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Jean-Martin Charcot

Jean-Martin Charcot

.]] Jean-Martin Charcot (29 November 1825 - 16 August 1893) was a French neurologist. His work greatly impacted the developing fields of neurology and psychology.

Life and Work

Charcot worked and taught at the famous Salpêtrière Hospital for more than thirty years. His reputation as an instructor drew students from all over Europe. In 1882, he established a neurology clinic at Salpêtrière, which was the first of its kind in Europe. Charcot's primary focus was neurology. He was the first to describe a disorder known as Charcot joint or Charcot arthropathy, a degeneration of joint surfaces resulting in loss of proprioception. He researched the functions of different parts of the brain and the role of arteries in cerebral hemorrhage. He was also one of the first to describe Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (CMT). The announcement was made simultaneously with Pierre Marie of France (his resident) and Howard Henry Tooth of England. The disease is also sometimes called peroneal muscular atrophy. But Charcot's most enduring work is that on hypnosis and hysteria. Charcot believed that hysteria was a neurological disorder caused by hereditary problems in the nervous system. He used hypnosis to induce a state of hysteria in patients and study the results, and was single-handedly responsible for changing the French medical community's opinion about the validity of hypnosis (it was previously rejected as Mesmerism).

Students

Charcot is just as famous for his students: Sigmund Freud, Joseph Babinski, Pierre Janet, Georges Gilles de la Tourette, and Alfred Binet.

See also


- Charcot's triad

External links


- [http://www.freudfile.org/charcot.html A Brief Biography of Charcot from a Freudian perspective]
- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhchar.html Biography of Charcot] Charcot Charcot Charcot Charcot

29 November

November 29 is the 333rd (in leap years the 334th) day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. There are 32 days remaining.

Events


- 1777 - San Jose, California, is founded as el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe. It is the first civilian settlement, or pueblo, in Alta California.
- 1781 - The slave ship Zong dumps its living cargo into the sea in order to claim insurance.
- 1830 - November Uprising: An armed rebellion against Russia's rule in Poland begins.
- 1845 - The Sonderbund is defeated by the joint forces of other Swiss cantons under General Guillaume-Henri Dufour.
- 1847 - Whitman Massacre: Missionaries Dr. Marcus Whitman, his wife Narcissa, and 15 others are killed by Cayuse and Umatilla Indians, causing the Cayuse War.
- 1864 - Indian Wars: Sand Creek Massacre - Colorado volunteers led by Colonel John Chivington massacre at least 150 Cheyenne and Arapaho noncombatants inside Colorado Territory.
- 1872 - Indian Wars: The Modoc War begins with the Battle of Lost River.
- 1877 - Thomas Edison demonstrates his phonograph for the first time.
- 1890 - The Meiji Constitution goes into effect in Japan and the first Diet convenes.
- 1890 - In West Point, New York, the United States Naval Academy defeats the United States Military Academy 24-0 in the first Army-Navy football game.
- 1893 - Ziqiang Institute, today known as Wuhan University, was founded by Zhang Zhidong, governor of Hubei and Hunan Provinces in late Qing Dynasty of China after his memorial to the throne was approved by the Qing Government.
- 1915 - Fire destroys most of the buildings on Santa Catalina Island in California.
- 1922 - Howard Carter opened the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamen ("King Tut") to the public.
- 1929 - U.S. Admiral Richard Byrd becomes the first person to fly over the South Pole.
- 1943 - The second session of AVNOJ, the Anti-fascist council of national liberation of Yugoslavia, is held in Jajce, Bosnia and Herzegovina, determining the post-war ordering of the country.
- 1944 - The first surgery (on a human) to correct blue baby syndrome is performed by Alfred Blalock and Vivien Thomas.
- 1945 - The Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia is declared.
- 1947 - The United Nations General Assembly votes to partition Palestine.
- 1950 - Korean War: North Korean and Chinese troops force United Nations forces to retreat from North Korea.
- 1952 - Korean War: U.S. President-elect Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfills a campaign promise by traveling to Korea to find out what can be done to end the conflict.
- 1961 - The U.S. spacecraft Mercury-Atlas 5 is launched with Enos, a chimpanzee, aboard (the spacecraft orbited the Earth twice and splashed-down off the coast of Puerto Rico).
- 1963 - U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson establishes the Warren Commission to investigate the assassination of President John F. Kennedy.
- 1963 - Trans-Canada Airlines Flight 831, A Douglas DC-8 carrying 118, crashes after taking-off from Dorval Airport near Montreal.
- 1965 - Canadian satellite Alouette 2 is launched.
- 1967 - Vietnam War: U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara announces his resignation.
- 1972 - Nolan Bushnell (founder of Atari) released Pong (the first commercially successful video game) in Andy Capp’s Tavern in Sunnyvale, Calif.
- 1975 - The name "Micro-soft" (for "microcomputer software") is first used in a letter from Bill Gates to Paul Allen.
- 1981 - Actress Natalie Wood drowns during a boating accident off Santa Catalina Island, California.
- 1982 - Soviet invasion of Afghanistan: The United Nations General Assembly passes United Nations Resolution 37/37, stating that Soviet Union forces should withdraw from Afghanistan.
- 1987 - A Korean Air Boeing 707 explodes over the Thai-Burmese border, killing 155.
- 1990 - Gulf War: The United Nations Security Council passes UN Security Council Resolution 678, authorizing military intervention in Iraq if that nation did not withdraw its forces from Kuwait and free all foreign hostages by January 15, 1991.
- 1992 - Dennis Byrd of the New York Jets is temporarily paralyzed by a neck injury during a football game against the Kansas City Chiefs.
- 2005 - New Croatian Communist Party (KPH) is founded in Vukovar.

