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Jharkhand

Jharkhand

Jharkhand (झारखंड in Devanagari) is a state in eastern India. It was carved out of the southern part of Bihar state on 2000-11-15. Jharhkand is bordered by the states of Bihar to the north, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh to the west, Orissa to the south, and West Bengal to the east. The industrial city of Ranchi is its capital. The other major cities, all highly industrialised cities of eastern India, are Jamshedpur, Bokaro,Giridih, and Dhanbad. Jharkhand is also popularly known as Vananchal. The word Vananchal is derived from combination of two Hindi words: Vana meaning "forests", and anchal meaning "area" – thus the word "Vananchal" denotes a land mass covered with forests. Jharkhand is known for its mineral wealth and forestry products together with excellent human resources.

History

The demand for a separate Jharkhand state in recent times is traced back to the early 1900s, when Jaipal Singh, [http://www.bharatiyahockey.org/olympics/captains/] the Oxford Captain of the Gold Medal winning Indian Hockey team for the 1928 Olympics and suggested the idea of a separate state consisting of southern districts of Bihar. The idea remained on until 2nd August, 2000, when the Parliament of India passed the Bihar Reorganization Bill to create the state of Jharkhand, and 18 districts of Bihar were carved out to form Jharkhand state on 15th Novemebr, 2000. This was the 28th state of India. However according to some historians there was a distinct geo-political, cultural position accorded to Jharkhand even before the period of Magadha Empire. According to a legend, Raja Jai Singh Deo of Orissa was accepted as the ruler of Jharkhand by its people in the 13th century.The Singh Deo's of Orissa have been very instrumental in the early history of Jharkhand. The local tribal heads had developed into barbaric dictators and could not govern the province with a fair and just hand. The years saw the people of the state approaching more powerful rulers in neighbouring states which were perceived to be having a fair and just governance. This became the turning point in the history of the region wherein rulers from Orissa moved in with their armies and marched on to create states that were governed for the people and involved participation thus ending the barbarism that had marked the region for centuries. The good tribal rulers continued to thrive and were known as the Munda Raja and exist till date. These were regions which are still not ruled by anyone else or if the Munda raja s province is small then they fall under the ambit of a larger state. Thereafter, during the Mughal Empire period, the Jharkhand area was known as Kukara area. After year 1765, this area came under the control of British Empire and was known as "Jharkhand" - the Land of "Jungles" (forests) and "Jharis" (bushes), denoting, in fact, a geographical land mass interspersed with rolling hillocks covered with evergreen forests and criss-crossed by innumerable springs with natural water, sometimes water mass turning into majestic and enchanting flow of water falls thundering down with a sound more musical than the best musical notes. Really, Jharkhand located on Chhota Nagpur Plateau and Santhal Parganas unfolds before mind's eye a haven where one can savour the elegance of nature to the hilt. The subjugation and colonization of Jharkhand region by the British East India Company resulted into spontaneous resistance from the local people. About one hundred years before India’s First War of Independence (1857), adivasis of Jharkhand had repeatedly revolted against the British colonial rule:
- 1772-1780 Paharia revolt
- 1780-1785 Tilka Manjhi led the tribal revolt and managed to injure the British army Chief. In 1785, Tilka Manjhi was hanged to death in Bhagalpur
- 1795-1800 Tamar revolt
- 1795-1800 Munda revolt under the leadership of Vishnu Manaki
- 1800-1802 Munda revolt under the stewardship of Dukhan Manaki of Tamar
- 1819-1820 Munda revolt in Palamu under the leadership of Bhukan Singh
- 1832-1833 Khewar revolt under the leadership of Bhagirath, Dubai Gosai and Patel Singh
- 1833-1834 Bhumji revolt under the leadership of Ganga Narain of Birbhum
- 1855 Santhals waged war against the permanent settlement of Lord Cornwallis
- 1855-1860 During late 1850s Sidhu had accumulated about ten thousands Santhal to run parallel government against British rule. The basic purpose was to collect taxes by making his own laws. British Government had announced an award of Rs. ten thousand to arrest Sidhu and his brother Kanhu
- 1856-1857 Martyr Sahid Lal, Vishwanath Shahdeo, Sheikh Bhikhari, Ganpatrai and Budhu Veer led a movement against the British Government during India’s First War of Independence, 1857, also called Sepoy Mutiny
- 1874 Kherwar Movement shot into fame under the leadership of Bhagirathi Manjhi
- 1895-1900 Movement against the British raj led by Birsa Munda (born 15th November, 1875). Birsa Munda was captured by British forces and declared dead on 9th June, 1900 in Ranchi Jail, due to Cholera, according to records of the British colonial government. All above cited uprisings againt the British Raj and resistance of 18th and 19th centuries in the Indian state Jharkhand were quelled by the British through massive deployment of troops across the region. In 1914 Tana Bhagat movement started which had the participation of more than 26,000 adivasis, and it got merged with satyagraha and civil disobedience, led by Mahatma Gandhi.

Geography and climate

Most of the state lies on the Chota Nagpur Plateau, which is the source of the Koel, Damodar, Brahmani, Kharkai, and Subarnarekha rivers, whose upper watersheds lie within Jharkhand. Much of the state is still covered by forest. Forest preserves support populations of tigers and Indian elephants. Soil content of Jharkhand state mainly consist of soil formed from disintegration of rocks and stones, and soil composition is further divided into:
#Red soil, found mostly in the Damodar valley, and Rajmahal area #Micacious soil (containing particles of mica), found in Koderma, Jhumeritilaiya, Barkagaon, and areas around the Mandar hill #Sandy soil, generally found in Hazaribagh and Dhanbad #Black soil, found in Rajmahal area #Laterite soil, found in western part of Ranchi, Palamu, and parts of Santhal Parganas and Singhbhum

