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Jean-François Pilâtre De Rozier

Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier

Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier (baptised 30 March 1754 in Metz - died 15 June 1785 in Wimereux/Pas-de-Calais) was a French chemistry and physics teacher, and one of the first pioneers of aviation. The son of an innkeeper, he botanized in the company of the duc de la Rochefoucauld, in the democratic companionship that early science fostered. His interests in the chemistry of drugs had been awakened in the military hospital of Metz, an important garrison town on the border of France. He made his way to Paris, then taught physics and chemistry at Reims, which brought him to the attention of the king's brother, Monsieur, the comte d'Artois, who put him in charge of his cabinet of natural history and made him a valet de chambre to Madame, which brought him his ennobled name, Pilâtre de Rozier. Soon however he opened his own museum in the Marais quarter of Paris, researched the new field of gases and invented a respirator. In June 1783 he was present at the unoccupied balloon ascension of the Montgolfier brothers. That September he sent aloft from the front courtyard of Versailles, in an untethered balloon, a sheep, a cockerel and a duck. On 21 November 1783 he made the first manned free flight in history, accompanied by the Marquis d'Arlandes. During the 25-minute flight using a Montgolfier hot air balloon, they traveled 12 kilometers from the château of La Muette to the Butte aux Cailles in the then outskirts of Paris, attaining an altitude of 3000 feet. De Rozier died during an attempted crossing of the English Channel when his balloon, a combination hydrogen and hot air balloon, exploded on 15 June 1785. Thus, he and his companion, Pierre Romain, became the first known victims of an air crash. The modern hybrid gas and hot air balloon is named the Rozier balloon after his pioneering design. Pilatre de Rozier, Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier, Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier, Jean-Francois

30 March

March 30 is the 89th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (90th in Leap years). There are 276 days remaining.

Events

- 1282 - The people of Sicily rebel against the Angevin king Charles I, in what becomes known as the Sicilian Vespers.
- 1296 - Edward I storms Berwick-upon-Tweed, sacking the then-Scottish border town, slaughtering almost everyone, even those fleeing to the churches.
- 1492 - Ferdinand and Isabella sign a decree aimed at expelling all Jews from Spain unless they convert to Roman Catholicism.
- 1533 - Thomas Cranmer becomes Archbishop of Canterbury.
- 1814 - Napoleonic Wars: Sixth Coalition forces march into Paris.
- 1822 - Florida Territory created in the United States.
- 1842 - Anesthesia is used for the first time in an operation by Dr. Crawford Long.
- 1844 - One of the most important battles of the Dominican War of Independence from Haiti takes place near the city of Santiago de los Caballeros.
- 1855 - Origins of the American Civil War: Bleeding Kansas - "Border Ruffians" from Missouri invade Kansas and force election of a pro-slavery legislature.
- 1856 - The Treaty of Paris (1856) is signed, ending the Crimean War.
- 1858 - Hyman Lipman patents a pencil with an attached eraser.
- 1863 - Prince Wilhelm Georg of Sleeswÿk-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg is chosen as King George I of Greece.
- 1867 - Alaska is purchased for $7.2 million, about 2 cent/acre ($4.19/km²), by United States Secretary of State William H. Seward. The news media call this Seward's Folly.
- 1870 - Texas is readmitted to the Union following Reconstruction.
- 1912 - Sultan Abdelhafid signs the Treaty of Fez, making Morocco a French protectorate.
- 1940 - Sino-Japanese War: Japan declares Nanking to be the capital of a new Chinese puppet government, nominally controlled by Wang Ching-wei.
- 1945 - World War II: Soviet Union forces invade Austria and take Vienna; Alger Hiss congratulated in Moscow for his part in bringing about the Western betrayal at the Yalta Conference.
- 1951 - Remington Rand delivers the first UNIVAC I computer to the United States Census Bureau.
- 1954 - The first subway in Canada opens after five years of construction, in Toronto.
- 1961 - The Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs is signed at New York.
- 1962 - Jack Paar hosts his last episode of The Tonight Show.
- 1964 - The game show Jeopardy! debuts on television.
- 1965 - Vietnam War: A car bomb explodes in front of the U.S. Embassy in Saigon, killing 22 and wounding 183 others.
- 1972 - Vietnam War: The Eastertide Offensive begins after North Vietnamese forces cross into the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) of South Vietnam.
- 1974 - The Ramones play their first ever gig as a trio at the Performance Studio in New York City.
- 1981 - President Ronald Reagan is shot in the chest outside a Washington, D.C. hotel by John Hinckley, Jr., family friend of the Vice President.
- 1987 - One of Vincent Van Gogh's "Sunflowers" paintings is bought by Japanese insurance magnate Yasuo Goto for $39.85 million.
- 1993 - In the comic street Peanuts, Charlie Brown hits his first ever game-winning home run.
- 2003 - Under cover of darkness, Mayor Richard M. Daley destroys Meigs Field, a general aviation airport in downtown Chicago, Illinois, without giving the required notice to the FAA.