Births


- 1338 - Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, son of Edward III of England (d. 1368)
- 1427 - Zhengtong, Emperor of China (d. 1464)
- 1484 - Joachim Vadian, Swiss humanist (d. 1551)
- 1627 - John Ray, English naturalist (d. 1705)
- 1690 - Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, father of Catherine II of Russia (d. 1747)
- 1752 - Jemima Wilkinson, American preacher (d. 1819)
- 1762 - Pierre-Andre Latreille, French zoologist (d. 1833)
- 1781 - Andrés Bello, Venezuelan poet, lawmaker, teacher, philosopher and sociologist (d. 1865)
- 1797 - Gaetano Donizetti, Italian composer (d. 1848)
- 1799 - Amos Bronson Alcott, American writer and educator (d. 1888)
- 1802 - Wilhelm Hauff, German poet and novelist (d. 1827)
- 1803 - Christian Doppler, Austrian physicist (d. 1853)
- 1803 - Gottfried Semper, German architect (d. 1879)
- 1813 - Franz von Miklosich, Slovenian linguist (d. 1891)
- 1816 - Morrison Waite, 7th Chief Justice of the United States (d. 1888)
- 1825 - Jean-Martin Charcot, French neurologist (d. 1893)
- 1832 - Louisa May Alcott, American novelist (d. 1888)
- 1849 - Sir John Ambrose Fleming, British physicist (d. 1945)
- 1856 - Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1921)
- 1874 - Egas Moniz, Portuguese physician, neurologist and Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)
- 1876 - Nellie Tayloe Ross, American politician (d. 1977)
- 1881 - Julius Raab, Chancellor of Austria (d. 1964)
- 1894 - Lucille Hegamin, American singer and entertainer (d. 1970)
- 1895 - Busby Berkeley, American film director, and choreographer (d. 1976)
- 1895 - William Tubman, President of Liberia (d. 1971)
- 1896 - Yakima Canutt, American actor and stuntman (d. 1986)
- 1898 - C. S. Lewis, Irish writer (d. 1963)
- 1901 - Mildred Harris, American actress (d. 1944)
- 1904 - Egon Eiermann, German architect (d. 1970)
- 1908 - Adam Clayton Powell Jr., American civil rights leader and politician (d. 1972)
- 1915 - Billy Strayhorn, American musician and composer (d. 1967)
- 1916 - Fran Ryan, American actress (d. 2000)
- 1917 - Merle Travis, American singer (d. 1983)
- 1918 - Madeleine L'Engle, American author
- 1921 - Dagmar, American television personality (d. 2001)
- 1927 - Vin Scully, baseball announcer
- 1928 - Paul Simon, U.S. Senator (d. 2003)
- 1932 - Jacques Chirac, President of France
- 1932 - Diane Ladd, American actress
- 1933 - John Mayall, British blues musician
- 1939 - Peter Bergman, American comedian
- 1940 - Chuck Mangione, American musician
- 1941 - Bill Freehan, American baseball player
- 1941 - Denny Doherty, American musician (Mamas and the Papas)
- 1942 - Philippe Huttenlocher, Swiss baritone
- 1943 - Sue Miller, American author
- 1944 - Felix Cavaliere, American musician and producer
- 1947 - Petra Kelly, German politician (d. 1992)
- 1949 - Jerry Lawler, American professional wrestler and commentator
- 1949 - Garry Shandling, American comedian, actor, writer, producer, and director
- 1951 - Barry Goudreau, American musician (Boston)
- 1953 - Alex Grey, American artist
- 1954 - Joel Coen, American film director, producer, and writer
- 1955 - Howie Mandel, Canadian actor
- 1956 - Hinton Battle, American dancer
- 1956 - Leo Laporte, American television personality
- 1958 - Michael Dempsey, American musician (The Cure)
- 1960 - Cathy Moriarty, American actress
- 1961 - Kim Delaney, American actress
- 1961 - Tom Sizemore, American actor
- 1963 - Andrew McCarthy, American actor
- 1964 - Don Cheadle, American actor
- 1965 - Ellen Cleghorne, American comedian
- 1967 - John Layfield, American professional wrestler
- 1969 - Mariano Rivera, Panamanian baseball player
- 1969 - Pierre van Hooijdonk, Dutch international footballer
- 1970 - Mark Pembridge, Welsh international footballer
- 1971 - Gena Lee Nolin, American actress
- 1973 - Ryan Giggs, Welsh international footballer
- 1976 - Anna Faris, American actress
- 1976 - Ehren McGhehey, American actor and skateboarder
- 1977 - Maria Petrova, Russian figure skater
- 1982 - Ashley Force, American race car driver
- 1982 - Krystal Steal, American pornographic actress
- 1990 - Blake & Dylan Tuomy-Wilhoit, American actors (Full House)

