in Berlin.
- 1899 - Anglo-Egyptian Sudan is formed.
- 1915 - George Claude patents the neon discharge tube for use in advertising.
- 1915 - German zeppelins bomb the cities of Great Yarmouth and King's Lynn in the United Kingdom killing more than 20, in the first major aerial bombardment of a civilian target.
- 1918 - Finnish Civil War: The first serious battles between the Red Guards and the White Guard.
- 1920 - The United States Senate votes against joining the League of Nations.
- 1935 - Coopers Inc. sold the world's first briefs.
- 1937 - Howard Hughes sets a new air record by flying from Los Angeles to New York City in 7 hours, 28 minutes, 25 seconds.
- 1941 - World War II: British troops attack Italian-held Eritrea.
- 1942 - World War II: Japanese forces invade Burma.
- 1945 - World War II: Soviet forces liberate ghetto of Lodz. Out of 230,000 inhabitants in 1940, less than 900 had survived Nazi occupation.
- 1946 - General Douglas MacArthur establishes the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo to try Japanese war criminals.
- 1949 - Cuba recognises Israel.
- 1953 - 68% of all United States television sets were tuned in to I Love Lucy to watch Lucy give birth.
- 1955 - The Scrabble board game debuts.
- 1966 - Indira Gandhi is elected Prime Minister of India.
- 1969 - Student Jan Palach died after setting himself on fire 3 days ago in Prague's Wenceslas Square to protest the invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union in 1968. His funeral turned into another major protest.
- 1971 - Revival of No, No, Nanette premieres (46th Street Theatre, New York City).
- 1974 - The UCLA men's basketball team sees its 88-game winning streak end at the hands of Notre Dame.
- 1975 - Double Jay began broadcasting in Sydney, Australia.
- 1977 - President Gerald Ford pardons Iva Toguri D'Aquino (a.k.a. "Tokyo Rose").
- 1977 - Snow falls in Miami, Florida. This is the only time in the history of the city that snowfall has occurred.
- 1981 - Iran Hostage Crisis: United States and Iranian officials sign an agreement to release 52 American hostages after 14 months of captivity.
- 1983 - Klaus Barbie, Nazi war criminal, is arrested in Bolivia.
- 1983 - The Apple Lisa, the first commercial personal computer from Apple Computer, Inc. to have a graphical user interface and a computer mouse, is announced.
- 1993 - IBM announces a $4.97 billion loss for 1992, the largest single-year corporate loss in United States history.
- 1997 - Yasser Arafat returns to Hebron after more than 30 years and joins celebrations over the handover of the last Israeli-controlled West Bank city.
- 2002 - Michael Jordan, formerly of the Washington Wizards, plays his first game in Chicago since rejoining the NBA.

Births


- 399 - Pulcheria, Byzantine empress (d. 453)
- 1544 - King Francis II of France (d. 1560)
- 1736 - James Watt, Scottish inventor (d. 1819)
- 1739 - Joseph Bonomi the Elder, Italian architect (d. 1808)
- 1807 - Robert E. Lee, American Confederate general (d. 1870)
- 1808 - Lysander Spooner, American philosopher (d. 1887)
- 1809 - Edgar Allan Poe, American writer and poet(d. 1849)
- 1813 - Sir Henry Bessemer, English inventor (d. 1898)
- 1839 - Paul Cézanne, French painter (d. 1906)
- 1848 - John F. Stairs, Canadian businessman and statesman (d. 1904)
- 1851 - Jacobus Kapteyn, Dutch astronomer (d. 1922)
- 1863 - Werner Sombart, German sociologist (d. 1941)
- 1887 - Alexander Woollcott, American intellectual (d. 1943)
- 1909 - Hans Hotter, German bass-baritone (d. 2003)
- 1912 - Leonid Kantorovich, Russian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)
- 1913 - Minnesota Fats, American billiards player (d. 1996)
- 1917 - John Raitt, American singer and actor (d. 2005)
- 1918 - John H. Johnson, American publisher (d. 2005)
- 1920 - Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, Peruvian United Nations Secretary General
- 1921 - Patricia Highsmith, American author (d. 1995)
- 1922 - Guy Madison, American actor (d. 1996)
- 1923 - Jean Stapleton, American actress
- 1923 - Markus Wolf, German spy
- 1924 - Nicholas Colasanto, American actor (d. 1985)
- 1924 - Jean-Francois Revel, French author
- 1926 - Fritz Weaver, American actor
- 1931 - Tippi Hedren, American actress
- 1931 - Robert MacNeil, Canadian journalist
- 1932 - Richard Lester, British director
- 1939 - Phil Everly, American musician
- 1941 - Colin Gunton, British theologian (d. 2003)
- 1942 - Michael Crawford, British singer and actor
- 1943 - Janis Joplin, American singer (d. 1970)
- 1943 - Princess Margriet of the Netherlands
- 1944 - Shelley Fabares, American actress
- 1944 - Peter Lynch, American investor
- 1944 - Dan Reeves, American football coach
- 1946 - Julian Barnes, English author
- 1946 - Dolly Parton, American singer and actress
- 1948 - Frank McKenna, Premier of New Brunswick and Canadian Ambassador
- 1949 - Robert Palmer, English singer and guitarist (d. 2003)
- 1949 - Dennis Taylor, Irish snooker player
- 1952 - David Patrick Kelly, American actor
- 1953 - Desi Arnaz Jr., American actor
- 1955 - Simon Rattle, English conductor
- 1955 - Paul Rodriguez, Mexican-born actor and comedian
- 1956 - Katey Sagal, American actress, singer, and writer
- 1966 - Floris Jan Bovelander, Dutch field hockey player
- 1966 - Stefan Edberg, Swedish tennis player
- 1969 - Junior Seau, American football player
- 1971 - Shawn Wayans, American actor, writer, and producer
- 1971 - John Wozniak, American singer and songwriter (Marcy Playground)
- 1973 - Drea de Matteo, American actress
- 1973 - Karen Lancaume, French actress (d. 2005)
- 1974 - Jaime Moreno, Bolivian footballer
- 1977 - Lauren, Cameroon footballer
- 1979 - Svetlana Khorkina, Russian gymnast
- 1981 - Asier Del Horno, Spanish footballer
- 1982 - Jodie Sweetin, American actress
- 1983 - Hikaru Utada, Japanese singer and songwriter
- 1985 - Rika Ishikawa, Japanese singer (Morning Musume)
- 1992 - Logan Lerman, American actor
- 1993 - Elián González, Cuban refugee.