Births

- 1135 - Maimonides, Spanish rabbi and philosopher (d. 1204)
- 1326 - Ivan II of Russia, Grand Duke of Muscovy (d. 1359)
- 1432 - Mehmed II, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1481)
- 1640 - John Trenchard, English politican (d. 1695)
- 1746 - Francisco Goya, Spanish painter and engraver (d. 1828)
- 1820 - Anna Sewell, British author (d. 1878)
- 1844 - Paul Verlaine, French poet (d. 1896)
- 1853 - Vincent van Gogh, Dutch painter (d. 1890)
- 1857 - Leon Charles Thevenin, French telegraph engineer (d. 1926)
- 1864 - Franz Oppenheimer, German sociologist (d. 1943)
- 1875 - Jonathan Campbell, film pioneer (d. 1942)
- 1879 - Coen de Koning, Dutch speed skater (d. 1954)
- 1880 - Sean O'Casey, Irish dramatist (d. 1964)
- 1892 - Fortunato Depero, Italian artist (d. 1960)
- 1895 - Nikolai Bulganin, Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1975)
- 1900 - Ted Heath, British musician and band leader (d. 1969)
- 1902 - Brooke Astor, American philanthropist
- 1903 - Countee Cullen, American poet (d. 1946)
- 1913 - Marc Davis, American animator (d. 2000)
- 1913 - Richard Helms, American Central Intelligence Agency director (d. 2002)
- 1913 - Frankie Laine, American singer
- 1913 - Censu Tabone, President of Malta
- 1914 - Sonny Boy Williamson I, American musician (d. 1948)
- 1919 - McGeorge Bundy, American National Security Advisor (d. 1996)
- 1922 - Turhan Bey, Turkish-Czechoslovakian actor
- 1923 - Milton Acorn, Canadian poet (d. 1986)
- 1926 - Ingvar Kamprad, Swedish entrrepreneur
- 1928 - Robert Badinter, French politician
- 1929 - Richard Dysart, American actor
- 1930 - John Astin, American actor
- 1930 - Rolf Harris, Australian artist and entertainer
- 1930 - Peter Marshall, American game show host
- 1932 - Ted Morgan, Swiss-born writer
- 1937 - Warren Beatty, American actor and director
- 1940 - Astrud Gilberto, Brazilian singer
- 1940 - Jerry Lucas, American basketball player
- 1941 - Wasim Sajjad, President of Pakistan
- 1945 - Eric Clapton, American guitarist
- 1949 - Lene Lovich, American singer
- 1950 - Robbie Coltrane, Scottish actor and comedian
- 1952 - Peter Knights, Australian footballer and coach
- 1956 - Bill Butler, Scottish politician
- 1957 - Paul Reiser, American actor
- 1958 - Maurice LaMarche, Canadian voice actor
- 1962 - MC Hammer, American rapper
- 1964 - Tracy Chapman, American singer
- 1964 - Ian Ziering, American actor
- 1967 - Megumi Hayashibara, Japanese seiyū
- 1968 - Donna D'Errico, American actress and model
- 1968 - Céline Dion, Canadian singer
- 1970 - Mark Consuelos, American actor
- 1970 - Secretariat, American racehorse (d. 1989)
- 1976 - Obadele Thompson, Barbadan athlete
- 1978 - Chris Paterson, Scottish rugby player
- 1979 - Norah Jones, American pianist
- 1980 - Paul Wall, American rapper
- 1984 - Anna Nalick, American singer and songwriter

Deaths

- 1486 - Thomas Bourchier, Archbishop of Canterbury
- 1526 - Konrad Mutian, German humanist (b. 1471)
- 1540 - Matthäus Lang von Wellenburg, German statesman and Archbishop of Salzburg (b. 1469)
- 1559 - Adam Ries, German mathematician (b. 1492)
- 1587 - Ralph Sadler, English statesman (b. 1507)
- 1662 - François le Métel de Boisrobert, French poet (b. 1592)
- 1764 - Pietro Locatelli, Italian composer (b. 1695)
- 1783 - William Hunter, Scottish anatomist (b. 1718)
- 1804 - Victor-François, 2nd duc de Broglie, Marshal of France (b. 1718)
- 1840 - Beau Brummell, English celebrity and dandy (b. 1778)
- 1842 - Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun, French painter (b. 1755)
- 1879 - Thomas Couture, French painter and teacher (b. 1815)
- 1912 - Karl May, German author (b. 1842)
- 1949 - Friedrich Bergius, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1884)
- 1950 - Léon Blum, French prime minister (b. 1872)
- 1959 - Daniil Andreev, Russian writer and mystic (b. 1906)
- 1965 - Philip Showalter Hench, American physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1896)
- 1966 - Maxfield Parrish, American artist (b. 1870)
- 1968 - Bobby Driscoll, American actor (b. 1937)
- 1977 - Sergey Ilyushin, Russian aerospace engineer (b. 1894)
- 1981 - DeWitt Wallace, American publisher (b. 1889)
- 1984 - Karl Rahner, German theologian (b. 1904)
- 1985 - Harold Peary, American actor and singer (heart attack) (b. 1908)
- 1986 - James Cagney, American actor (b. 1899)
- 1999 - Gary Morton, American film and television producer (b. 1924)
- 2002 - Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon, Queen Mother of the United Kingdom (b. 1900)
- 2003 - Michael Jeter, American actor (b. 1952)
- 2003 - Valentin Pavlov, Prime Minister of the Soviet Union (b. 1937)
- 2004 - Alistair Cooke, English-born journalist (b. 1908)
- 2004 - Hubert Gregg, British broadcaster (b. 1914)
- 2004 - Michael King, New Zealand historian (b. 1945)
- 2004 - Timi Yuro, American singer (b. 1940)
- 2005 - Robert Creeley, American poet (b. 1926)
- 2005 - Milton Green, American athlete (b. 1913)
- 2005 - Mitch Hedberg, American comedian (b. 1968)
- 2005 - Fred Korematsu, American civil rights activist (b. 1919)
- 2005 - O. V. Vijayan, Indian author and cartoonist (b. 1930)
- 2005 - Derrick Plourde, American punk drummer (b. 1971)