Deaths


- 741 - Pope Gregory III
- 1268 - Pope Clement IV
- 1314 - King Philip IV of France (b. 1268)
- 1330 - Roger de Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, de facto ruler of England (b. 1287)
- 1342 - Michael of Cesena, Italian Franciscan leader (b. 1270)
- 1378 - Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1316)
- 1530 - Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, adviser to King Henry VIII of England
- 1577 - Cuthbert Mayne, English saint (b. 1543)
- 1590 - Philipp Nikodemus Frischlin, German philologist and poet (b. 1547)
- 1595 - Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga, Basque soldier and poet (b. 1533)
- 1626 - Ernst, Graf von Mansfield, German soldier
- 1632 - Frederick V, Elector Palatine (b. 1596)
- 1643 - William Cartwright, English dramatist (b. 1611)
- 1643 - Claudio Monteverdi, Italian composer (b. 1567)
- 1646 - Laurentius Paulinus Gothus, Swedish theologian and astronomer (b. 1565)
- 1661 - Brian Walton, English clergyman and scholar (b. 1600)
- 1694 - Marcello Malpighi, Italian physician (b. 1628)
- 1695 - James Dalrymple, 1st Viscount Stair, Scottish lawyer and statesman (b. 1619)
- 1699 - Patrick Gordon, Scottish general (b. 1635)
- 1759 - Nicolaus I Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (b. 1687)
- 1780 - Empress Maria Theresa of Austria (b. 1717)
- 1797 - Samuel Langdon, American President of Harvard University (b. 1723)
- 1847 - Marcus Whitman, Washington state pioneer (b. 1802)
- 1924 - Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer (b. 1858)
- 1953 - Sam De Grasse, American actor (b. 1875)
- 1954 - Dink Johnson, American musician (b. 1892)
- 1957 - Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Austrian composer (b. 1897)
- 1974 - Carl Stalling, American composer (b. 1888)
- 1975 - Graham Hill, British motor racing driver and Formula 1 world champion (b. 1929)
- 1979 - Zeppo Marx, American actor and comedian (b. 1901)
- 1981 - Fredric Wertham, German-born psychologist (b. 1895)
- 1981 - Natalie Wood, American actress (b. 1938)
- 1982 - Percy Williams, Canadian athlete (b. 1908)
- 1984 - Gotthard Günther, German philosopher (b. 1900)
- 1986 - Cary Grant, British-born American actor (b. 1904)
- 1991 - Frank Yerby, American author (b. 1916)
- 1998 - Martin Ruane, British professional wrestler (b. 1947)
- 1999 - Gene Rayburn, American game show host (b. 1917)
- 2001 - George Harrison, British singer, guitarist and songwriter (b. 1943)
- 2001 - John Knowles, American author (b. 1926)
- 2004 - John Drew Barrymore, American actor (b. 1929)
- 2004 - Harry Danning, American baseball player (b. 1911)
- 2005 - David di Tommaso, French football player (b. 1979)
- 2005 - Wendie Jo Sperber, American television/film comedic actress (b. 1962)

Holidays and observances


- Feast days of the following saints in the Roman Catholic Church:
  - Saint Saturnin
  - Saint Cuthbert Mayne, martyr
  - Radbod
  - Brendan of Birr or Brendan the Younger
  - Denis of the Nativity and Redemptus of the Cross
- Albania - Liberation Day (Dita e Çlirimit)
- Israel - Kaftet be-November (commemoration of the U.N. decision in 1947 to partition Palestina)
- International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People
- former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia - Republic Day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/29 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051129.html The New York Times: On This Day] ---- November 28 - November 30 - October 29 - December 29 -- listing of all days ko:11월 29일 ms:29 November ja:11月29日 simple:November 29 th:29 พฤศจิกายน

16 August

August 16 is the 228th day of the year (229th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 137 days remaining.