Flora and fauna

Jharkhand has a rich variety of flora and fauna. The National Parks and the Zoological Gardens located in the state of Jharkhand present a panorama of this variety. Betla National Park (Palamu), 25 km from Daltonganj covers an area of about 250 square kilometres. The national park has a large variety of wild life like tigers, elephants, bisons locally called gaurs, sambhars, hundreds of wild boar and 15 to 20 feet long python, herds of spotted deer (cheetals), rabbits and foxes. The mammalian fauna to be seen at Betla National Park also include langurs, rhesus, blue bull and wild boars. The lesser mammals are the porcupine, hare, wild cats, honey badgers, jackals, Malabar giant squirrel and mangoose wolf, antelope, etc. In 1974, the park was declared Project Tiger Reserve. The variety and diversity of flora and fauna found in Jharkhand state may be assessed from the fact that the Project Tiger Reserve of Palamu, is abode to hundreds of species of flora and fauna [http://palamu.nic.in/forestchap4.htm#seeds], as indicated within brackets: mammal (39), Snakes (8), Lizards (4), Fish (6), Insects (21), Birds (170), seed bearing Plants and Tress (97) , Shrubs and Herbs (46), Climbers, Parasites and semi-Parasites (25), and Grasses and Bamboo (17). The Hazaribagh Wildlife Sanctuary, with scenic beauties, 135 km from Ranchi, is set in an ecosystem very similar to Betla National Park of Palamu. One Zoological Garden is also located about 16 km from Ranchi, and a number of mammalian fauna have been collected there for visitors.

Demographics

Jharkhand has a population of 26.90 million, consisting of 13.86 million males and 13.04 million females. The sex ratio is 941 females to 1000 males. The population consists of 28% tribals, 12% Scheduled Castes and 60% others. There are 274 persons for each square kilometer of land. However, the population density varies considerably from as low as 148 per square kilometer in Gumla district to as high as 1167 per square kilometer in Dhanbad district. Jharkhand has remained a home to a number of tribal communities since time immemorial. Some of the districts have a predominant tribal population. Jharkhand has 32 primitive tribal groups.These are Asur, Baiga, Banjara, Bathudi, Bedia, Binjhia, Birhor, Birjia, Chero, Chick-Baraik, Gond, Gorait, Ho, Karmali, Kharwar, Khond, Kisan, Kora, Korwa, Lohra, Mahli, Mal-Paharia, Munda, Oraon, Parhaiya, Santal, Sauria-Paharia, Savar, Bhumij, Kol and Kanwar. The geographical area now comprising Jharkhand was previously part of Bihar. The area has witnessed migration of people from the adjoining areas of Bihar and West Bengal for last several decades. Industrial and mining centres like Jamshedpur, Dhanbad and Ranchi have attracted people from all parts of India. Hinduism, Islam and Christianity are the three religions that came in through the colonisers. The Tribal comunities of Jharkhand have their own spiritual beliefs commonly called Sarna. During the process colonisation the tribal religious beliefs were considered pagan and this was a tool for further subordination. Today the tribal people are realizing this and now Sarna is a growing phenomena.

Economy

Jharkhand is a rich state of poor people. It has concentration of some of country’s highly industrialized cities like Jamshedpur, Bokaro and Dhanbad, and has several firsts in India, including:

- First Iron & steel factory at Jamshedpur
- Largest fertilizer factory of its time in India (since shut down) at Sindri
- Biggest explosives factory at Gomia
- First methane gas well
On the other hand, it has several towns and innumerable villages with sub-standard civic amenities. Urbanization ratio is only 22.25% and the per capita annual income is US$ 90 only. Jharkhand also has immense mineral resources: minerals ranging from (ranking in the country within bracket) from iron ore (1st), coal (3rd), copper ore (1st), mica (1st), bauxite (3rd), Manganese, lime stone, china clay, fire clay, graphite (8th), kainite (1st), chromite (2nd), asbestos (1st), thorium (3rd), yemenite (2nd), sillimanite, uranium (Jaduguda mines, Narwa Pahar) (1st) and even gold (Rakha mines) (6th) and silver and several other minerals. Large deposits of coal and iron ore support concentration of industry, in centers like Jamshedpur, Bokaro and Ranchi.

Government and politics

The state is headed by a Governor, who is appointed by the President of India. However, the real executive power rests with the Chief Minister and the cabinet. The political party or the coalition of political parties having majority in the Legislative Assembly forms the Government. The administrative head of the State is called Chief Secretary, under whose jurisdiction a hierarchy of officials drawn from the Indian Administrative Service / State Civil Services function. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice and Jharkhand has a separate High Court, located in Ranchi. See also:List of political parties in the state

Administrative districts

The state was formed with 18 districts, which were formerly part of Bihar. Some of these districts were reorganized to form 4 new districts, namely, Latehar, Saraikela Kharsawan, Jamtara and Sahebgunj. Presently, the state has 22 dsitricts Districts of Jharkhand: Ranchi Lohardaga Gumla district Simdega Palamu Latehar Garhwa West Singhbhum Seraikela Kharsawan East Singhbhum Dumka Jamtara Sahebganj Pakur Godda Hazaribagh Chatra Koderma Giridih Dhanbad Bokaro Deoghar See also:[http://www.jharkhandyellowpages.net/districts.php District-wise Map]

Language, literature & culture

Jharkhand is home to a number of languages belonging to three major language families. Indo-Aryan languages include Angika, Bhojpuri , Hindi, Urdu and Bengali. Jharkand is also home to the Munda languages, Kudmali, Korku, Santhali, Mundari, Bhumij, Paharia and Ho, and the Dravidian languages Korwa, Oraon, and Sauria Paharia.