Holidays and observances

- Roman Empire - Festival devoted to Salus
- Land Day

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/30 BBC: On This Day] ---- March 29 - March 31 - February 28 (February 29) - April 30 -- listing of all days ko:3월 30일 ms:30 Mac ja:3月30日 simple:March 30 th:30 มีนาคม

1754

1754 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- June 19 - The Albany Convention of New England Colonies proposes an American Union
- July - Columbia University founded as King's College by royal charter of King George II of England. The college was originally located in Lower Manhattan. Instruction was suspended in 1776 and the school would be reopened in 1784 as Columbia College. With the college's growth in the 19th Century, it would be renamed Columbia University in 1896.
- Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mahmud I (1730-1754) to Osman III (1754-1757)
- Beginning of the French and Indian War in North America.
- Britain and its colonies adopted a new Marriage Act that formulated many of the rules of modern marriage.

Births

- January 15 - Richard Martin, Irish founder of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (d. 1834)
- January 30 - John Lansing, Jr., American statesman (d. 1829)
- February 2 - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, French politician (d. 1838)
- March 17 - Madame Roland (Jeanne Marie Manon Philipon), French politician (d. 1793)
- March 23 - Baron Jurij Vega, Slovenian mathematician, physicist, and artillery officer (d. 1802)
- June 4 - Franz Xaver, Baron Von Zach, German scientific editor and astronomer (d. 1832)
- July 11 - Thomas Bowdler, English physician (d. 1825)
- August 2 - Pierre Charles L'Enfant, French architect (d. 1825)
- August 21 - William Murdoch, Scottish inventor (d. 1839)
- August 23 - King Louis XVI of France (d. 1793)
- September 9 - William Bligh, English sailor (d. 1817)
- September 26 - Joseph Proust, French chemist (d. 1826)
- October 1 - Emperor Paul I of Russia (d. 1801)
- December 24 - George Crabbe, English poet (d. 1832)
- Jacques Pierre Brissot, French politician (d. 1795)
- Usman dan Fodio, Nigerian Islamic theologan (d. 1817)

Deaths

- January 10 - Edward Cave, English editor and publisher (b. 1691)
- January 28 - Ludvig Holberg, Norwegian dramatist and writer (b. 1684)
- February 16 - Richard Mead, English physician (b. 1673)
- March 6 - Henry Pelham, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1696)
- March 23 - Johann Jakob Wettstein, Swiss theologian (b. 1693)
- April 2 - Thomas Carte, English historian (b. 1686)
- April 9 - Christian Wolff, German philosopher, mathematician, and scientist (b. 1679)
- April 15 - Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician (b. 1676)
- May 14 - Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée, French writer (b. 1692)
- May 23 - John Wood, the Elder, English architect (b. 1704)
- June 2 - Ebenezer Erskine, Scottish religious dissenter (b. 1680)
- July 4 - Philippe Néricault Destouches, French dramatist (b. 1680)
- October 4 - Tanacharison, Catawba Indian chief
- October 8 - Henry Fielding, English novelist (b. 1707)
- November 27 - Abraham de Moivre, French mathematician (b. 1667)
- December 12 - Wu Jingzi, Chinese writer (b. 1701)
- December 13 - Mahmud I, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1696) Category:1754 ko:1754년

15 June

June 15 is the 166th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (167th in leap years), with 199 days remaining.