Deaths


- 639 - Dagobert I, King of the Franks
- 1526 - Isabella of Burgundy, queen of Christian II of Denmark (b. 1501)
- 1576 - Hans Sachs, German Meistersinger (b. 1494)
- 1729 - William Congreve, English playwright (b. 1670)
- 1757 - Thomas Ruddiman, Scottish classical scholar (b. 1674)
- 1766 - Jean-Nicolas Servan, French architect and painter (b. 1695)
- 1785 - Jonathan Toup, English classical scholar and critic (b. 1713)
- 1833 - Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold, French composer (b. 1791)
- 1847 - Charles Bent, New Mexico pioneer (assassinated)
- 1851 - Esteban Echeverría, Argentine writer (b. 1805)
- 1865 - Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, French philosopher and anarchist (b. 1809)
- 1869 - Carl Reichenbach, German chemist and philosopher (b. 1788)
- 1874 - August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, German poet (b. 1798)
- 1878 - Henri Victor Regnault French physicist and chemist (b. 1810)
- 1905 - Debendranath Tagore, Indian philosopher (b. 1817)
- 1929 - Liang Qichao, Chinese scholar (b. 1873)
- 1968 - Ray Harroun, American race car driver (b. 1879)
- 1969 - Jan Palach, Czech student and political activist (suicide) (b. 1948)
- 1971 - Harry Shields, American musician (b. 1899)
- 1972 - Michael Rabin, American violinist (b. 1936)
- 1975 - Thomas Hart Benton, American painter (b. 1889)
- 1980 - William O. Douglas, U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. 1898)
- 1990 - Rajneesh, Indian religious leader (b. 1931)
- 1990 - Herbert Wehner, German politician (b. 1906)
- 1991 - John Russell, American actor (b. 1921)
- 1996 - Don Simpson, American film producer (b. 1943)
- 1997 - James Dickey, American writer (b. 1923)
- 1998 - Carl Perkins, American guitarist (b. 1932)
- 2000 - Bettino Craxi, Prime Minister of Italy (b. 1934)
- 2000 - Hedy Lamarr, Austrian-born actress (b. 1913)
- 2004 - Harry E. Claiborne, American judge (suicide) (b. 1917)
- 2004 - David Hookes, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1955)
- 2005 - Bill Andersen, New Zealand communist and trade union leader (b. 1924)
- 2005 - K. Sello Duiker, South African novelist (b. 1974)

Holidays and observances


- Eastern Orthodoxy — Julian Calendar Theophany (Epiphany)
- Bahá'í Faith — Feast of Sultán (Sovereignty) — First day of the 17th month of the Bahá'í Calendar
- Confederate Heroes Day in Texas
- Dr. Martin Luther Jr. day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/19 BBC: On This Day] ---- January 18 - January 20 - December 19 - February 19 — listing of all days ko:1월 19일 ms:19 Januari ja:1月19日 simple:January 19 th:19 มกราคม

Lima

:This article is about Lima, Peru. For other places, people and things named "Lima", see Lima (disambiguation). Lima is the capital and largest city in Peru. It is the cultural, industrial, financial, and transport hub of the country. The city is located in an area encompassing the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers. It lies on a desertic coast adjacent to the bay in the Pacific Ocean where its port was built and named Callao. Founded by Spanish conqueror Francisco Pizarro, Lima is also known as the City of Kings. For more than three centuries, Lima was the most important city and the greatest metropolis in South America. More than four centuries have passed since its founding as a Spanish city, and Lima has become an expression of Peru's mestizo heritage, with nearly one-third of the nation's population living in its metropolitan area. The city covers most of the Lima and Callao Metropolitan Area.

History

Lima and Callao Metropolitan Area The city was founded by conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18, 1535, naming it Ciudad de los Reyes as the location was decided at Epiphany, the January 6. Lima, its original name, however persisted. It is uncertain where the name originated, but it is thought that it derives from the Aymara word lima-limaq, (yellow flower) or from Quechuan rimaq (talking). In the oldest Spanish maps of Peru, both Lima and Ciudad de los Reyes can be seen together as the names of the city. Lima became the most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru, which encompassed nearly all of Spain's possessions in South America during the colonial era (mid 1500s to early 1800s). 1800s In 1746, most of the city was destroyed in an earthquake. The city's cultural importance was contested perhaps only by Bogotá, and its architecture and political importance in Latin America were equalled only by Mexico City. In 1996, the Japanese embassy hostage crisis took place in Lima, an affair which received global media attention. It ended on April 22, 1997 when Peruvian Armed Forces commandos stormed the building by carrying out a frontal daytime attack after tunneling underground into the embassy to rescue the seventy-two hostages. One hostage died of medical complications, two soldiers were killed, and all fourteen kidnappers were killed in battle.

Demographics

1997 The Lima Metropolis is among the world's most populated areas (8.4 million 2004 est.). Political and economic instability during the latter half of the twentieth century created unprecedented poverty and violence in the rural highlands, forcing thousands of campesinos to migrate to Lima looking for work and a better life. Today, some of these people live in shantytowns, locally known as pueblos jóvenes, many of which lack such basic services as electricity and running water. pueblos jóvenes

Geography and climate

Lima is located in the Peruvian coastal desert, in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers. With an area of 2,672.28 km², it is the second largest city in the world located in a desert, after Cairo. Due to the Humboldt Current, Lima has a temperate climate, but is shrouded in fog seven months a year. The temperatures in the summer rarely rise above 30°C, while in winter temperatures almost never fall below 13°C. The sky is nearly always overcast between the months of May and November. Lima gets virtually no rain because of being in a desert area.

Districts

: Main article: Districts of Lima The Lima city proper is comprised of thirty districts in the Lima Province. Each of them is headed by a mayor, although the Metropolitan Lima Municipal Council (Municipalidad Metropolitana de Lima), led by the mayor of Lima, also has authority in these districts.

Universities

The city has the largest concentration of higher-education institutions in the country. The National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12 1551 during Spanish colonial regime is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. The Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú is the oldest private university (established on 1917). Other notable private institutions that are located in the city are Universidad del Pacífico, Universidad de Lima, and Cayetano Heredia University. Other state owned universities also play key roles in teaching and research, such as the Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería and Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina. (See also: List of universities in Peru).

Industry

Lima has substantial textile, paper, paint, and food products industries.