Social infrastructure

Health

On account of salubrious climate, Jharkhand, particularly its capital Ranchi, has been like a health resort. As far back as 1918, facilities were set up for treatment of mentally challenged – Central Institute of Psychiatry[http://www.cipranchi.nic.in/intro.htm], Ranchi. In certain areas of Jharkhand, poverty and consequently under nutrition, has given rise to diseases like tuberculosis (TB). In fact, TB has assumed epidemic proportions in certain areas of the state. For management and treatment of such diseases, organizations like Ramakrishna Mission through Ramakrishna Mission Tuberculosis Sanatorium[http://www.rkmtbs.org/main.htm] (set up in 1948), Ranchi, has been doing exemplary work, and supplementing the efforts of the Government and other agencies. Likewise, in the field of treatment of cancer, Tata Memorial Hospital, Jamshedpur,[http://www.tatamemorialcentre.com/index.htm] is rendering pioneering work. Although several public and private health facilities are available in the state, overall infrastructure for dispensing health related services require improvements.

Education

The literacy rate in Jharkhand is only 54.13% (2001) and female literacy rate is still lower at 39.38%. Jharkhand has a network of government and privately run schools, althogh standard of teaching considerably vary, from place to place, as also from school to school. After 10 years of schooling, students can join 2 years of Intermediate course (or +2 courses) in Arts, Science and Commerce. This is followed by 3 years of degree courses. A number of non-technical colleges are located in bigger cities as well as in small towns. Some students choose to join 3 years diploma courses offered by Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs). Jharkhand has 7 Universities: Ranchi University, Ranchi; Sidhhu Kanhu University, Dumka; Binova Bhave University, Hazaribagh; Birsa Agricultural University, Kanke, Ranchi; Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi, National Institute of Technology, Jamshedpur and Indian School Of Mines(ISM Dhanbad-Deemed University). There are three medical colleges in Jharkhand namely Rajendra Institute Of Medical Sciences(RIMS) at Ranchi, M.G.M. Medical College Jamshedpur and Patliputra Medical College And Hospital(PMCH) at Dhanbad. The famous b-school Xavier Labour Relations Institute(XLRI) is at Jamshedpur. It's PMIR programme is regarded best in the entire Asia-Pacific region. As the institutions of higher studies fall short of state's requirement, many students, after completing schooling in the state, move away to places like New Delhi, Karnataka and several other locations for higher technical and non-technical studies.

Media

Hindi newspapers like the Ranchi Express[http://www.ranchiexpress.com/] and the Prabhat Khabar[http://www.prabhatkhabar.com/] are main newspapaers, published from the state capital, Ranchi and are available in almost all parts of the state. All important Indian newspapers, in Hindi, English and Bengali are also available in bigger cities by the afternoon and with a day’s delay in smaller towns. Most of the national magazines in Hindi, English and Bengali are regularly available in bigger cities and at other places supply may be arranged through newspaper vendors. All India Radio is the only radio station in Jharkhand and covers the entire state. Doordarshan, the national television broadcaster, is also available in almost all parts of the state. Bigger cities of Jaharkhand is served by all television channels available in India and channels are received through cable. In some interior regions, channels are received via satellite dishes. Landline telephone connectivity is provided by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL),Tata Teleservices(TATA INDICOM) and Reliance Infocomm and covers almost all parts of the state. Cellular service, covering all major centres of the state, is provided by BSNL ,Reliance Telekom and Airtel( GSM Service) and also by Tata Indicom and Reliance Infocomm(CDMA Service) Internet connectivity is available in most of the district headquarters, but broadband connectivity is not widely available.

See also


- List of people from Jharkhand

External links


- [http://jharkhand.nic.in Jharkhand State Government]
- [http://www.jharkhand.gov.in/ Jharkhand eGovernance Portal]
- [http://jharkhandhighcourt.nic.in/ Jharkhand High Court]
- [http://www.ranchi.net Jharkhand News and clippings related to Ranchi]
- [http://www.ranchiexpress.com The Ranchi Express]
- [http://www.prabhatkhabar.com The Prabhat Khabar]
- [http://www.firstpeoplesfirst.in Jharkhand Mine Areas Coordination Committee]
- [http://www.birsa.in Bindrai Institute for Research Study and Action (B.I.R.S.A), Jharkhand]
- [http://www.johar.in Jharkhandi Organisation for Human Rights]
- [http://www.kharia.org Website of the Kharia Tribal Community]
- Category:States and territories of India

Devanagari

Devanāgarī (देवनागरी —, pronounced as , but in English pronounced as ) (ISCII – IS13194:1991) [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf] is an abugida writing system used to write, either along with other scripts, or exclusively, several Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Bihari, Bhili, Konkani, Bhojpuri and Nepali from Nepal. The transliteration used in this article follows the popular National Library at Calcutta romanization. The ITRANS [http://www.aczoom.com/itrans/#itransencoding] is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanagari into ASCII that is widely used on Usenet. In ITRANS, the word Devanagari is written as "devanaagarii".

Origins

Devanagari emerged around 1200 AD out of the Siddham script, gradually replacing the earlier, closely related Sharada script (which remained in parallel use in Kashmir). Both are immediate descendants of the Gupta script, ultimately deriving from the Brāhmī script attested from the 3rd century BC; Nagari appeared in approx. the 8th century as an eastern variant of the Gupta script, contemporary to Sharada, its western variant. The descendants of Brahmi form the Brahmic family, including the alphabets employed for many other South and South-East Asian languages.

Etymology

Nāgarī is in Sanskrit the feminine of nāgara "urban(e)", an adjectival vrddhi derivative from nagara "city"; the feminine form is used because of its original application to qualify the feminine noun lipi "script" ("urban(e) script", i.e. the script of the cultured). There were several varieties in use, one of which was distinguised by affixing deva "divine, deity" to form a tatpurusha compound meaning the "divine urban(e) [script]". However, the widespread use of "Devanagari" is a relatively recent phenomenon; well into the twentieth century, and even today, simply "Nagari" was (and is) also in use for this same script. The rapid spread of the usage of "Devanagari" seems also to be connected with the almost exclusive use of this script in colonial times (particularly by European scholars) to publish works in Sanskrit (held by many to be the language of the gods), even though traditionally nearly all indigenous scripts have actually been employed for this language. This has led to the establishment of such a close connection between the script and Sanskrit that it is erroneously widely regarded as "the Sanskrit script" today. Interpreted by popular etymology to refer to a "City of the Gods", the name in certain Yogic traditions was taken to refer to the body of the individual. The philosophy behind this is that when one meditates on the specific sounds of the Devanagari alphabet, the written forms appear spontaneously in the mind.