Events

- 763 BC - Assyrians record a solar eclipse that will be used to fix the chronology of Mesopotamian history.
- 923 - Battle of Soissons: King Robert I of France is killed and King Charles the Simple is arrested by the supporters of Duke Rudolph of Burgundy.
- 1184 - King Magnus V of Norway is killed at the battle of Fimreite.
- 1215 - King John of England puts his seal to the Magna Carta.
- 1219 - Dannebrog - oldest national flag in the world - and flag of Denmark. According to legend, fell from the sky during the Battle of Lyndanisse in Estonia, and turned the Danes' luck.
- 1246 - With the death of Duke Frederick II, the Babenberg dynasty ends in Austria.
- 1389 - Battle of Kosovo: The Ottoman Empire defeats Serbs and Bosnians.
- 1409 - Western Schism: The Catholic church is led into a double schism as Petros Philargos is elected Pope Alexander V by the Council of Pisa, joining Pope Gregory XII in Rome and Pope Benedict XII in Avignon.
- 1520 - Pope Leo X threatens to excommunicate Martin Luther.
- 1667 - The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean Baptiste. He transfuses 12 fluid ounces (350 ml) of sheep blood to a 15-year-old boy. The boy later dies and Baptiste is accused of murder.
- 1752 - Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is electricity.
- 1775 - American Revolutionary War: George Washington is appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.
- 1776 - Delaware Separation Day - The Delaware General Assembly votes to suspend government under the British Crown.
- 1785 - Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, co-pilot of the first-ever manned flight (1783), and his companion, Pierre Romain, become the first-ever casualties of an air crash when their hot air balloon explodes during their attempt to cross the English Channel.
- 1804 - New Hampshire approves the Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratifying the document.
- 1808 - Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of Spain.
- 1836 - Arkansas is admitted as the 25th U.S. state.
- 1844 - Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber.
- 1846 - The Oregon Treaty establishes the 49th parallel as the border between the United States and Canada, from the Rocky Mountains to the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
- 1859 - Pig War: Ambiguity in the Oregon Treaty leads to the "Northwestern Boundary Dispute" between U.S. and British/Canadian settlers.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Petersburg begins – Union forces under General Ulysses S. Grant and troops led by Confederate General Robert E. Lee battle for the last time.
- 1864 - Arlington National Cemetery is established when 200 acres (0.8 km²) around Arlington Mansion are officially set aside as a military cemetery by U.S. Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton.
- 1877 - Henry Ossian Flipper becomes the first African American cadet to graduate from the United States Military Academy.
- 1904 - A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York City's East River kills 1000.
- 1905 - Princess Margaret of Connaught marries Gustav, Crown Prince of Sweden.
- 1909 - Representatives from England, Australia and South Africa meet at Lords and form the Imperial Cricket Conference.
- 1911 - Tabulating Computing Recording Corporation (IBM) is incorporated.
- 1913 - US troops under General John 'Black Jack' Pershing massacre at least 2,000 Philippine men, women and children at Bud Bagsak.
- 1916 - U.S. President Woodrow Wilson signs a bill incorporating the Boy Scouts of America.
- 1919 - John Alcock and Arthur Brown complete first nonstop transatlantic flight at Clifden, County Galway, Ireland.
- 1924 - Native Americans are proclaimed United States citizens.
- 1934 - The U.S.'s Great Smoky Mountains National Park is founded.
- 1944 - World War II: Battle of Saipan: The United States invades Saipan.
- 1944 - In the Saskatchewan general election, 1944, the CCF, led by Tommy Douglas, is elected and forms the first socialist government of North America.
- 1945 - The General Dutch Youth League (ANJV) is founded in Amsterdam, Netherlands.
- 1954 - UEFA (the Union des Associations Européennes de Football) is formed in Basle, Switzerland.
- 1955 - The Eisenhower administration stages the first annual "Operation Alert" (OPAL) exercise, an attempt to assess the USA's preparations for a nuclear attack.
- 1957 - Eindhoven University of Technology is founded.
- 1962 - Students for a Democratic Society complete the Port Huron Statement.
- 1969 - Hee Haw debuts on CBS television, quickly becoming an institution.
- 1978 - King Hussein of Jordan marries 26-year-old Lisa Halaby.
- 1992 - The United States Supreme Court rules in US vs. Alvarez-Machain that it is permissible for the USA to abduct suspects in foreign countries and bring them to the USA for trial, without approval from those other countries. No reciprocal right is recognized for the reverse to happen in the USA.
- 1994 - Israel and Vatican City establish full diplomatic relations.
- 1996 - In Manchester, UK, a terrorist bomb injures over 200 people and devastates a large part of the city centre.
- 1999 - George Morber Senior and Carolyn Frederick are murdered by Ángel Maturino Reséndiz in Gorham, Illinois, USA. They are his eighth and ninth victims, in his seventh and final incident.