Events


- 1777 - American Revolutionary War: Battle of Bennington - British forces are defeated by American troops.
- 1780 - American Revolutionary War: Battle of Camden - The British defeat the Americans near Camden, South Carolina.
- 1812 - War of 1812: American General William Hull surrenders Fort Detroit without a fight to the British Army.
- 1819 - Eleven people die and 400 are injured by cavalry charges at the Peterloo Massacre at a public meeting at St. Peter's Field, Manchester, England.
- 1841 - U.S. President John Tyler vetoes a bill which called for the re-establishment of the Second Bank of the United States. Enraged Whig Party members riot outside the White House in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history.
- 1858 - U.S. President James Buchanan inaugurates the new transatlantic telegraph cable cable by exchanging greetings with Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. However, a weak signal will force a shutdown of the service in a few weeks.
- 1896 - Skookum Jim Mason, George Carmack and Dawson Charlie discover gold in the Klondike in Canada.
- 1913 - Tōhoku Imperial University (modern day Tōhoku University) admits its first female students.
- 1915 - World War I: Should victory be achieved over the Central Powers, the Triple Entente promises the Kingdom of Serbia: the Austro-Hungarian territories of Baranja, Srem, Slavonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina; and the eastern 2/3 of Dalmatia (from the river of Krka to the city of Bar).
- 1920 - Ray Chapman of the Cleveland Indians is hit in the head by a fastball thrown by Carl Mays of the New York Yankees, and dies early the next day. To date, Chapman is the only player to die from injuries sustained in a Major League Baseball game.
- 1928 - Murderer Carl Panzram is arrested in Washington, DC after killing 20 people.
- 1930 - The first color sound cartoon, called Fiddlesticks, is made by Ub Iwerks
- 1942 - World War II: - The two-person crew of the U.S. naval blimp L-8 disappear without a trace on a routine anti-submarine patrol over the Pacific Ocean. The blimp drifts without her crew and crashlands in Daly City, California.
- 1946 - The Japan Business Federation, or Keidanren, is established, and Ichirō Ishikawa is appointed its representative.
- 1954 - Sports Illustrated magazine is first published.
- 1960 - Cyprus gains its independence from the United Kingdom.
- 1960 - Joseph Kittinger parachutes from a balloon over New Mexico at 102,800 feet (31,330 m). He sets unbeaten (as of 2003) world records for: high-altitude jump; free-fall by falling 16 miles (25.7 km) before opening his parachute; and fastest speed by a human without an aircraft, 614 mi/h (982 km/h).
- 1962 - The Beatles fire drummer Pete Best and replace him with Ringo Starr.
- 1964 - Vietnam War: A coup d'état replaces Duong Van Minh with General Nguyen Khanh as President of South Vietnam. A new constitution is established with aid from the U.S. Embassy.
- 1966 - Vietnam War: The House Un-American Activities Committee begins investigations of Americans who have aided the Viet Cong. The committee intends to introduce legislation making these activities illegal. Anti-war demonstrators disrupt the meeting and 50 people are arrested.
- 1972 - The Royal Moroccan Air Force mistakenly fires upon, but fails to bring down, Hassan II of Morocco's plane while he is traveling back to Rabat.
- 1974 - The Ramones play their first ever show at the CBGB's.
- 1984 - Carmaker John De Lorean is acquitted of all eight counts of possessing and distributing cocaine.
- 1987 - A McDonnell Douglas MD-82 carrying Northwest Airlines flight 255 crashes on takeoff from Detroit Metropolitan Airport killing 155 people onboard, with the sole survivor four-year old Cecelia Cichan).
- 1993 - The Debian GNU/Linux distribution is founded by Ian Murdock.
- 1996 - Sigma Beta Rho is founded at the University of Pennsylvania.
- 2005 - West Caribbean Airways Flight 708 crashes near Machiques, Venezuela, killing the 160 aboard.

Births


- 1355 - Philippa Plantagenet, Countess of Ulster
- 1378 - Hongxi Emperor of China (d. 1425)
- 1557 - Agostino Carracci, Italian artist (d. 1602)
- 1596 - Frederick V, Elector Palatine (d. 1632)
- 1645 - Jean de La Bruyère, French writer (d. 1696)
- 1650 - Vincenzo Coronelli, Italian cartographer and encylopedist (d. 1718)
- 1682 - Louis, Duke of Burgundy, heir to the throne of France (d. 1712)
- 1832 - Wilhelm Wundt, German psychologist (d. 1920)
- 1845 - Gabriel Lippmann, French physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1921)
- 1860 - Jules Laforgue, French poet (d. 1887)
- 1862 - Amos Alonzo Stagg, American coach (d. 1965)
- 1868 - Bernarr McFadden, American publisher (d. 1955)
- 1884 - Hugo Gernsback, Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (d. 1967)
- 1888 - T. E. Lawrence, English writer and soldier (d. 1935)
- 1888 - Armand J. Piron, American musician (d. 1943)
- 1892 - Otto Messmer, American cartoonist (d. 1983)
- 1894 - George Meany, American labor union leader (d. 1980)
- 1895 - Albert Cohen, Swiss novelist (d. 1981)
- 1895 - Liane Haid, Austrian actress (d. 2000)
- 1902 - Georgette Heyer, English novelist (d. 1974)
- 1904 - Wendell Meredith Stanley, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
- 1911 - E. F. Schumacher, German economist and statistician (d. 1977)
- 1912 - Ted Drake English footballer (d. 1995)
- 1913 - Menachem Begin, Prime Minister of Israel, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1992)
- 1920 - Charles Bukowski, American poet (d. 1994)
- 1924 - Fess Parker, American actor
- 1928 - Ann Blyth, American actress
- 1929 - Helmut Rahn, German footballer (d. 2003)
- 1930 - Robert Culp, American actor
- 1930 - Frank Gifford, American football player and announcer
- 1931 - Eydie Gorme, American singer
- 1933 - Julie Newmar, American actress
- 1940 - Bruce Beresford, Australian film director
- 1946 - Massoud Barzani, Iraqi Kurdish politician
- 1946 - Lesley Ann Warren, American actress
- 1950 - Hasely Crawford, Trinidad and Tobago athlete
- 1952 - Reginald VelJohnson, American actor
- 1953 - Kathie Lee Gifford, French-born singer and actress
- 1954 - James Cameron, Canadian film director
- 1958 - Angela Bassett, American actress
- 1958 - Madonna, American singer and actress
- 1960 - Timothy Hutton, American actor
- 1964 - Jimmy Arias, American tennis player
- 1967 - Ulrika Jonsson, Swedish-born television personality
- 1967 - Pamela Smart, American murderer
- 1968 - Mateja Svet, Slovenian alpine skier
- 1972 - Stan Lazaridis, Australian footballer
- 1974 - Robin Hull, Finnish snooker player
- 1974 - Krisztina Egerszegi, Hungarian swimmer
- 1976 - Jonatan Johansson, Finnish footballer
- 1980 - Vanessa Carlton, American singer, songwriter, and pianist
- 1980 - Robert Hardy, English bassist (Franz Ferdinand)
- 1981 - Taylor Rain, American actress
- 1987 - Kyal Marsh, Australian actor