Principles

Devanagari has 12 svara (pure sounds, or vowels) and 34 vyanjana (ornamented sounds, consonants). An akshara is formed by the combination of zero or one vyanjana and one or more svar, and represents a phonetic unit of the shabda (word). The akshara is written by applying standard diacritical modifiers to the vyanjana corresponding to the svara. An akshara is usually more basic and predictable than the syllable in English. For example, the English 'cat' (considered to have just one syllable) is written as two aksharas, the 'k-a' and the 'ta'. The svara and vyanjana are ordered and grouped logically for studying or reciting. Thus the pure sounds, 'a', 'i', 'u' and their lengthened versions ('aa', 'ii', 'uu') are followed by the combined ('ae', 'ai', 'o', 'ou'), nasal ('.m') and aspirated ('.h') forms. The vyanjana themselves are grouped into 6 groups (rows) of 5 (columns). The first five rows progress as velar, palatal, retroflex, dental and labial, corresponding to utilizing or touching the tongue to progressively outer parts of the mouth when making the sound. Additional vyanjana are technically sonorants, sibilants or widely used conjunct forms. For each row or group, the columns logically progress to softer sounds, paired with aspirated forms, ending in the nasal form for that group. Devanagari is written from left to right. In Sanskrit, words were written together without spaces, so that the top bar is unbroken, although there were some exceptions to this rule. The break of the top line primarily marks breath groups. In modern languages, word breaks are used. Languages written with Devanagari require no case distinction. The Devanagari writing system can be called an abugida, as each consonant has an inherent vowel (a), that can be changed with the different vowel signs. Most consonants can be joined to one or two other consonants so that the inherent vowel is suppressed. The resulting conjunct form is called a ligature. Many ligatures appear simply as two individual consonants joined together, and so are a form of ligature. Some ligatures are more elaborately formed and not as easily recognized as containing the individual consonants. When reading Sanskrit written in Devanagari, the pronunciation is completely unambiguous. Similarly, any word in Sanskrit is considered to be written only in one manner (discounting modern typesetting variations in depicting conjunct forms). However, for modern languages, certain conventions have been made (e.g. truncating the vowel form of the last consonant while speaking, even as it continues to be written in full form). There are also some modern conventions for writing English words in Devanagari. Certain Sanskrit texts and mantras are typically written with additional diacritical marks above and below the akshara to denote pitch and tempo, to ensure completely accurate reproduction of the sound.

Symbols of Devanagari

All the vowels in Devanagari are attached to the top or bottom of the consonant or to an <aa> vowel sign attached to the right of the consonant, with the exception of the <i> vowel sign, which is attached on the left. In the Devanagari vowel table below, the "Letter" column contains the symbol used when a vowel occurs without a consonant, the "Vowel sign with <p>" column contains the symbol used when a vowel is attached to a consonant, shown with the <p> letter as an example, the "Unicode name" column contains the name given in the Unicode specification for the vowel, and the "IPA" column contains the International Phonetic Alphabet character(s) corresponding to the Hindi pronunciation of the Devanagari character.
When no vowel is written, <a> is assumed. To specifically denote the absence of a vowel, a halant (also called virama) is used. Among these, ळ is not used in Hindi. The entire set is used in Marathi. Devanagari digits are written as follows:

Ligatures

Consonant clusters of two or more phonemes are realized by combining the aksharas into ligatures. Typically, the preceding akshara loses its vertical stroke and is put in direct contact with the succeeding one. In cases of aksharas that do not have vertical strokes in their independent form, the following aksharas are usually placed underneath the preceding one. In some cases, the ligatures take forms not readily recognizable as composed of the individual aksharas (e.g. <jñ>). Consonant clusters involving <r> are treated as a special case: preceding <r-> is realized as a right-facing hook above the following akshara, and following <-r> appears as a slanted stroke attached to the vertical stroke of the preceding akshara.

Devanagari in Unicode

The Unicode range for Devanagari is U+0900 .. U+097F. Gray blocks indicate characters that are undefined.

Devanagari Keyboard Layouts

INSCRIPT

Unicode

Typewriter

Unicode

Software


- Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging - Macintosh
- Graphite - open source (SIL)
- Pango - open source (Gnome)
- Uniscribe - Windows
- WorldScript - Macintosh, replaced by the Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging, mentioned above

External links


- [http://www.mpp.org.np/downloads.php Resources for typing in the Nepali language in Devanagari]
- [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf The official Devanagri Document (pdf) from Govt. Of India.]
- [http://www.sulekha.com/expressions/column.asp?cid=305897 On history of Indian writing]

Electronic resources


- [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/06/free-software-tools-and-fonts-cd.html Request for a free hindi Fonts and devanagari Tools CD from the Government of India]
- [http://girish.co.in/projects/indian_languages.html Devanagari Tools: Wiki Sandbox, Devanagari Mail, Yahoo/Google Search & Devanagari Transliteration]
- [http://devanaagarii.net/ Devanagari : all about using Devanagari on computers]
- [http://www.ncst.ernet.in/projects/indix/ IndiX, Indian language support for Linux], a site by the Indian National Centre for Software Technology
- [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Unicode Chart for Devanagari]
- [http://www.geocities.com/matthewblackwell/hindiEditor.html Devanagari editor]
- [http://devanaagarii.net/ Resources for viewing and editing Devanagari]
- [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/devanagari.html Unicode support for Web browsers]
- [http://www.avashy.com/hindiscripttutor.htm Hindi/Devanagari Script Tutor]
- [http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/hindi.html Romanized to Unicode Devanagari transliterator]
- [http://lists.sarovar.org/cgi-bin/mailman/listinfo/devanaagarii-lipi Devanagari mailing list and discussion group]
- [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/deonagari/ Discussion Group and email List Devanagari.] Category:Abugida writing systems Category:Alphabetic writing systems ko:데바나가리 문자 ja:デーヴァナーガリー

States and territories of India

India is subdivided into twenty-eight states, six union territories and the National Capital Territory.