Births

- 1330 - Edward the Black Prince, Prince of Wales (d. 1376)
- 1594 - Nicolas Poussin, French painter (d. 1665)
- 1623 - Cornelis de Witt, Dutch politician (d. 1672)
- 1624 - Hiob Ludolf, German orientalist (d. 1704)
- 1755 - Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy, French chemist (d. 1809)
- 1767 - Rachel Donelson Jackson, First Lady of the United States
- 1789 - Josiah Henson, American slave and settlement founder (d. 1883)
- 1801 - Benjamin Raymond, Mayor of Chicago (d. 1883)
- 1805 - William Butler Ogden, first Mayor of Chicago (d. 1877)
- 1843 - Edvard Grieg, Norwegian composer (d. 1907)
- 1882 - Ion Antonescu, Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1946)
- 1888 - Ramón López Velarde, Mexican poet (d. 1921)
- 1900 - Gotthard Günther, German philosopher (d. 1984)
- 1902 - Erik Erikson, psychoanalyst (d. 1994)
- 1906 - Léon Degrelle, Belgian SS officer (d. 1994)
- 1914 - Yuri Andropov, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (d. 1984)
- 1915 - Thomas Huckle Weller, American virologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1916 - Herbert Simon, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)
- 1917 - John Fenn, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1917 - Lash La Rue, American actor (d. 1996)
- 1921 - Errol Garner, American musician (d. 1977)
- 1932 - Mario Cuomo, Governor of New York
- 1936 - William Joseph Levada, American Catholic prelate
- 1937 - Waylon Jennings, American singer (d. 2002)
- 1938 - Billy Williams, baseball player
- 1939 - Brian Jacques, British author
- 1941 - Harry Nilsson, American singer and composer (d. 1994)
- 1943 - Xaviera Hollander, Dutch author
- 1943 - Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, Prime Minister of Denmark
- 1946 - Noddy Holder, English singer (Slade)
- 1947 - John Hoagland, American photographer
- 1948 - Mike Holmgren, American football coach
- 1949 - Dusty Baker, baseball player and manager
- 1949 - Simon Callow, British actor
- 1954 - James Belushi, American actor
- 1958 - Wade Boggs, baseball player
- 1958 - Eric Heiden, American speed skater
- 1963 - Helen Hunt, American actress
- 1964 - Courteney Cox, American actress
- 1965 - Bernard Hopkins, American boxer
- 1967 - Eric Stefani, American musician and animator
- 1969 - Ice Cube, American singer and actor
- 1969 - Oliver Kahn, German footballer
- 1971 - Edwin Brienen, Dutch director
- 1972 - Andy Pettitte, baseball player
- 1973 - Neil Patrick Harris, American actor
- 1973 - Tore André Flo, Norwegian footballer
- 1978 - Wilfred Bouma, Dutch footballer
- 1980 - Cara Zavaleta, American model
- 1981 - Mary Carey, American actress
- 1981 - Billy Martin, American musician

Deaths

- 923 - Robert I of France (b. c. 865)
- 1073 - Emperor Go-Sanjō of Japan (b. 1034)
- 1246 - Duke Frederick II of Austria (b. 1219)
- 1381 - John Cavendish, Lord Chief Justice of England
- 1381 - Wat Tyler, English rebel
- 1383 - John VI Cantacuzenus, Byzantine Emperor
- 1389 - Prince Lazar, Serbian Orthodox saint (b. 1329)
- 1467 - Philip III, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1396)
- 1521 - Tamás Bakócz. Hungarian Catholic cardinal and statesman (b. 1442)
- 1614 - Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton, English politician (b. 1540)
- 1679 - Guillaume Courtois, French painter (b. 1628)
- 1724 - Henry Sacheverell, English churchman and politician (b. 1674)
- 1750 - Marguerite De Launay, Baronne Staal, French writer (b. 1684)
- 1768 - James Short, Scottish mathematician and optician (b. 1710)
- 1772 - Louis-Claude Daquin, French composer (b. 1694)
- 1849 - James Knox Polk, 11th President of the United States (b. 1795)
- 1888 - Emperor Friedrich III of Germany (b. 1831)
- 1889 - Mihai Eminescu, Romanian poet (b. 1850)
- 1934 - Alfred Bruneau, French composer (d. 1857)
- 1941 - Evelyn Underhill, British writer (b. 1875)
- 1941 - Otfrid Foerster, German neurologist (b. 1873)
- 1962 - Alfred Cortot, Swiss pianist (b. 1877)
- 1965 - E. A. Speiser, American Bible scholar (b. 1902)
- 1968 - Sam Crawford, baseball player (b. 1880)
- 1971 - Wendell Meredith Stanley, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904)
- 1976 - Jimmy Dykes, baseball player and manager (b. 1896)
- 1984 - Meredith Willson, American composer (b. 1902)
- 1985 - Andy Stanfield, American athlete (b. 1927)
- 1989 - Victor French, American actor (b. 1934)
- 1991 - Arthur Lewis, British economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1915)
- 1993 - John Connally, American politican (b. 1917)
- 1993 - James Hunt, English race car driver (b. 1947)
- 1995 - John Vincent Atanasoff, American computer pioneer (b. 1903)
- 1996 - Ella Fitzgerald, American singer (b. 1917)
- 2003 - Hume Cronyn, Canadian actor (b. 1911)

Holidays and observances

- Commemoration of Evelyn Underhill (Anglican mystic and poet)
- Roman Empire – ninth and final day of the Vestalia in honor of Vesta
- Roman Catholic Church – Feast of Saint Germaine Cousin, patron of shepherdesses and of victims of child abuse
- Saint Vitus' Day – Vitus Diena held in medieval Latvia
- Malawi's Freedom Day
- Commemoration of William Adams (Miura Anjin 三浦按針) a man shipwrecked in Japan in the 1600s, and whom James Clavell's "Shogun" was based upon.
- Flag Day in Denmark

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/15 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 14 - June 16 - May 15 - July 15 – listing of all days ko:6월 15일 ms:15 Jun ja:6月15日 simple:June 15 th:15 มิถุนายน