Modern Lima

food In recent decades, Lima has rapidly expanded and the city has seen much unregulated development. In the last decade, air pollution has risen to alarming levels, as no restrictions are allowed on the age or efficiency of motor vehicles. Leaded petrol is still widely used. Most of the better hotels and other tourist destinations are located in the upscale neighborhoods of Miraflores and San Isidro. Barranco, south of Miraflores, is the bohemian district of Lima, where some of the best clubs and bars are located. These modern and cosmopolitan districts sharply contrast with the shanty towns that cling to hillsides at the north and south ends of Lima. shanty town The "Estadio Monumental "U"", located in Lima, is Peru's largest and most modern stadium; it seats eighty-thousand spectators. Founded by José de San Martín, Peru's oldest and most important library, the National Library of Peru is located in downtown Lima. As it has suffered wars and earthquakes throughout history, a new location for the library is being built in the San Borja district and is scheduled to be finished in early 2006. This modernization program aspires to turn the library into one of Latin America's most modern libraries.

Transport

2006
- Lima has an extensive bus system, which connects all of Lima's main streets and avenues. These buses are commonly known as micros or combis. Although very cheap and convenient (they stop virtually everywhere), they are often poorly mantained and the smaller buses run at excessive speeds.
- Taxis vary in quality of service and price. They can be stopped at any street, or private taxi companies can be called to pick up passengers at a certain address.
- Numerous inter-urban bus companies offer transportation to other cities in Peru. Quality varies depending on the price, from luxury express buses to uncomfortable and crowded micros. urban
- An agreement signed by Mayor Luis Castañeda and President Alejandro Toledo on February 17, 2005, provided funding for finishing the Lima Metro, an above-ground mass-transit system which will link the downtown area with the financial district, San Isidro. The project was launched in the late 1980s but left unfinished by former president Alan García.
- Lima's main passenger gateway for national and international air travelers is Jorge Chávez International Airport. See: Public transport in Lima

Tourist attractions

Public transport in Lima] The Historic centre of Lima, located in downtown Lima and the Rímac District, was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988 due to the large number of historical buildings dating from the Spanish colonial era, a small number of which have now been restored. In particular, the monumental Plaza Mayor, with the 16th century Cathedral and the Presidential Palace, and the catacombs of the Convento de San Francisco are popular with visitors. Several sections of the Lima City Walls can still be seen. These fine examples of Spanish medieval fortification were used to defend Lima from attacks from pirates and corsairs. corsair The city also has a number of fine museums, notably the National Museum of Anthropology, Archaeology, and History and the Rafael Larco Herrera Archaeological Museum, both in the Pueblo Libre district. Many small beaches, which are heavily visited during the summer months, are located by the southern Pan-American Highway. The most well-known ones are located in the districts of Santa María del Mar, Punta Hermosa, Punta Negra, San Bartolo and Pucusana. Also, the district of Ancón, located north of the city, has a very popular beach resort. Numerous restaurants, clubs and hotels have been opened in these places to serve the many beachgoers. The beaches in Lima itself are not suitable for swimming because the city's sewage is dumped raw into the ocean. Ancón The suburbs of Chosica and Cieneguilla provide attractive green landscapes at a short distance from the city. Because of their elevation (lesser than 500 meters), the sun shines in these areas even during winter and hence they are visited by residents of Lima to escape from the winter fog. Recently, the Palomino Islands near the port of Callao have attracted visitors due to a population of sea lions. The biggest Peruvian business emporium is Gamarra. Guarded by the Comando Centurion, a group of security officers, 150,000 shoppers per day can browse the hundreds of shops in the area. The stores offer designer clothes at affordable prices. Fashion shows presenting the latest trends are a weekly event. For the tourist with nerves of steel the colourful "Mercado Central" should not be missed. Don't take anything of value with you, pickpockets abound! Situated in Monterrico, the Gold Museum, together with the even more interesting textile museum. Here can be seen almost perfectly preserved thousand year old garments and feathered capes recovered from the waterless deserts of Western Peru. Also in the same building, an arms museum with a huge range of antique Spanish firearms, among muskets and arquebuses.

Notable people born in Lima

Statesman


- Alan García Pérez, former president of Peru from 1985 to 1990.
- Alberto Fujimori, former president of Peru during the 1990s.

Artists


- Felipe Pinglo Alva, father of Peruvian Musica criolla

Historical


- Saint Rose of Lima (April 20, 1586-August 30, 1617) Patron Saint of America, first Roman Catholic saint born in the Americas.

Tycoons


- Dionisio Romero, banker and entrepreneur.
- Pedro Brescia, entrepreneur.
- Carlos Boloña Behr, industrialist and former CEO of San Ignacio de Loyola University.
- Hurtado Miller, tycoon and former Finance Minister of Peru in 1991.

Politicians


- Javier Valle Riestra, lawyer and politician
- Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, diplomat.

Journalists


- Nicolás Lúcar, journalist and media personality.

Writers


- Alfredo Bryce Echenique, writer (novels, memories, and short stories), among which the renowned A world for Julius (in Spanish: "Un Mundo para Julius".
- Julio Ramón Ribeyro, writer best known for his short stories, and awared in 1994 by the Juan Rulfo prize.

External links


- [http://www.munlima.gob.pe Municipality of Lima] (in Spanish)
- [http://www.geographia.com/peru/lima/ Lima at geographia.com]
- [http://www.bvl.com.pe/english/index.html Lima Stock Exchange]
- [http://www.lap.com.pe/AIRPORT/eng_home00.asp Jorge Chávez International Airport]
- [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/CLIMATELIMACELSIUS.htm The climate of Lima]
- [http://www.guiacalles.com/calles/index.asp Lima maps] (in Spanish)
- [http://globalamity.net/index.php?section=article&articleid=5 Lima at GlobalAmity.net] Category:Capitals in South America Lima Category:Lima ko:리마 ja:リマ

Peru

The Republic of Peru, (Spanish: República del Perú), or Peru, is a country in western South America, bordering Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the east, south-east and south, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Peru is rich in cultural anthropology, and is well-known as the cradle of the Inca empire.