History

Pre-independence

British India, which included all of modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Bhutan, but not Ceylon, was made up of two types of territorial divisions, provinces and Princely States.

Provinces

Provinces of India were ruled directly by British officials; a governor, chief commissioner, or Administrator, who were appointed by the Viceroy. By 1947 British India had fifteen provinces: Ajmer-Merwara, Assam, Baluchistan, Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces and Berar, Coorg, Delhi, Madras, Northwest Frontier, Orissa, Punjab, Sind, and United Provinces.

Princely States

Princely states were ruled by local, hereditary rulers, who acknowledged British sovereignty in return for local autonomy and British India had hundreds of princely states, which varied greatly in size, from Hyderabad, with a population of over ten million, to tiny states. Most of the princely states were under the authority of a British political agent responsible to the governor of a province. Two divisions, the Central India Agency and Rajputana Agency, consisted of numerous princely states which were governed by a political agent appointed by the Governor-General of India, rather than the governor of a province, and the four largest princely states, Hyderabad, Baroda, Mysore, and Jammu and Kashmir, were directly under the authority of the Governor-General.

Other European Possessions


- Portuguese India included the coastal enclaves of Goa, Daman and Diu, and Dadra and Nagar Haveli,
- French India included five enclaves, Pondichery, Chandernagore, Yanaon, Karikal, and Mahe.
- Danish India (integrated into British India prior to independence

Post-independence

With the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, provinces and princely states were assigned to one country or the other, with two provinces, Punjab and Bengal, partitioned between India and Pakistan along religious lines. Hyderabad's Muslim ruler attempted to remain independent, but the Indian army intervened and Hyderabad was annexed to India. India and Pakistan contested for control of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; the state had a Muslim majority, but its Hindu ruler acceded to India. The period from independence in 1947 to the beginning of the Indian republic in 1950 saw the consolidation of the former princely states into new provinces, usually governed by a rajpramukh, (governor) appointed by the Governor-General of India. In 1950, the Indian constitution took effect, the office of the Governor-General was abolished, and India created several different categories of states. Part A states, which were the former provinces, were ruled by an elected governor and state legislature. The nine Part A states were Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Madhya Pradesh (formerly Central Provinces and Berar), Madras, Orissa, Punjab, Uttaranchal, and Uttar Pradesh (formerly United Provinces). The eight Part B states were former princely states or groups of princely states, governed by a rajpramukh. They were Hyderabad, Saurashtra, Mysore, Travancore-Cochin, Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh, Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), and Rajasthan. The ten Part C states included both former princely states and provinces. They were governed by a chief commissioner. The Part C states included Delhi, Kutch, Himachal Pradesh, Bilaspur, Coorg, Bhopal, Manipur, Ajmer, and Tripura. Jammu and Kashmir had special status until 1957. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands was established as a union territory, ruled by a Lieutenant Governor appointed by the central Indian government. The French enclave of Chandernagore voted to join India in 1949, and officially became part of India in 1952, becoming part of the state of West Bengal in 1954. The remainder of French India, Pondichery, Yanaon, Karikal, and Mahe, were administered by India after 1954, formally becoming a union territory in 1962. Dadra and Nagar Haveli was occupied by India 1954, and Goa, Daman, and Diu in 1961, and they subsequently became union territories. In 1953, the Telugu-speaking northern portion of Madras state voted to become the new state of Andhra Pradesh, the first of India's linguistic states.

The States Reorganization Act of 1956

In 1956, the States Reorganization Act took effect, which erased the distinction between parts A, B, and C states, and reorganized state boundaries along linguistic lines. The new states, mostly the former Part A states, were Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore (later renamed Karnataka), Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh. Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Pondichery, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and the Laccadive, Mincoy, and Amandivi Islands became union territories. The remainder of the states were merged into the new states or union territories. Several new states and union territories have been created out of existing states since 1956. Bombay State was split into the linguistic states of Gujarat and Maharashtra on May 1 1960. Haryana was created in 1966 out of Punjab. The union territories of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland were created out of Assam. In 2000 three new states were created; Jharkhand was created out of the southern districts of Bihar, Chhattisgarh was created out of eastern Madhya Pradesh, and Uttaranchal was created out of northwestern Uttar Pradesh. The Kingdom of Sikkim was annexed to India as a state in 1975. In addition, several union territories have become states, namely Goa, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland.

See also


- List of states of India by population
- List of states of India by area
- List of capitals of subnational entities,
- List of Indian state and UT capitals
- States of India by size of economy
- ko:인디아의 행정 구역 ja:インドの地方行政区画

Bihar

Bihar (बिहार in Devanagari) is a state of the Indian union situated in the eastern part of the country. Its capital is Patna. Etymologically, the name Bihar derives from the Sanskrit Vihara which means abode. The Buddhist Vihara, which were the abode of the Buddhist monks, dotted the area in the ancient and medieval periods. To Bihar's north is the Kingdom of Nepal. On its other three sides Bihar is surrounded by the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh to the west, Jharkhand to the south and West Bengal to the east. Bihar lies in the very fertile Gangetic plains. Culturally, it is a part of the Hindi heartland of India.

History

Ancient

Bihar has a very rich history. It was called Magadha in ancient times. Its capital Patna, then known as Pataliputra, was the center of the Mauryan empire, which dominated the Indian subcontinent between 325 BC-185 BC. Emperor Ashoka was the most famous ruler of this dynasty. Bihar remained an important place of power, culture and education during the next one thousand years. Nalanda and Vikramshila Universities were the world class learning centres.