1785

1785 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 The first issue of the Daily Universal Register, later known as The Times, is published in London.
- January 7 - Frenchman Jean-Pierre Blanchard and American John Jeffries travel from Dover, England to Calais, France in a hydrogen gas balloon, becoming the first to cross the English Channel by air.
- January 27 The University of Georgia founded
- July 6 - The dollar is unanimously chosen as the money unit for the United States. This is the first time a nation has adopted a decimal coinage system.
- August 1 - Fleet of French explorer Jean Francois de Galoup, count la Përouse leaves Paris for circumnavigation
- August 15 - Cardinal de Rohan is arrested in Paris - the necklace affair comes into open
- November – Drought in Haiti
- University of New Brunswick founded in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada
- Coal gas first used for illumination
- Louis XVI of France signs to a law that a handkerchief must be square
- British government establishes a permanent land force in the Eastern Caribbean, based in Barbados

Births

- January 4 - Jakob Grimm, German philologist, folklorist, and writer (d. 1863)
- January 4 - Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (d. 1831)
- February 10 - Claude-Louis Navier, French engineer and physicist (d. 1836)
- March 27 - Louis XVII of France (d. 1795)
- April 4 - Bettina von Arnim, German poet (d. 1859)
- April 26 - John James Audubon, French-American naturalist and illustrator (d. 1851)
- May 18 - John Wilson, Scottish writer (d. 1854)
- July 6 - William Jackson Hooker, English botanist (d. 1865)
- August 15 - Thomas de Quincey, English writer (d. 1859)
- August 23 - Oliver Hazard Perry, American naval officer (d. 1819)
- November 18 - David Wilkie, Scottish artist (d. 1841)

Deaths

- January 3 - Baldassare Galuppi, Italian composer (b. 1706)
- January 19 - Jonathan Toup, English classical scholar and critic (b. 1713)
- January 23 - Matthew Stewart, Scottish mathematician (b. 1717)
- April 14 - William Whitehead, English writer (b. 1715)
- May 8 - Etienne Francois, Duke of Choiseul, French statesman (b. 1719)
- June 2 - Jean Paul de Gua de Malves, French mathematician (b. 1713)
- June 30 - James Oglethorpe, English general and founder of the state of Georgia (b. 1696)
- August 17 - Jonathan Trumbull, Governor of the Colony and the state of Connecticut (b. 1710)
- August 26 - George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville, British soldier and politician (b. 1716)
- August 28 - Jean-Baptiste Pigalle, French sculptor (b. 1714)
- October 4 - David Brearly, delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (b. 1703)
- November 18 - Louis Philip I, Duke of Orléans, French soldier and writer (b. 1725)
- November 19 - Bernard de Bury, French composer (b. 1720)
- November 25 - Richard Glover, English poet (b. 1712)
- December 29 - Johan Herman Wessel, Norwegian author (b. 1742) Category:1785 ko:1785년 ms:1785 simple:1785

Wimereux

Wimereux is a commune of the Pas-de-Calais département, in France. Culture: key figures: Guy Bataille, journalist and historian of WWII, Maurice Boitel, painter artist. Category:Communes of Pas-de-Calais

Pas-de-Calais

Pas-de-Calais is a département in northern France named after the strait which it borders.

History

Pas-de-Calais was one of the original 83 départements created during the French Revolution on March 4, 1790. It was created from parts of the former provinces of Boulonnais, Ponthieu and Artois. Some of the costliest battles of World War I were fought here. The Vimy Memorial commemorates the Battle of Vimy Ridge and is Canada's most important memorial to its fallen soldiers. The Pas-de-Calais was also the target of Operation Fortitude during World War II, which was an Allied plan to deceive the Germans that the invasion of Europe was to occur here, rather than in Normandy.

Geography

Pas-de-Calais is in the current région of Nord-Pas-de-Calais and is surrounded by the départments of Nord and Somme and the English Channel and the North Sea. Its principal towns are, on the coast, Calais and Boulogne-sur-Mer, and in Artois, Lens, Liévin, Arras, and Saint-Omer. The principal rivers are the following:
- Authie
- Canche
- Temoise
- Liane
- Sensée
- Scarpe
- Deûle
- Lys
- Aa

Economy

The economy of the département was long dependent on mining, primarily the coal mines. However, since World War II, the economy has become more diversified.

Demographics

The inhabitants of the département are called Pas-de-Calaisiens. Pas-de-Calais is one of the most heavily populated départements of France, and yet it has no large cities. Calais has only just over 100,000 inhabitants, followed closely by Boulogne-sur-Mer and St.-Omer. The remaining population is primarily concentrated along the border with the département of Nord in the mining district, where a string of small towns constitutes an urban area with a population of about 1.2 million. The center and south of the département are more rural, but still quite heavily populated, with many villages and small towns. Although the department saw some of the heaviest fighting of World War I, its population rebounded quickly after both world wars. However, many of the mining towns have seen dramatic decreases in population, some up to half of their population.