History

Main article: History of Peru Peru was home to various Pre-Inca cultures and later, to the Inca Empire. Francisco Pizarro landed on the Peruvian coast in 1532, and by the end of the 1530s Peru became a Viceroyalty and a major source of gold and silver for the Spanish Empire. Peru declared its independence from Spain on July 28, 1821 thanks to an alliance between the Argentine army of José de San Martín, and the Neogranadine Army of Simón Bolívar. Its first elected president, however, was not in power until 1827. From 1836 to 1839 Peru and Bolivia were united in the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, dissolved only after an internal conflict. Between these years, political unrest did not fade away, with the Army as an important political force. In 1879, Chile declared war against Bolivia in response to the fact that Bolivia had changed the tax rules regarding Chilean business activities in the Bolivian province of Antofagasta. Since Peru had made a secret political alliance with Bolivia prior to this conflict, Peru was obliged to declare war against Chile. This was referred to as the War of the Pacific which lasted from1879 until 1883 with Chile's victory. The war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica). After the Chilean occupation ended, Peru was engulfed by internal political strife and civil war. Political stability was achieved only during the early years of the 1900s. In 1929 Peru and Chile signed a peace treaty (Treaty of Ancon) by which Tacna was to be returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the rich province of Arica, although keeping certain rights to the port activities in Arica. It is said that the country received its name from a Spanish pronunciation of the Belu river. [http://www.excel-spanishlanguageprograms-peru.org/english/peru.html]

Regions

Main article: Political division of Peru Political division of Peru Peru's territory is divided successively into regions (25) (Spanish: regiones; singular: región), provinces (180) and districts (1747). The Lima Province, located in the central coast of the country, is unique in that it doesn't belong to any of the twenty-five regions. The city of Lima is located in this province, which is also known as Lima Metropolitana (Metropolitan Lima). Until 2002, Peru was divided into 24 departments (departamentos) plus one constitutional province (Callao), and many people still use this term when referring to today's regions, although it is now obsolete. Current Peruvian regions are:

- Amazonas
- Ancash
- Apurímac
- Arequipa
- Ayacucho
- Cajamarca
- Callao
- Cusco
- Huancavelica
- Huánuco
- Ica
- Junín
- La Libertad
- Lambayeque
- Lima
- Loreto
- Madre de Dios
- Moquegua
- Pasco
- Piura
- Puno
- San Martín
- Tacna
- Tumbes
- Ucayali

Geography

Main article: Geography of Peru Geography of Peru Peru is located in Western South America, bordering the Pacific Ocean, between Chile and Ecuador. It also shares borders with Colombia, Brazil and Bolivia. The western coastal plains (costa) are separated from the eastern lowland jungle of the Amazon Basin (selva) by the high and rugged Andes in the center (sierra). On the border with Bolivia lies Lake Titicaca, the world's highest navigable lake at 3821 m. A land rich in cultural heritage and a variety of natural environments, harbors 84 of the 118 known life zones of the earth. Peru is a land rich in minerals, and its three types of land (Costa, Sierra y Selva) proportionate wonderful sights. Peru's various Geography permits the development of various activities, such as: (In the Costa)Surfing, Sandboard, 4
- 4 and sandbuggy, (In the Sierra) alpinism, rafting, rappelling, downhill and rally, and in the Selva you can enjoy hard excursions.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Peru The current president is Alejandro Toledo, leader of Perú Posible. This governing party is, with 45 seats, the largest in the 120-seat parliament. The second and third largest parties are in opposition; respectively Partido Aprista Peruano (short: PAP, 28 seats), which is led by Alan García Pérez, and Unidad Nacional (short: UN, 17 seats), which is led by Lourdes Flores Nano.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Peru Economy of Peru The Peruvian economy has become increasingly market oriented, with major privatizations completed since 1990; in the mining, electricity, and telecommunications industries. Thanks to strong foreign investment and the cooperation between the former Fujimori administration, the IMF, and the World Bank, growth was strong in 1994–97 and inflation was brought under control. In 1998, El Niño's impact on agriculture, the financial crisis in Asia, and instability in Brazilian markets undercut growth. And 1999 was another lean year for Peru, with the aftermath of El Niño and the Asian financial crisis working its way through the economy. Lima did manage to complete negotiations for an Extended Fund Facility with the IMF in June 1999, although it subsequently had to renegotiate the targets. Pressure on spending grew in the run-up to the 2000 elections. Growth up to 2004 has been driven by construction, investment, domestic demand, and exports to different world regions. Peru's economy is one of the better-managed in Latin America. Over the next few years, the country is likely to attract both domestic and foreign investment in the tourism, agriculture, mining, petroleum and natural gas, and power industries.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Peru Demographics of Peru Peru is one of only three countries in Latin America whose largest population segment is comprised of unmixed Amerindians - the other two being Bolivia and Guatemala, where almost half of all Peruvians are Amerindian, or 45 percent of the total population. The two major indigenous ethnic groups are the various Quechua-speaking populations, followed closely by the Aymará, as well as several dozen small Amerindian ethnic tribes scattered throughout the country beyond the Andes Mountains and in the Amazon basin. Mestizos, a term that denotes people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, constitute around 37% of the people. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin.

Language

Europe Peru has two official languages - Spanish and the foremost indigenous language, Quechua. Spanish is used by all coastal Peruvians, the government, the media, and in education and formal commerce; although there is an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools. The major obstacle to the diffusion of the usage and teaching of Quechua is the almost absolute lack of fluidly available material written in the Quechua language, namely books, newspapers, software, magazines, technical journals, etc. Importantly, non-governmental organizations as well as state sponsored groups are involved in projects to edit and translate major works into the Quechua language; for instance, in late 2005 a superb version of Don Quixote was presented in Quechua. Nevertheless, these books are just collectors items as they have no natural readership. Significantly, most of the native speakers of Quechua are illiterate. Thus, Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, remains essentially an oral language.