Religions Originated

Universities Bihar is also the birthplace of many religions, including Buddhism and Jainism. Buddha attained Enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, a town located in the modern day district of Gaya. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, was born in Vaishali. The word "Bihar" has its origin in the Sanskrit word Vihara meaning Buddhist Monasteries. At one time these "viharas" were strewn all over the landscape of Bihar, around villages and cities.

Medieval

With the advent of foreign aggression and the eventual foreign subjugation of India, the position of Bihar also was adversely affected. Muhammad Bin Bakhtiar Khilji, a General of Muhammad Ghori captured Bihar in 12th century. Bihar saw a brief period of glory for six years during the rule of Sher Shah Suri, who was from Sasaram and built the longest road of the Indian subcontinent, the Grand Trunk Road, which starts from Calcutta and ends at Peshawar in Pakistan. During 1557-1576, Akbar, the Mughal emperor, annexed Bihar and Bengal to his empire and made Bihar a part of Bengal. With the decline of Mughals, Bihar passed under the control of the Nawabs of Bengal.

Modern

After the Battle of Buxar (1765), the British East India Company obtained the diwani rights (rights to administer and collect revenue, or tax administration / collection) for Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. From this point onwards, Bihar remained a part the Bengal Presidency of the British Raj until 1912, when Bihar was carved out as a separate province. In 1935, certain portions of Bihar were reorganised into the separate province of Orissa. Again, in 2000, 18 administrative districts of Bihar were separated to form the state of Jharkhand. Babu Kunwar Singh of Sasaram and his army, as well as countless other persons from Bihar, contributed to the India's First War of Independence (1857), also called the Sepoy Mutiny by some historians. After his return from South Africa, Mahatma Gandhi started the freedom movement in India by his satyagraha in the Champaran district of Bihar -- against the British, who were forcing the local farmers to plant indigo which was very harmful to the local soil. This movement by Mahatma Gandhi received the spontaneous support of a cross section of people, including Dr. Rajendra Prasad, who ultimately became the first President of India.

Timelines


- 500 BCE - Foundation of world's first republic in Vaishali.
- 560-480 BCE: Anga, Buddha
- Before 325 BCE: Anga, Nanda clan in Magadha, Licchavis in Vaishali
- 325-185 BCE: Maurya Dynasty
- 250 BCE: 3rd Buddhist Council
- 185 BCE-80 CE: Sunga Dynasty
- 80 - 240: Regional kings
- 240 - 600: Gupta Dynasty
- 600 - 650: Harsha Vardhana
- 750 - 1200: Pala Dynasty
- 1200: Muhammad of Ghori's army, destroys the universities at Nalanda and Vikramshila
- 1200-1250: Decline of Buddhism
- 1250-1526: Ruled by Delhi Sultanate (Muslim Turks - Tughluqs, Sayyids, Lodis)
- 1526-1540: Babur defeats last Delhi sultan, establishes Mughal Empire
- 1540-1555: Suri dynasty captures empire from Mughals (including Shershah Suri who built the Grand Trunk Road)
- 1526-1757: Mughal dynasty resumes
- 1757-1857: British East India Company rule
- 1857: Revolt of 1857
- 1857-1947: British Raj rule
- 1912: Province of Bihar & Orissa separated from Bengal
- 1935: Bihar and Orissa become separate provinces
- 1947: Indian Independence; Bihar becomes a state
- 2000: Bihar divided into two states - north part remains "Bihar", southern becomes Jharkhand

Geography & climate

Geography Bihar is mainly a vast stretch of very fertile flat land. It has several rivers: Ganga, Son, Bagmati, Kosi, Budhi Gandak, and Falgu to name a few. Central parts of Bihar have some small hills, for example the Rajgir hills. The Himalayan mountains are to the north, in Nepal. To the south is the Chota Nagpur plateau, which was part of Bihar until 2000 but now is part of a separate state called Jharkhand. Climate Bihar is mildly cold in the winter (the lowest temperatures being around 5 to 10 degrees Celsius). Winter months are December and January. It is hot in the summer (40 to 45 degrees Celsius). April, May and the first half of June are the hot months. The monsoon months of June, July, August, and September see good rainfall. October, November, February, and March are very pleasant months for climate.

Economy

There was a division of Bihar in 2000, when the industrially advanced and mineral-rich part of the state was carved out as the separate state of Jharkhand. Since then, the main economic activity of Bihar has been agriculture. Bihar is among the less developed states of India and has a low per capita income. The blame for this stems from many factors: a historical neglect from the center of Indian power (be it Calcutta during the British Empire or Delhi in the independent India), lack of vision of the political classes, absence of a sub-national identity which allowed the Central Government to get away with the neglect even in the post-independence era, and grossly inadequate investment in agriculture, infrastructure and education. Many people in Bihar and in the rest of India also believe that gross mis-rule, caste-based politics, and rampant corruption by politicians have been the cause of the poverty of the state and its people. The economy is mainly based on agricultural and trading activities. The vast swath of extremely fertile land makes it ideal for agriculture. Despite a number of rivers and good fertile soil, investment in irrigation and other agriculture facilities has been grossly inadequate. Agriculture is mainly dependent upon the vagaries of the nature. Recently the dairy industry has picked up very well in Bihar. There also have been some attempts to industrialize the state: an oil refinery in Barauni, a scooter plant at Fatuha, a power plant at Muzaffarpur and some agriculture-based industries such as sugar and vegetable oil. However no sustained effort has been made in this direction, and there is little success in its industrialization.