Deaths


- 1027 - Giorgi I, King of Georgia (b. 998)
- 1327 - Roch, French saint
- 1358 - Duke Albert II of Austria (b. 1298)
- 1419 - Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, King of Bohemia (b. 1361)
- 1443 - Ashikaga Yoshikatsu, Japanese shogun (b. 1434)
- 1518 - Loyset Compère, French composer
- 1532 - John, Elector of Saxony (b. 1468)
- 1661 - Thomas Fuller, English churchman and historian (b. 1608)
- 1678 - Andrew Marvell, English poet (b. 1621)
- 1705 - Jakob Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician and scientist (b. 1654)
- 1733 - Matthew Tindal, English deist (b. 1657)
- 1791 - Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec, French soldier and diplomat (b. 1719)
- 1886 - Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa, Indian guru (b. 1836)
- 1893 - Jean-Martin Charcot, French neurologist (b. 1825)
- 1899 - Robert Wilhelm Bunsen, German chemist (b. 1811)
- 1907 - James Hector, Scottish geologist (b. 1834)
- 1921 - King Peter I of Serbia (b. 1844)
- 1938 - Robert Johnson, American singer and guitarist (b. 1911)
- 1938 - Andrej Hlinka, Slovak politician and priest (b. 1864)
- 1948 - Babe Ruth, baseball player (b. 1895)
- 1949 - Margaret Mitchell, American novelist (b. 1900)
- 1956 - Bela Lugosi, Hungarian actor (b. 1882)
- 1957 - Irving Langmuir, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)
- 1959 - Wanda Landowska, Polish harpsichordist (b. 1879)
- 1973 - Selman Waksman, Ukrainain-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1888)
- 1975 - Vladimir Kuts, Ukrainian-born runner (b. 1927)
- 1977 - Elvis Presley, American singer and actor (b. 1935)
- 1979 - John Diefenbaker, thirteenth Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1895)
- 1983 - Earl Averill, baseball player (b. 1902)
- 1989 - Amanda Blake, American actress (b. 1929)
- 1997 - Gerard McLarnon, Irish playwright and actor (b. 1915)
- 2002 - Abu Nidal, Palestinian political leader (b. 1937)
- 2002 - Jeff Corey, American actor (b. 1914)
- 2003 - Idi Amin, Ugandan dictator
- 2004 - Ivan Hlinka, Czech hockey coach (b. 1950)
- 2004 - Robert Quiroga, American boxer (b. 1969)
- 2005 - Frère Roger of Taizé, Swiss monk and mystic (b. 1915)

Holidays and observances


- RC saints: feast day of Saint Stephen_I_of_Hungary; Saint Roch (helps against plague and skin diseases)
- Eastern Orthodox: commemoration of the translation of the Acheiropoietos icon (a.k.a. the Mandelion; now lost) from Edessa to Constantinople on 16 August 944
- Palio dell'Assunta in Siena
- USA: legal holiday in Vermont for the Battle of Bennington in 1777 (which actually took place in the state of New York)  

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/16 BBC: On This Day] ---- August 15 - August 17 - July 16 - September 16 -- listing of all days ko:8월 16일 ms:16 Ogos ja:8月16日 simple:August 16 th:16 สิงหาคม