Painting and Sculpture

Don Quixote The art of Peru was shaped by the melting between Spanish and Amerindian cultures. During pre-Columbian times, Peru was one of the major centers of artistic expression in The Americas, where Pre-Inca cultures, such as Chavín, Moche, Paracas, Huari (Wari), Nazca, Chimu, and Tiahuanaco developed high-quality pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture. Drawing upon earlier cultures, the Incas continued to maintain these crafts but made even more impressive achievements in architecture. The mountain town of Machu Picchu and the buildings at Cuzco are excellent examples of Inca architectural design. Peru has passed early 20th century brought "indigenismo," expressed in a new awareness of Indian culture. Since World War II, Peruvian writers, artists, and intellectuals such as Cesar Vallejo and Jose Maria Arguedas have participated in worldwide intellectual and artistic movements, drawing especially on U.S. and European trends. During the colonial period, Spanish baroque fused with the rich Inca tradition to produce mestizo or creole art. The Cuzco school of largely anonymous Indian artists followed the Spanish baroque tradition with influence from the Italian, Flemish, and French schools. Painter Francisco Fierro made a distinctive contribution to this school with his portrayals of typical events, manners, and customs of mid-19th-century Peru. Francisco Lazo, forerunner of the indigenous school of painters, also achieved fame for his portraits. Peru's 20th-century art is known for its extraordinary variety of styles and stunning originality. In the decade after 1932, the "indigenous school" of painting headed by Jose Sabogal dominated the cultural scene in Peru. A subsequent reaction among Peruvian artists led to the beginning of modern Peruvian painting. Sabogal's resignation as director of the National School of Arts in 1943 coincided with the return of several Peruvian painters from Europe who revitalized "universal" and international styles of painting in Peru. During the 1960s, Fernando de Szyszlo, an internationally recognized Peruvian artist, became the main advocate for abstract painting and pushed Peruvian art toward modernism. Peru remains an art-producing center with painters such as Fernando de Szysslo, Gerardo Chavez, Jose Tola, Alberto Quintanilla, and Jose Carlos Ramos, along with sculptor Victor Delfin, gaining international stature. Promising young artists continue to develop now that Peru's economy allows more promotion of the arts.

Folklore and Music

Victor Delfin Peru is home to thousands of dances of pre Inca, Andean and mestizo origin. The southern Andean region is famous for the Huayno and Cusco for its Muliza. Arequipa is the proud creator of the famous Yaravi Arequipeño (sang by many brothers of the Andes) and the Pampeñas. The Huaylas is a happy the dance of the central Andes. The coast has a different feel to the Andean, more rhythm yet it just as melancholic and interesting. Coastal have big Romany gypsy music and African influences, along other more romantic tunes like the well know Peruvian Valse; probably representing the ethnical coastal mix of Perú and especially Lima. Commonly known Peruvian Valse tunes are: Alma Corazon y Vida, Odiame, Mi Propiedad Privada, El Plebeyo, La Flor de La Canela and Devuelveme El Rosario de Mi Madre, some of which are sang by Caribbean artists in the Bolero or Salsa version. Out of the resulting mix most coastal rhythms is sang and played by duos of Creole guitars, the Peruvian Cajon and spoon rhythms. African derived rhythms like the Festejo or Landó are common in the black communities of the southern coast. Music with a strong African influence is known as Afro Peruvian. Chabuca Granda is widely considered as the most important composer of Coastal Creole music, with such songs as La Flor de La Canela, Fina Estampa, and José Antonio. Susana Baca is a renowned singer and composer of Afro Peruvian music. She won a Grammy award in 2002 for her album Lamento Negro. The central and north coast Trujillo, Lambayeque and Piura; are most famous for guitar hymns like the piuran Tondero, the Limeñan Zamacueca, the Resbalosa and the bands of Marinera. The Amazon has its own music. Chicha Music from the Amazon is unique since it mixes and intermingles Cumbia, Huayno and the tragic Peruvian Valse. Lima is famous for the Señor de los Milagros Procession and Bullfighting, which takes place in Plaza de Acho (the oldest bullfighting venue of the Americas). Considered the largest procession in South America, congregating devotees from all over the country, the Señor de los Milagros or Lord of Miracles Procession takes place during October. During the whole month, known as the mes morado -or purple month-, minor observations in honour of the patron (whose colour is purple) are celebrated. The main event occurs the 18th: dressed in purple habits, hundreds of thousands of devotees sing and pray while accompanying the image on its 24-hour route from the Nazarenas temple to La Merced church in the Barrios Altos district.

Sports

Soccer: The most popular Peruvian sport is soccer (World Cup appeareances: 1930,1970,1978,1982 two Copa America tournaments). Although the National team has not been very successful, most of the population of Peru follow the World Cup torunament on television. Soccer legends from Peru include Hugo Sotil, Cesar Cueto, and Teofilo Cubillas, Peru's best striker in World Cup Finals with 10 goals. Current renowned players include midfielder Nolberto Solano (Newcastle United since 1998, with a 2-year parenthesis in Aston Villa), and strikers Claudio Pizzaro (Bayern Munich) and Jefferson Farfán (PSV Eindhoven). Volleyball: Other popular sport is Women’s Volleyball (Silver medal in Seoul 1988 Olympic Games and 14 times South American champion). Surfing: Sofia Mulanovich, Women’s World Surf Champion in 2004 and 2005. Sailing: Peru is the only country of the region that has won for six consecutive years the world Cup in the Sunfish Class. In addition, Peru has won the Central American, South American & Caribbean Championships for the same category. In the Optimist Class, it was three times World Champion in Team-Racing in 1997, 1998, and 1999. Shooting: Peruvian shooters have won 3 of Peru's 4 olympic medals. Edwin Vásquez won Peru's only gold medal in London 1948 Olympic Games, while Francisco Boza (Los Angeles 1984), and Juan Giha (Barcelona 1992) both won silver medals.

International rankings


- Reporters without borders world-wide press freedom index 2004: Rank 116 out of 167 countries (2005)
- UN Human Development Index 2005: Ranked 79 out of 177 countries. Up 6 places from 85 in 2004.

Miscellaneous topics


- Communications in Peru
- Foreign relations of Peru
- List of famous Peruvians
- Military of Peru
- Miss Peru
- Peruvian nationality law
- Public holidays in Peru
- South American Community of Nations
- Surfing in Peru
- Transportation in Peru
- Mining in Peru PBS FRONTLINE/World/New York Times documentary and Web site "The Curse of Inca Gold" October 2005.