Culture

Although the Pas-de-Calais is one of the most populous département of France, it had no university until 1992.

External links

- [http://www.pas-de-calais.pref.gouv.fr/ Prefecture website] (in French)
- [http://www.cg63.fr/ Conseil Général website] (in French)
- http://www.pas-de-calais.com/ (in French and English)
- [http://www.dover-to-calais.com/ from dover to calais] Cities > 10,000 inhabitants ja:パ＝ド＝カレー県

Chemistry

Chemistry (derived from the Arabic word kimia, alchemy, where al is Arabic for the) is the science of matter that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and with the transformations that they undergo. In the study of matter, chemistry also investigates its interactions with energy and itself (see physics, biology). Because of the diversity of matter, which is mostly composed of different combinations of atoms, chemists often study how atoms of different chemical elements interact to form molecules and how molecules interact with each other. molecules

Introduction

Chemistry is a large field encompassing many subdisciplines that often overlap with significant portions of other sciences. The fundamental component of chemistry is that it involves matter in some way (this explains its broad reach). It may involve the interaction of matter with non-material phenomena such as energy. More central to chemistry is the interaction of matter with other matter such as in the classic chemical reaction where chemical bonds are broken and made, forming new molecules. Matter, such as the chair you are sitting on or the air you breathe, is known today to consist of molecules. Each molecule consists of small bits of matter known as atoms that are connected together through chemical bonds. Each atom consists of smaller bits of matter known as subatomic particles. The structure of the world we commonly experience and the properties of the matter we commonly interact with are determined by the nature of this matter on the chemical level. Steel is hard because of how the atoms are bound together. Wood will burn because it can react with oxygen in a chemical reaction. Water is a liquid at room temperature because of how each molecule of water interacts with its neighbors. In fact, you are a thinking, sentient being because of an on-going series of chemical reactions and other chemical interactions. You can see this text because of how light interacts with molecules called proteins in the back of your eye. Chemistry is often called the central science because it is what connects most of the other sciences together. Chemistry is in some ways physics on a larger scale and in some ways is biology or geology on a smaller scale. Chemistry is used to understand and make better materials for engineering. It is used to understand the chemical mechanisms of disease as well as to create pharmaceuticals to treat disease. Chemistry is somehow involved in almost every science, every technology and every "thing". With such a large area of study, it is impossible to know everything about chemistry and very difficult to summarize the field concisely. Even the most knowledgable, experienced chemist only knows a very narrow area of chemistry better than others. Of course, most chemists have a broad general knowledge of many areas of chemistry as well. Chemistry is divided into many areas of study called subdisciplines in which chemists specialize. The chemistry taught at the high school or early college level is often called "general chemistry" and is intended to be an introduction to a wide variety of fundamental concepts and to give the student the tools to continue on to more advanced subjects. Many concepts presented at this level are often incomplete and technically inaccurate yet of extraordinary utility. Chemists regularly use these simple, elegant tools and explanations in their work when they suffice because the best solution possible is often so overwhelmingly difficult and the true solution is usually unobtainable. The science of chemistry is historically a recent development but has its roots in alchemy which has been practiced for millennia throughout the world. The word chemistry is directly derived from the word alchemy, however the etymology of alchemy is unclear (see alchemy).

Subdisciplines of chemistry

Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. ; Analytical chemistry : Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdiciplines of chemistry, exluding purely theoretical chemistry. ; Biochemistry : Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related f.e. in medicinal chemistry. ; Inorganic chemistry : Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. ; Organic chemistry : Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. ; Physical chemistry : Physical chemistry or physicochemistry is the study of the physical basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, and spectroscopy. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. ; Theoretical chemistry : Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. ; Other fields : Astrochemistry, Atmospheric chemistry, Chemical Engineering, Electrochemistry, Environmental chemistry, Geochemistry, History of chemistry, Materials science, Medicinal chemistry, Molecular Biology, Molecular genetics, Nuclear chemistry, Organometallic chemistry, Petrochemistry, Pharmacology, Photochemistry, Phytochemistry, Polymer chemistry, Supramolecular chemistry, Surface chemistry, and Thermochemistry.

Fundamental concepts

Nomenclature

Nomenclature refers to the system for naming chemical compounds. There are well-defined systems in place for naming chemical species. Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system. Inorganic compounds are named according to the inorganic nomenclature system. See also: IUPAC nomenclature

Atoms

Main article: Atom. An atom is a collection of matter consisting of a positively charged core (the nucleus) which contains protons and neutrons, and which maintains a number of electrons to balance the positive charge in the nucleus.

Elements

Main article: Chemical element. An element is a class of atoms which have the same number of protons in the nucleus. This number is known as the atomic number of the element. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the element uranium. The most convenient presentation of the elements is in the periodic table, which groups elements with similar chemical properties together. Lists of the elements by name, by symbol, and by atomic number are also available. See also: isotope

Compounds

Main article: Chemical compound A compound is a substance with a fixed ratio of chemical elements which determines the composition, and a particular organisation which determines chemical properties. For example, water is a compound containing hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of two to one, with the Oxygen between the hydrogens, and an angle of 104.5° between them. Compounds are formed and interconverted by chemical reactions.