Government & politics

Nominally Bihar is headed by a Governor, who is appointed by the President of India. The real executive power rests with the Chief Minister and the cabinet. The political party or the coalition of political parties having a majority in the Legislative Assembly forms the Government. The head of the bureaucracy of the State is called the Chief Secretary. Under him is a hierarchy of officials drawn from the Indian Administrative Service, Indian Police Service, and different wings of the State Civil Services. The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice. Bihar has a High Court which has been functioning since 1916. All the branches of the government are located in the state capital, Patna. See List of political parties in the state

Administrative

The state is divided into 9 divisions and 37 districts, for administrative purposes. ;See also
- Divisions of Bihar
- Districts of Bihar

Transport & travel

Bihar has three airports - Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Airport, Patna, Bhagalpur Airport and Gaya. Patna airport is connected to Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Lucknow, and Ranchi. It is categorised as a a restricted international airport, with customs facilities to receive international chartered flights. Gaya airport is a small international airport connected to Colombo and Bangkok. Bihar is well-connected by railway lines to the rest of India. Most of the towns are interconnected among themselves, and they also are directly connected to Kolkata, Delhi and Mumbai. Patna, Bhagalpur and Gaya are the best-connected railway stations. The state has a vast network of National and State highways. However the roads currently are not in good condition. For Buddhist pilgrims, the best option for travel to Bihar is to reach Patna or Gaya, either by air or train, and then travel to Bodh Gaya, Nalanda, Rajgir and Vaishali. Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh also is not very far.

Places to See


- Buddhist sites - Bodh Gaya, Nalanda, Rajgir, Vaishali, Bhagalpur , Vikramshila ,Sultanganj.
- Jain sites - Vaishali and Pawapuri, Bhagalpur.
- Sikh sites - Har Mandir Sahib, Patna City, the birth place of Guru Gobind Singh.
- Hindu sites - Sultanganj(Bhagalpur), Vishnu Pad temple at Gaya, Baidyanath Dham, Tara Mandir at Mahisi, Patan Devi at Patna, Sun Temple at Dev, near Aurangabad, Varah Temple at Harihar Kshetra, Shiv temple at singhesarsthan(Madhepura).
- Muslim sites - Bihar-E-Sharif, [Sultanganj], Bhagalpur.
- Historic sites - The landscape is dotted with historic sites. Important ones are Patna, Bhagalpur Gaya, Bodh Gaya, Nalanda, Rajgir, Vaishali, Pawapuri, Champaran, and Sasaram.
- Sanjay Gandhi Jaivik Udyaan, patna.

Culture

Festivals


- Chhath, also called Dala Chhath - is a major festival in Bihar, and is celebrated a week after Deepawali. Chhath is the worship of the Sun God. Wherever people from Bihar have migrated, they have taken with them the tradition of Chhath, and now this festival is known even in a metropolis like Calcutta, or New Delhi or Mumbai. Teej and Chitragupta Puja are other local festivals celebrated with fervour in Bihar.
- Among other festivals the Shravani Mela of Sultanganj is of great importance. Shravani Mela is organised every year in July-August. Bihula-Bishari Puja of Anga region also is a great festival of Bihar.
- Apart from Chhath, all major festivals of India are celebrated in Bihar, such as Makar Sankranti, Sarasawati Puja, Holi, Id-ud-Fitra, Id-ud-Joha (Bakrid), Muharram, Ram Nawami, Rath yatra, Rakhi, Mahashivaratri, Durga Puja, Divali, Laxmi Puja, Christmas, Mahavir Jayanti, Buddha Purnima, and several other local festivals as well.

Folksongs & music

Main article: Music of Bihar Bihar has a very old tradition of beautiful folk songs, sung during important family occasions, such as marriage, birth ceremonies, festivals, etc. They are sung mainly in group settings without the help of any musical instruments. Bihar also has a tradition of lively Holi songs, filled with fun rhythms. During the 19th century, when the condition of Bihar worsened as a rule British misrule, many Biharis had to migrate as indentured labourers to West Indian islands, Fiji, and Mauritius. During this time many sad plays and songs called biraha became very popular, in the Bhojpur area, and dramas on that theme continue to be popular in the theaters of Patna.

Dances of Bihar

Dance forms of Bihar are another expression of rich traditions and ethnic identity. There are several folk dance forms that can keep one enthralled, such as dhobi nach, jhumarnach, manjhi, gondnach, jitiyanach, more morni, dom-domin, bhuiababa, rah baba, kathghorwa nach, jat jatin, launda nach, bamar nach, jharni, jhijhia, natua nach, bidapad nach, sohrai nach, and gond nach.

Language & Literature

Bihari, Hindi and Urdu are the major languages spoken in Bihar. Major regional languages of Bihar include Angika, Bhojpuri, Maithili, and Magadhi (Magahi). These languages are collectively referred as the Bihari language. Angika is the only one of the Bihari languages which can be used in the Google Search Engine, Google-Angika has been available since 2004. The oldest poetry of the Hindi language (e.g., poetries written by Saraha, also known by the name Sarahapa, were written in the Angika language during the 8th century. Bihar has produced a number of writers of Hindi, including Raja Radhika Raman Singh, Shiva Pujan Sahay, Divakar Prasad Vidyarthy, Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Ram Briksha Benipuri. Different regional languages also have produced some prominent poets and authors. Devaki Nandan Khatri, who rose to fame at the beginning of the 20th century on account of his novels such as Chandrakanta and Chandrakanta Santati, was born in Muzaffarpur, Bihar.

Folk Theatre

Theatre is another form in which the Bihari culture expresses itself. Some forms of theater with rich traditions are Reshma-Chuharmal, Bihula-Bisahari, Bahura-Gorin, Raja Salhesh, Sama Chakeva, and Dom Kach. All of these theatre forms originate in the Anga or Ang area of Bihar.

Cinema

Bihar has a robust cinema industry for the Bhojpuri language. There also is a small Maithili film industry.