External links


- [http://www.perulinks.com/pages/english/ PeruLinks.com] Very complete directory linking to possibly as many as 4000 Peru-related sites. The site and navigation are in both English and Spanish.
- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Peru Open Directory Project - Peru] directory category
- [http://www.destination360.com/peru.htm Virtual Tour of Peru, Machu Picchu, and other areas]
- [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html Climate of 60 locations among Peru]
- [http://www.elsner.consul.cc/ Consulate for Peru to Austria] Music
- [http://www.revista69.com/ Peruvian Modern Rock Webzine]
- [http://www.sonidorock.org/ Peruvian Music News]
- [http://www.rockperu.com/ Peru Rock Music]
- [http://www.peruradio.net/ Peru Net Radio] Tourism
- [http://www.promperu.gob.pe Peruvian Tourism Authority's Official Site]
- [http://www.inca-trails.net Inca trail hikes to Machu Picchu]
- [http://www.machu-picchu.info Machu Picchu Travel Information Site and Links]
- [http://andrys.com/indox.html Peru Photo diary, by Andrys]
- [http://www.inca-tours.com/ Peru Inca Trail]
- [http://www.ecstravel.com/ Peru Tours]
- [http://www.peru-explorer.com Peru travel information and tours]
- [http://peruinfo.org Peru Tourist Travel Information Site and Links]
- [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america.htm South America Pictures]
- [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america-map.htm South America Map]
- [http://www.globe-images.com/south-america.htm South America Satellite Images]
- [http://www.sportfishingperu.com/ Sports Fishing in Peru]
- [http://www.peru-machu-picchu.com Travel resources and virtual tours of Peru and Machu Picchu]
- [http://www.peruazul.com.pe/ Surf in Peru]
- [http://www.tabiviaje.info/perou.htm Tabiviaje goes to Peru]
- [http://www.atlastoursandtravels.com/tours-travels-directories.php The Complete Peruvian]
- [http://www.generaccion.com Revista Generaccion Travel Directory] Category:South American countries zh-min-nan:Perú ko:페루 ms:Peru ja:ペルー simple:Peru th:ประเทศเปรู

Peruvian

: Peru

Diplomat

:This page is about negotiations; for the board game, see Diplomacy (game). Diplomacy (game), is the largest international diplomatic organization.]] Diplomacy is the art and practice of conducting negotiations between accredited persons (the diploma of the diplomat) representing groups or nations. It usually refers to international diplomacy, the conduct of international relations through the intercession of professional diplomats with regard to issues of peace-making, culture, economics, trade and war. International treaties are usually negotiated by diplomats prior to endorsement by national politicians. In an informal or social sense, diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage, one set of tools being the phrasing of statements in a non-confrontational, or social manner.

Overview

There are two major forms of diplomacy. The simplest and the oldest is bilateral diplomacy between two states. Bilateral diplomacy is still common with many treaties between two states (e.g. the Canadian-American Free Trade Agreement), and it is the main concern of embassies and state visits. The other form of diploma]] involving many states. Formal multilateral diplomacy is normally dated to the Congress of Vienna in the nineteenth century. Since then, multilateralism has grown in importance. Today most trade treaties, such as the WTO and FTAA, arms control agreements, such as the Partial Test Ban Treaty and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and environmental agreements, such as the Kyoto Accord, are multilateral. The United Nations is the most important institution of multilateral diplomacy. There is a third form of diplomacy, a variant of multilateral diplomacy called regional diplomacy; that is, multilateral diplomacy that is practiced within a closed circle of geographic neighbors. We might call it 'multilateral diplomacy among intimates'. Since neighborhood is a fact of life, regional diplomacy involves a close blend of the bilateral and the limited group multilateral methods in pursuit of mutual interests.

Diplomats and diplomatic missions

A diplomat is someone involved in diplomacy; the collective term for a group of diplomats from a single country is a diplomatic mission. An ambassador is the most senior diplomatic rank; a diplomatic mission headed by an ambassador is known as an embassy. The collective body of all diplomats resident in a particular country is called a diplomatic corps. (See also diplomatic rank.) There is also the unrecognised, but often used rank of Diplobrat for the children of Diplomats.

History

The ability to practice diplomacy is one of the defining elements of a state, and diplomacy has been practiced since the first city-states were formed millennia ago. For the majority of human history diplomats were sent only for specific negotiations, and would return immediately after their mission concluded. Diplomats were usually relatives of the ruling family or of very high rank in order to give them legitimacy when they sought to negotiate with the other state. One notable exception involved the relationship between the Pope and the Byzantine Emperor; papal agents, called apocrisiarii, were permanently resident in Constantinople. After the 8th century, however, conflicts between the Pope and Emperor (such as the Iconoclastic controversy) led to the breaking of close ties. Modern diplomacy's origins are often traced to the states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance, with the first embassies being established in the thirteenth century. Milan played a leading role, especially under Francesco Sforza who established permanent embassies to the other cities states of Northern Italy. It was in Italy that many of the traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassadors credentials to the head of state. From Italy the practice was spread to the other European powers. Milan was the first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455. However, Milan refused to host French representatives fearing espionage and that the French representative would intervene in its internal affairs. As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly involved in Italian politics the need to accept emissaries was recognized. Soon the major European power were exchanging representatives. Spain was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an ambassador to the Court of England in 1487. By the late 16th century, permanent missions became customary. The Holy Roman Emperor, however, did not regularly send permanent legates, as they could not represent the interests of all the German princes (who were in theory subordinate to the Emperor, but in practice independent). During that period the rules of modern diplomacy were further developed. The top rank of representatives was an ambassador. At that time an ambassador was a nobleman, the rank of the noble assigned varying with the prestige of the country he was delegated to. Strict standards developed for ambassadors, requiring they have large residences, host lavish parties, and play an important role in the court life of their host nation. In Rome, the most prized posting for a Catholic ambassador, the French and Spanish representatives would have a retinue of up to a hundred. Even in smaller posting ambassadors were very expensive. Smaller states would send and receive envoys, who were a rung below ambassador. Somewhere between the two was the position of minister plenipotentiary. Diplomacy was a complex affair, even more so than now. The ambassadors from each state were ranked by complex levels of precedence that were much disputed. States were normally ranked by the title of the sovereign; for Catholic nations the emissary from the Vatican was paramount, then those from the kingdoms, then those from duchies and principalities. Representatives from republics were considered the lowest of the low. Determining precedence between two kingdoms depended on a number of factors that often fluctuated, leading to near constant squabbling. republic is considered one of the most skilled diplomats of all time]] Ambassadors, nobles with little foreign experience and no expectation of a career in diplomacy, needed to be supported by large embassy staff. These professionals would be sent on longer assignments and would be far more knowledgeable than the higher-ranking officials about the host country. Embassy staff would include a wide range of employees, including some dedicated to espionage. The need for skilled individuals to staff embassies was met by the graduates of universities, and this led to a great increase in the study of international law, modern languages, and history at universities throughout Europe. At the same time, permanent foreign ministries began to be established in almost all European states to coordinate embassies and their staffs. These ministries were still far from their modern form, and many of them had extraneous internal responsibilities. Britain had two departments with frequently overlapping powers until 1782. They were also far smaller; France, which boasted the largest foreign affairs department, had only some 70 full-time employees in the 1780s. The elements of modern diplomacy slowly spread to Eastern Europe and Russia, arriving by the early eighteenth century. The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state, and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France. He had no time for the often slow moving process of formal diplomacy. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 established an international system of diplomatic rank. Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) persisted for over a century until after World War II, when the rank of ambassador became the norm. Diplomatic traditions outside of Europe were very different. A feature necessary for diplomacy is the existence of a number of states of somewhat equal power, as existed in Italy during the Renaissance, and in Europe for much of the modern period. By contrast in Asia and the Middle East, China and the Ottoman Empire were reluctant to practice bilateral diplomacy as they viewed themselves to be unquestionably superior to all their neighbours. The Ottomans, for instance, would not send missions to other states, expecting representatives to come to Constantinople. It would not be until the nineteenth century that the Empire established permanent embassies in other capitals. As European power spread around the world in the eighteenth and nineteenth century so too did its diplomatic system.