1893

1893 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 1 - Japan accepts the Gregorian calendar
- January 2 - Introduction by Webb C. Ball of the General Railroad Timepiece Standards in North America: Railroad chronometers
- January 13 - The Independent Labour Party of the UK has its first meeting.
- January 17 - Intervention by the U.S. Marines in Hawaii, resulting in overthrow of government of Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii
- January 21 - First "performance" of the Cherry sisters in Marion, Iowa. Their neighbors are uncritical and the sisters decide to launch a tour
- February 1 - Thomas A. Edison finishes construction of the first motion picture studio (West Orange, New Jersey).
- February 21 - Thomas Edison receives two U.S. patents. The first is for a "Cut Out for Incandescent Electric Lamps" and another for a "Stop Device" (No. 491,992-3). Also No. 492,150 for "Process of Coating Conductors for Incandescent Lamps."
- February 23 - Rudolf Diesel receives a patent for the diesel engine
- March 4 - End of term for President of the United States Benjamin Harrison. He is succeeded by Stephen Grover Cleveland.
- March 10 - Côte d'Ivoire becomes a French colony
- March 20 - In Belgium, Adam Worth is sentenced for seven year for robbery (he is released 1897)
- April 8 - First recorded college basketball game occurs in Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania between the Geneva College Covenanters and the New Brighton YMCA.
- May 1 - The 1893 World's Fair, also known as the World's Columbian Exposition, opens to the public in Chicago, Illinois, USA. The first United States commemorative postage stamps were issued for the Exposition.
- May 5 - Panic of 1893: Crash on the New York Stock Exchange starts a depression.
- May 9 - First public demonstration of Edison's 1 1/2" system of Kinetoscope at the Brooklyn Institute.
- June 6 - Marriage of Prince George, Duke of York and Mary of Teck.
- June 7 Gandhi's first act of civil disobedience.
- June 22 - Flagship Victoria of the British Mediterranean Fleet collides with Camperdown and sinks in 10 minutes - vice-admiral Sir George Tryon goes down with it
- July 6 - The small town of Pomeroy, Iowa was nearly destroyed by a tornado. Seventy-one people were killed and two hundred were injured.
- July 11 - Kokichi Mikimoto develops the method to achieve cultured pearls.
- July 12 - Frederick Jackson Turner gives his famous lecture entitled "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" before the American Historical Association in Chicago
- June 20 - Lizzie Borden acquitted of murder of her father and stepmother
- June 22 – Flagship HMS Victoria of the British Mediterranean Fleet collides with HMS Camperdown and sinks in 10 minutes - vice-admiral Sir George Tryon goes down with it
- August 27 - The Sea Islands Hurricane hits Savannah, Charleston and the Sea Islands; 1000-2000 dead.
- September 11 - Opening meeting of the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago.
- September 19 - Russian ironclad Rusalka disappears in a storm en route from Tallinn to Helsinki (hulk found July 2003 off Helsinki)
- September 27 - Closing meeting of the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago.
- October 10 - First car number plates in Paris, France
- October 30 - The 1893 World's Fair, also known as the World Columbian Exposition, closes.
- November 7 - Colorado women are granted the right to vote.

Exact month/day of event unknown


- New Zealand becomes first country in the world to grant women the vote.
- American Council on Alcohol Problems established.
- Global financial panic (Panic of 1893)
- Physicist Wilhelm Wien composes Wien's Law
- France conquers Vietnam.
- General strike in Belgium
- American Temperance University opened.
- Milbank Penitentiary in Britain demolished
- US President Cleveland operated on in secret
- The Wengernalpbahn in Wengen, Switzerland (Canton of Bern) is opened.
- Athletic Club Královské Vinohrady is founded. Later the team was renamed to Sparta Prague
- Anti-Saloon League established in U.S. to promote temperance movement
- Committee of Fifty for the Study of the Liquor Problem established.

Births


- January 5 - Paramahansa Yogananda, Indian guru (d. 1952)
- January 12 - Hermann Göring, Nazi official (d. 1946)
- January 12 - Alfred Rosenberg, Nazi official (d. 1946)
- January 15 - Ivor Novello, Welsh actor and musician (d. 1951)
- January 22 - Conrad Veidt, German actor (d. 1943)
- February 3 - Gaston Julia, French mathematician (d. 1978)
- February 10 - Jimmy Durante, American actor, singer, and comedian (d. 1980)
- February 12 - Omar Bradley, American general (d. 1981)
- February 16 - Katharine Cornell, American actress (d. 1974)
- February 21 - Andrés Segovia, Spanish guitarist (d. 1987)
- March 1 - Mercedes de Acosta, American poet, playwright, costume designer, and socialite (d. 1968)
- March 3 - Beatrice Wood, American artist and ceramicist (d. 1998)
- March 18 - Wilfred Owen, English soldier and poet (d. 1918)
- April 3 - Leslie Howard, English actor (d. 1943)
- April 9 - Victor Gollancz, British publisher (d. 1967)
- April 12 - Robert Harron, American actor (d. 1920)
- April 23 - Allen Dulles, American Central Intelligence Agency director (d. 1969)
- April 29 - Harold C. Urey, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)
- May 3 - Konstantine Gamsakhurdia, Georgian writer and public benefactor (d. 1975)
- May 23 - Ulysses S. Grant IV, American geologist and paleontologist (d. 1977)
- June 24 - Roy Oliver Disney, brother and business partner of Walter Elias Disney (d. 1971)
- July 25 - Dorothy Dickson, American-born actress and socialite (d. 1995)
- June 26 - Big Bill Broonzy, American blues singer and composer (d. 1958)
- July 3 - Mississippi John Hurt, American musician (d. 1966)
- July 9 - George Geary, English cricketer (d. 1981)
- August 6 - Wright Patman, American politician (d. 1976)
- August 15 - Leslie Comrie, New Zealand astronomer and computing pioneer (d. 1950)
- August 22 - Dorothy Parker, American writer (d. 1967)
- August 30 - Huey Long, Louisiana governor and senator (d. 1935)
- September 13 - Larry Shields, American musician (d. 1953)
- September 16 - Albert Szent-Györgyi, Hungarian physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)
- October 1 - Marianne Brandt, German industrial designer (d. 1983)
- October 9 - Mário de Andrade, Brazilian writer and photographer (d. 1945)
- October 14 - Lillian Gish, American actress (d. 1993)
- October 15 - King Carol II of Romania (d. 1953)
- October 18 - Georges Ohsawa, Japanese founder of Macrobiotics (d. 1966)
- November 3 - Edward Adelbert Doisy, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1986)
- November 8 - Clarence Williams, American jazz musician (d. 1965)
- December 24 - Ruth Chatterton, American actress (d. 1961)
- December 26 - Mao Zedong, Chinese leader (d. 1976)