Molecules

Main article: Molecule. A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure compound that retains a set of unique chemical properties. A molecule consists of two or more atoms covalently bonded together.

Ions

Main article: Ion. An ion is a charged species, or an atom or a molecule that has lost or gained an electron. Positively charged cations (e.g. sodium cation Na⁺) and negatively charged anions (e.g. chloride Cl^-) can form neutral salts (e.g. sodium chloride NaCl). Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions are hydroxide (OH^-), or phosphate (PO₄^3-).

Bonding

Main article: Chemical bond. A chemical bond is an interaction which holds together atoms in molecules or crystals. In many simple compounds, valence bond theory and the concept of oxidation number can be used to predict molecular structure and composition. Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory fails and alternative approaches which are based on quantum chemistry, such as molecular orbital theory, are necessary.

States of matter

Main article: Phase (matter). A phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature. Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the phase transition, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases. Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. Even the familiar ice has many different phases, depending on the pressure and temperature of the system. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which is getting a lot of attention because of its relevance to biology.

Chemical reactions

Main article: Chemical reaction. Chemical reactions are transformations in the fine structure of molecules. Such reactions can result in molecules attaching to each other to form larger molecules, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds.

Quantum chemistry

Main article: Quantum chemistry. Quantum chemistry describes the behavior of matter at the molecular scale. It is, in principle, possible to describe all chemical systems using this theory. In practice, only the simplest chemical systems may realistically be investigated in purely quantum mechanical terms, and approximations must be made for most practical purposes (e.g., Hartree-Fock, post Hartree-Fock or Density functional theory, see computational chemistry for more details). Hence a detailed understanding of quantum mechanics is not necessary for most chemistry, as the important implications of the theory (principally the orbital approximation) can be understood and applied in simpler terms.

Laws

The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the law of conservation of mass, which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary chemical reaction. Modern physics shows that it is actually energy that is conserved, and that energy and mass are related; a concept which becomes important in nuclear chemistry. Conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics. Further laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass. Joseph Proust's law of definite composition says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important. Dalton's law of multiple proportions says that these chemicals will present themselves in proportions that are small whole numbers (i.e. 1:2 O:H in water); although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. Such compounds are known as Non-Stoichiometric Compounds More modern laws of chemistry define the relationship between energy and transformations.
- In equilibrium, molecules exist in mixture defined by the transformations possible on the timescale of the equilibrium, and are in a ratio defined by the intrinsic energy of the molecules—the lower the intrinsic energy, the more abundant the molecule.
- Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs.
- There is a hypothetical intermediate, or transition structure, that corresponds to the structure at the top of the energy barrier. The Hammond-Leffler Postulate states that this structure looks most similar to the product or starting material which has intrinsic energy closest to that of the energy barrier. Stabilizing this hypothetical intermediate through chemical interaction is one way to achieve catalysis.
- All chemical processes are reversible (law of microscopic reversibility) although some processes have such an energy bias, they are essentially irreversible.

History of chemistry

- Alchemy
- Discovery of the chemical elements
- History of chemistry
- Nobel Prize in chemistry
- Timeline of chemical element discovery

Etymology

Old French: alkemie; Arab al-kimia: the art of transformation. See also: alchemy

External links

- [http://www.allchemicals.info/ Chemical Glossary]
- [http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ Chemistry Information Database includes basic information and some toxicity]
- [http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/ IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page], see especially the "Gold Book" containing definitions of standard chemical terms
- [http://www.cci.ethz.ch/index.html Experiments] videos and photos of the techniques and results
- [http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ Material safety data sheets for a variety of chemicals]
- [http://www.flinnsci.com/search_MSDS.asp Material Safety Data Sheets]

Aviation

Aviation or Air transport refers to the activities surrounding mechanical flight and the aircraft industry. Aircraft, include fixed wing (airplane) and rotary wing (helicopter/autogyro) types, as well as lighter-than-air craft such as balloons and airships (also known as dirigibles.) There are two major categories of aviation:
- Civil aviation
- Military aviation Civil aviation includes both scheduled air transport and general aviation.

Botany

:For other meanings, see Botany (disambiguation) Botany is the scientific study of plant life. As a branch of biology, it is also sometimes referred to as plant science(s) or plant biology. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, ecology, and evolution of plants. plants

Scope and motivation of botany

As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied at a variety of levels, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), structure (anatomy), or function (physiology) of plant life. Botanists studied all organisms that were not generally regarded as animal. Some of these "plant-like" organisms include: fungi (studied in mycology); bacteria and viruses (studied in microbiology); and algae (studied in phycology).

Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier

30 March

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1754

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15 June

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1785

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Wimereux

Pas-de-Calais

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Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

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Chemistry

Introduction

Subdisciplines of chemistry

Fundamental concepts

Nomenclature

Atoms

Elements

Compounds

Molecules

Ions

Bonding

States of matter

Chemical reactions

Quantum chemistry

Laws

History of chemistry

Etymology

See also

External links

Further reading

Aviation

See also

Botany

Scope and motivation of botany