Diplomatic immunity

The sanctity of diplomats has long been observed. This sanctity has come to be known as diplomatic immunity. While there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed, this is normally viewed as a great breach of honour. Genghis Khan and the Mongols were well known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats, and they would often wreak horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights. Diplomatic rights were established in the mid-seventeenth century in Europe and have spread throughout the world. These rights were formalized by the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, which protects diplomats from being persecuted or prosecuted while on a diplomatic mission. If a diplomat does commit a serious crime while in a host country s/he may be expelled. Such diplomats are then often tried for the crime in their homeland. Diplomatic communications are also viewed as sacrosanct, and diplomats have long been allowed to carry documents across borders without being searched. The mechanism for this is the so-called "diplomatic bag" (or, in some countries, the "diplomatic pouch"). In recent years, however, signals intelligence has led to this use of diplomatic bags being largely discarded. In times of hostility, diplomats are often withdrawn for reasons of personal safety, and in some cases when the host country is friendly but there is a perceived threat from internal dissidents. Ambassadors and other diplomats are also sometimes recalled by their home countries as a way to express displeasure with the host country. In both cases, lower-level employees remain to actually do the business of diplomacy.

Diplomats as a guarantee

The Middle East and other parts of the world had a very different tradition. In the Ottoman Empire, Persia and other states diplomats were seen as a guarantee of good behaviour. If a nation broke a treaty or if their nationals misbehaved the diplomats would be punished. Diplomats were thus used as an enforcement mechanism on treaties and international law. To ensure that punishing a diplomat mattered rulers insisted on high-ranking figures. This tradition is seen by many as the basis of the 1979 Iranian hostage crisis . In imitation of previous practices supporters of the Iranian Revolution attempted to punish the United States for its misdeeds by holding their diplomats hostage. Diplomats as a guarantee were also employed sometimes in pre-modern Europe and other parts of Asia.

Diplomacy and espionage

Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage. Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies, and some diplomats are essentially openly-acknowledged spies. For instance, the job of military attachés includes learning as much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and, as such, are only invited to events allowed by their hosts, such as military parades or air shows. There are also deep-cover spies operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the embassy, but their main task is to illegally gather intelligence, usually by coordinating spy-rings of locals or other spies. For the most part, spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If discovered, these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy, but for the most part counter-intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under close monitoring. The information gathered by spies plays an increasingly important role in diplomacy. Arms-control treaties would be impossible without the power of reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy, everything from trade agreements to border disputes.

Diplomatic recognition

Diplomatic recognition is an important factor in determining whether a nation is an independent state. Receiving recognition is often difficult, even for countries which are fully sovereign. For many decades after becoming independent, even many of the closest allies of the Republic of the Netherlands refused to grant it full recognition. Today there are a number of independent entities without widespread diplomatic recognition, most notably the Republic of China on Taiwan. Since the 1970's, most nations have stopped officially recognizing the ROC's existence on Taiwan, at the insistence of the People's Republic of China. Currently, the United States and other nations maintain informal relations through de facto embassies, with names such as the American Institute in Taiwan. Similarly, Taiwan's de facto embassies abroad are known by names such as the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office. This was not always the case, with the US maintaining official diplomatic ties with Taiwan until 1979, when these relations were broken off as a condition for establishing official relations with China. Other unrecognized countries include Abkhazia, Transnistria, Somaliland, Nagorno Karabakh, and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. Lacking the economic and political importance of Taiwan, these nations tend to be much more diplomatically isolated. Though used as a factor in judging sovereignty, Article 3 of the Montevideo Convention states, "The political existence of the state is independent of recognition by other states."

Informal diplomacy

Informal diplomacy (sometimes called Track II diplomacy) has been used for centuries to communicate between powers. Most diplomats work to recruit figures in other nations who might be able to give informal access to a county's leadership. In some situations, such as between the United States and the People's Republic of China a large amount of diplomacy is done through semi-formal channels using interlocutors such as academic members of thinktanks. This occurs in situations where governments wish to express intentions or to suggest methods of resolving a diplomatic situation, but do not wish to express a formal position. Track II diplomacy is a specific kind of informal diplomacy, in which non-officials (academic scholars, retired civil and military officials, public figures, social activists) engage in dialogue, with the aim of conflict resolution, or confidence-building. Sometimes governments may fund such Track II exchanges. Sometimes the exchanges may have no connection at all with governments, or may even act in defiance of governments; such exchanges are called Track III.

See also


- Diplomacy (game)
- Diplomatic mission
- Diplomatic rank
- Foreign policy doctrine
- Gunboat diplomacy
- List of diplomats
- Multilateralism
- Peace treaty
- Protocol
- Public diplomacy
- Shuttle diplomacy
- Track II diplomacy

References


- A Guide to Diplomatic Practice by Sir Ernest Satow, Longmans, Green & Co. London & New York, 1917. A standard reference work used in many embassies across the world (though not British ones). Now in its fifth edition (1998) ISBN 0582501091
- Diplomacy: Theory & Practice, 3rd edition, by GR Berridge, Palgrave, Basingstoke, 2005, ISBN 1-4039-9311-4
- Journey to Become a Diplomat: With a Guide to Careers in World Affairs by George Cunningham, FPA Global Vision Books 2005, ISBN 0871242125
- Inside a U.S. Embassy: How the Foreign Service Works for America by Shawn Dorman (Editor), American Foreign Service Association, Second edition February 2003, ISBN 0964948826