Exact month/day of birth unknown


- Clement Martyn Doke, South African linguist (d. 1980)
- Berthold Bartosch, Bohemian animator (d. 1968)

Deaths


- January 2 - John Obadiah Westwood, British entomologist
- January 7 - Jožef Stefan, Slovenian physicist, mathematician, and poet (b. 1835)
- January 17 - Rutherford B. Hayes, 19th President of the United States
- January 23 - Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar, U.S. Supreme Court justice
- February 1 - George Henry Sanderson, Mayor of San Francisco
- February 20 - P.G.T. Beauregard, American Confederate general
- March 30 - Jane Sym-Mackenzie, First Lady of Canada
- June 21 - Amasa Leland Stanford, Governor of California
- June 23 - Sir Theophilus Shepstone, South African statesman (b. 1817)
- October 10 - Lip Pike, baseball player
- October 30 - Sir John Joseph Caldwell Abbott, Canadian politician

Marriages


- January 7 - Mary Gish & James Leigh de Guiche
- April 20 - King Ferdinand & Maria Louisa de Bourbon
- May 2 - Marie Eve & August Strindberg
- May 30 - Israël Querido & Janet Sjouwerman
- July 6 - George V & Queen Mary
- December 12 - Rupert Hughes & Agnes Wheeler Hedge Category:1893 ko:1893년 ms:1893 simple:1893 th:พ.ศ. 2436



Neurologist

: Neurology

Psychology

Psychology (ancient Greek: psyche = "soul" or "mind", logos/-ology = "study of") is an academic and applied field involving the study of mind and behavior. "Psychology" also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. Psychology differs from sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science in part because it involves studying the mental processes and behavior of individuals (alone or in groups) rather than the behavior of the groups or aggregates themselves. Psychology differs from biology and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves. Although psychological questions were asked in antiquity (see Aristotle's De Memoria et Reminiscentia or "On Memory and Recollection"), psychology emerged as a separate discipline only recently. The first person to call himself a "psychologist", Wilhelm Wundt, opened the first psychological laboratory in 1879.

History

Main article: History of psychology History of psychology The late 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study, because in that year German scientist Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in studies on memory), the Russian Ivan Pavlov (who discovered the learning process of classical conditioning), and the Austrian Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in (scientific) psychology. Freud's basic theories postulated the existence in humans of various unconscious and instinctive "drives", and that the "self" existed as a perpetual battle between the desires and demands of the internal id, ego, and superego. The mid century saw a rejection of Freud's theories among many psychologists as being too unscientific, as well as a reaction against Edward Titchener's abstract approach to the mind. This led to the formulation of behaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be quantified and easily measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. This new form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

Principles of psychology

Mind and brain

Psychology does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system and can be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing theories of the mind. Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology, and cognitive neuroscience.

Schools of thought

Various schools of thought have argued for a particular model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or the majority, of human behavior can be explained. The popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to a particular school of thought and reject the others, although most consider each as an approach to understanding the mind, and not necessarily as mutually exclusive theories. See psychological schools of thought for a comprehensive list.

Scope of psychology

Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychological topics.

Biological basis: the brain

list of psychological topics Main articles: Behavioral neuroscience, Cognitive neuroscience, Neuropsychology, Evolutionary psychology Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and Neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. The approach of cognitive neuroscience to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use brain imaging tools, such as fMRI, to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.

Information processing: the mind

fMRI Main articles: Cognitive psychology, Cognitive science The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology. Cognitive science is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and neural processing. Both areas use computational models to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.

Change over time: development

computational models Main articles: Developmental psychology, Educational psychology Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of development in context (The Ecology of Human Development - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research. Educational psychology largely seeks to apply much of this knowledge to understanding how learning can best take place in educational situations. Because of this, the work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices.

Interaction with others

Main articles: Social psychology, Community psychology, Personality psychology Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., conformity or persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people. Social cognition is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior. A related area is Community psychology, which examines psychological and mental health issues on the level of the community rather than only on the level of the individual. "Sense of community" has become its conceptual center (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999). Personality psychology includes theories of career development.

Study of animals in psychology

Psychology as a science is primarily concerned with humans, although the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology), or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison (including comparative psychology) or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology ( e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).