External links


- [http://www.ediplomat.com/ eDiplomat.com - Global Portal for Diplomats]
- [http://foia.state.gov/masterdocs/05fah01/CH0610.pdf U.S. Dept. of State Foreign Affairs Handbook: Using Diplomatic Notes]
- [http://www.un.org/english/ The United Nations]
- [http://fletcher.tufts.edu/ Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy]
- [http://www.georgetown.edu/sfs/ Georgetown University School of Foreign Service]
- [http://www.gwu.edu/~elliott/ The George Washington University Elliott School of International Affairs] category:Diplomacy ja:外交

United Nations

The United Nations, or UN, is an international organization established in 1945. The UN describes itself as a "global association of governments facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, and social equity." It was founded by 51 states and as of 2005 it consists of 191 member states, including virtually all internationally-recognized independent nations. From its headquarters in New York City, the member countries of the UN and its specialized agencies give guidance and make decisions on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout each year. The organization is structurally divided into administrative bodies, including the UN General Assembly, UN Security Council, UN Economic and Social Council, UN Trusteeship Council, UN Secretariat, and the International Court of Justice, as well as counterpart bodies dealing with the governance of all other UN system agencies, for example, the WHO and UNICEF. The organization's most visible public figure is the Secretary-General. As the UN main building is aging, the UN is in the process of building a new location designed by Fumihiko Maki. The UN was founded at the conclusion of World War II by the victorious world powers, and the founders of the UN had high hopes that it would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible, by fostering an ideal of collective security. The organization's structure still reflects in some ways the circumstances of its founding; specifically, in addition to the rotating national members of the prominent United Nations Security Council, there are five permanent members with veto power — the United States of America, Russia (which replaced the Soviet Union), United Kingdom, France, and the People's Republic of China (which replaced the Republic of China).

Background and history

Republic of China]] The term "United Nations" was coined by Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, to refer to the Allies. Its first formal use was in the January 1, 1942 Declaration by the United Nations, which committed the Allies to the principles of the Atlantic Charter and pledged them not to seek a separate peace with the Axis powers. Thereafter, the Allies used the term "United Nations Fighting Forces" to refer to their alliance. The idea for the United Nations was elaborated in declarations signed at the wartime Allied conferences in Moscow, Cairo, and Tehran in 1943. From August to October 1944, representatives of France, the Republic of China, the United Kingdom, the United States, and the USSR met to elaborate the plans at the Dumbarton Oaks Estate in Washington, D.C. Those and later talks produced proposals outlining the purposes of the organization, its membership and organs, as well as arrangements to maintain international peace and security and international economic and social cooperation. These proposals were discussed and debated by governments and private citizens worldwide. On April 25 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organizations began in San Francisco. In addition to the Governments, a number of non-government organizations, including Lions Clubs International were invited to assist in the drafting of the charter. The 50 nations represented at the conference signed the Charter of the United Nations two months later on June 26. Poland, which was not represented at the conference, but for which a place among the original signatories had been reserved, added its name later, bringing the total of original signatories to 51. The UN came into existence on October 24, 1945, after the Charter had been ratified by the five permanent members of the Security Council — Republic of China, France, the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and the United States — and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. Initially, the body was known as the United Nations Organization, or UNO. But by the 1950s, English speakers were referring to it as the United Nations, or UN.

Headquarters

The United Nations headquarters building was constructed in New York City in 1949 and 1950 beside the East River on land purchased by an 8.5 million dollar donation from John D. Rockefeller, Jr., and designed by architect Oscar Niemeyer. UN headquarters officially opened on January 9, 1951. While the principal headquarters of the UN are in New York, there are major agencies located in Geneva, The Hague, Vienna, Bonn and elsewhere. The street address is 760 United Nations Plz New York, NY 10017, US

Membership and Structure

UN membership is open to all peace-loving states that accept the obligations of the UN Charter and, in the judgement of the organization, are able and willing to fulfil these obligations. The General Assembly determines admission upon recommendation of the Security Council. The United Nations is based on six principal organs, part of what is collectively called the United Nations System:
- UN General Assembly
- UN Security Council
- UN Economic and Social Council
- UN Trusteeship Council
- UN Secretariat
- International Court of Justice

Security Council

The Security Council is in practice the most powerful decision-making body of the UN, as its resolutions are backed by the will of the most powerful members of the international community. However, this does not mean that its resolutions (e.g. international sanctions) are necessarily enforced, as the UN does not have its own means to do so. Even when economic sanctions are applied, their effectiveness (e.g. against Saddam Hussein's Iraq in the 1990s, or in abolishing apartheid in South Africa) is unclear.

Financing

South Africa]The UN system is financed in two ways: assessed and voluntary contributions from member states. The regular two-year budgets of the UN and its specialized agencies are funded by assessments. In the case of the UN, the General Assembly approves the regular budget and determines the assessment for each member. This is broadly based on the relative capacity of each country to pay, as measured by national income statistics, along with other factors. The Assembly has established the principle that the UN should not be overly dependent on any one member to finance its operations. Thus, there is a 'ceiling' rate, setting the maximum amount any member is assessed for the regular budget. In December 2000, the Assembly agreed to revise the scale of assessments to make them better reflect current global circumstances. As part of that agreement, the regular budget ceiling was reduced from 25 to 22 per cent; this is the rate at which the United States is assessed. The United States is the only member that meets that ceiling, all other members' assessment rates are lower. On the other hand, it is in arrears with hundreds of millions of dollars (see also United States and the United Nations). Under the scale of assessments adopted in 2000, other major contributors to the regular UN budget for 2001 are Japan (19.63%), Germany (9.82%), France (6.50%), the U.K. (5.57%), Italy (5.09%), Canada (2.57%) Spain (2.53%) and Brazil (2.39%). Special UN programmes not included in the regular budget (such as UNICEF, UNDP, UNHCR, and WFP) are financed by voluntary contributions from member governments. In 2001, it is estimated that such contributions from the United States will total approximately $1.5 billion. Some of this is in the form of agricultural commodities donated for afflicted populations, but the majority is financial contributions.

Aims and activities

International conferences

2001 since 1997.]] The member countries of the UN and its specialized agencies — the "stakeholders" of the system — give guidance and make decisions on substantive and administrative issues in regular meetings held throughout each year. Governing bodies made up of member states include not only the General Assembly, Economic and Social Council, and the Security Council, but also counterpart bodies dealing with the governance of all other UN system agencies. For example, the World Health Assembly and the Executive Board oversee the work of WHO. Each year, the United States Department of State accredits United States delegations to more than 600 meetings of governing bodies. Whe