Mental health

Main articles: Clinical psychology, Health psychology Clinical psychology is the application of psychology to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of psychopathology, behavioral or mental health issues. It has traditionally been associated with counselling and psychotherapy, although modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many of the same clients as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists do not prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In recent years and particularly in the United States, a major split has been developing between academic research psychologists in universities and some branches of clinical psychology. Many academic psychologists believe that these clinicians use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the academics are ignoring their experience in dealing with actual patients. The disagreement has resulted in the formation of the American Psychological Society by the research psychologists as a new body distinct from the American Psychological Association. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life or in research into the psychological impact of health and social care.

Applied psychology

Main articles: Applied psychology, Industrial and organizational psychology, Forensic psychology, Human factors The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome practical problems in other fields, such as business management, product design, ergonomics, nutrition, and clinical medicine. Applied psychology includes the areas of industrial/organizational psychology, human factors, forensic psychology, as well as many other areas.

Industrial and organizational

Industrial and organizational psychology focuses to varying degrees on the psychology of the workforce, customer, and consumer, including issues such as the psychology of recruitment, selecting employees from an applicant pool which overall includes training, performance appraisal, job satisfaction, work behavior, stress at work and management.

Forensic psychology

Forensic psychology is the area concerned with the application of psychological methods and principles to legal questions and issues. Most typically, this involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question. Forensic psychology refers to any application of psychological principles, methods or understanding to legal questions or issues. In addition to the applied practices, it also includes academic or empirical research on topics involving the relationship of law to human mental processes and behavior.

Human factors

Human factors is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.

Research methods

Psychology is conducted both scientifically and non-scientifically, but is to a large extent wholly rigorous. Mainstream psychology is based largely on positivism, using quantitative studies and the scientific method to test and disprove hypotheses, often in an experimental context. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand behavior. However, not all psychological research methods strictly follow the empirical positivism philosophy. Qualitative research utilizes interpretive techniques and is descriptive in nature, enabling the gathering of rich clinical information unattainable by classical experimentation. Some psychologists, particularly adherents to humanistic psychology, may go as far as completely rejecting a scientific approach, viewing psychology more as an art rather than a rigid science. However, mainstream psychology has a bias towards the scientific method; the dominant school of cognitivism and other scientific approaches are thus the guiding theoretical framework used by most psychologists to understand thought and behavior. The testing of different aspects of psychological function is a significant area of contemporary psychology. Psychometric and statistical methods predominate, including various well-known standardised tests as well as those created ad hoc as the situation or experiment requires. Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in applied psychology to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most psychologists will be involved in both researching and applying psychology at some point during their work. Clinical psychology, among many of the various discipline of psychology, aims at developing in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as well as employ as they treat individual with psychological issues or use psychology to help others. Where an area of interest is considered to need specific training and specialist knowledge (especially in applied areas), psychological associations will typically set up a governing body to manage training requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology, where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that psychologists be licensed by government regulatory bodies as well.

Controlled experiments

Main article: Experimental psychology The majority of psychological research is conducted in the laboratory under controlled conditons. This method of research relies completely on the scientific method to determine the basis of behavor. Common measurements of behavior include reaction time and various psychometric measurements. Experiments are conducted to test a particular hypothesis. As an example of a psychological experiment, one may want to test people's perception of different tones. Specifically, one could ask the following question: is it easier for people to discriminate one pair of tones from another depending upon their frequency? To answer this, one would want to disprove the hypothesis that all tones are equally discriminable, regardless of their frequency. (See hypothesis testing for an explanation of why one would disprove a hypothesis rather than attempt to prove one.) A task to test this hypothesis would have a participant seated in a room listening to a series of tones. If the participant would make one indication (by pressing a button, for example) if they thought the tones were two different sounds, and another indication if they thought they were the same sound. The proportion of correct responses would be the measurement used to describe whether or not all the tones were equally discriminable. The result of this particular experiment would probably indicate better discrimination of certain tones based on the human threshold of hearing.

Correlational studies

A correlational study uses statistics to determine if one variable is likely to co-occur with another variable. For example, one might be interested in whether or not a person's smoking is correlated with that individual's chance of getting lung cancer. One way to answer this would simply be to take a group of people who smoke and measure the proportion of those who get lung cancer within a certain time. In this particular case, one would probably find a high correlation. (Tobacco is already known to have a deleterious effect on the lungs). Based on this correlation alone, however, we cannot know for certain that smoking is the cause of lung cancer. It could be that those more prone to cancer are also more likely to take up smoking. A third alternative is that some other variable caused both conditons. This is a major limitation of correlational studies, exemplified by the fact that correlation does not imply causation.

Longitudinal studies

A longitudinal study is a research method which observes a particular population over time. For example, one might wish to study specific language impairment (SLI) by observing a group of individuals with the condition over a period of time. This method has the advantage of seeing how a condition can affect individuals over long time scales. However, since individual differences between members of the group are not controlled, it may be difficult to draw conclusions about the populations.

Neuropsychological methods

Neuropsychology involves the study of both healthy individuals and patients, typically who have suffered either brain injury or mental illness. Cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as 'functional dissociations') which can give clues as to whether abilities are comprised of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism. In addition, experimental techniques are often used which also apply to studying the neuropsychology of healthy indviduals. These include behavioural experiments, brain-scanning or functional neuroimaging - used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as