Cuisine

Main Article Cuisine of Bihar The cuisine of Bihar is predominantly vegetarian. However unlike Gujarat or some communities of the South, non-vegetarian food has been acceptable in the society of Bihar, as well, with even some sects of Brahmins such as the Mithila accepting fish as a food item. Traditional Bihar society did not eat eggs and chicken, although other types of birds and fowls were acceptable. The staple food is “bhat, dal, roti, tarkari and achar”, prepared basically from rice, lentils, wheat flour, vegetables, and pickle. The traditional cooking medium is mustard oil. "Kichdi", a broth of rice and lentils seasoned with spices and served with several accompanying items, constitutes lunch for Biharis on Saturdays. Chitba and Pitthow which are prepared basically from rice, are special foods of the Anga region. Tilba and Chewda of Katarni rice also are special preparations of Anga. Bihar offers a large variety of sweet delicacies which, unlike those from Bengal, are mostly dry. These include Anarasa, Belgrami, Chena Murki, Motichoor ka Ladoo, Kala Jamun, Kesaria Peda, Khaja, Khurma, Khubi ka Lai, Laktho, Parwal ki Mithai, Pua & Mal Pua, Thekua], Murabba and [[Tilkut]]. Many of these originate in towns in the vicinity of Patna. Several other traditional salted snacks and savouries popular in Bihar are Chiwra, Dhuska, Litti, Makhana and Sattu. There is a distinctive Bihari flavor to the non-vegetarian cooking, as well, although some of the names of the dishes may be the same as those found in other parts of north India. Roll is a typical Bihar non-vegetarian dish. These are popular and go by the generic name "Roll Bihari", in and around Lexington Avenue (South) in New York City.

Art

[[Manjusha Kala or Angika Art of Anga Region, Madhubani Art of Mithila Region, Patna Kalam of Magadha Region.

Education

Historically, Bihar has been a major centre of learning, home to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila. Modern Bihar has an acutely-inadequate educational infrastructure, creating a problem compounded by a growing population. This has prompted many students to seek educational opportunities in other states, such as New Delhi and Karnataka, especially for college education. Bihar has the highest illiteracy rate in India, with women's literacy being only 33.57 %. The standard of Bihari education today is widely considered to be poor.

Schools

Bihar has a system of district schools (called Zila schools), located at the headquarters of older districts of Bihar. During the early 1980s the state government took over management of most privately-run schools, and accorded them government recognition. As in other states, the central government runs a number of Kendriya Vidyalayas (Central Schools) and Jawahar Navodaya Schools for rural students. Private schools, including school-chains and Missionary Schools, also exist. Most of the government-run schools in Bihar are affiliated with the Bihar School Examination Board, whereas most of the private schools are affiliated with the ICSE and CBSE boards.

Universities & colleges

Bihar has twelve universities recognised by the state: #Patna University, Patna. #Magadh University, Bodh Gaya. #Baba Saheb Bhim Rao Ambedkar Bihar University, Muzaffarpur. #Tilka Manjhi, Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur. #Lalit Narayan Mithila University, Darbhanga. #Kameshwar Singh Darbhanga Sanskrit University, Darbhanga. #Jaiprakash University, Chapra. #Bhupendra Narayan Mandal University, Madhepura. #Vir Kunwar Singh University, Arrah. #Nalanda Open University, Patna. #Mazrul Haque Arabi-Farsi University, Patna. #Rajendra Agriculture University, Pusa. The University of Patna, established in 1917 and the seventh oldest university on the Indian subcontinent, is the most prominent among these. It has 11 colleges, including the Science College, Patna, B.N.College, Patna,Women's College, Patna, Patna College, Patna and Patna Medical College and Hospital, Patna. Patna Women's College is one of the leading women's college in Bihar, followed by Magadh Mahila College. Three engineering colleges are managed by the Government of Bihar: #Bihar College of Engineering, now National Institute of Technology, Patna #Bhagalpur College of Engineering #Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology Following is a list of the medical colleges in Bihar: #Patna Medical College and Hospita, and Nalanda Medical College and Hospital, at Patna #Sri Krishna Medical College and Hospital at Muzaffarpur #Magadh Medical College and Hospital at Gaya and #Bhagalpur Medical College and Hospital at Bhagalpur #Darbhanga Medical College and Hospital at Darbhanga Management Institutes: #L.N.Mishra Institute of Economic Growth and Social Changes, Patna. #Gaya College (Affiliated to Magadh University), Gaya, Bihar. #Indian Institute of Business Management (Recognised by AICTE, New Delhi), Buddh Marg, Patna - 800 001. #Patna Women's College (Affiliated to Patna University), Bailey Road, Patna. #Shanti Sewa Samiti's Indian Institute of Hotel Management, 11 IAS Colony, Kidwaipuri, Patna - 800 001. International Yoga Institutes : #Bihar School of Yoga, Munger. Silk Institute : #Institute of Silk Technology, Bhagalpur

See also


- Cuisine of Bihar
- Music of Bihar
- List of people from Bihar
- Divisions of Bihar
- Districts of Bihar

External links


- [http://bihar.nic.in/ Website of government of Bihar]
- [http://gov.bih.nic.in/Profile/Districts.htm Districts of Bihar]
- [http://bihar.nic.in/Profile/History.htm History of Bihar]
- [http://gov.bih.nic.in/Profile/default.htm State profile] Category:States and territories of India

Uttar Pradesh

Uttar Pradesh (Hindi: उत्तर प्रदेश, Urdu: اتر پردیش), also popularly known by its acronym UP, is the most populous and fifth largest state in the Union of India. Uttar Pradesh covers a large part of the densely populated Gangetic plain. It shares an international border with Nepal and is bounded by the Indian states of Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar. The administrative and legislative capital of Uttar Pradesh is Lucknow; its high court is based at Allahabad. Other notable cities in Uttar Pradesh include Agra, Aligarh, Varanasi (Benares), Gorakhpur, Kanpur and Meerut.

Creation

In the second half of the 18th century, a series of battles gave the British East India Company (HEIC) mastery over the area that is now Uttaranchal and western UP. The HEIC established an administration controlled by its senior officer in the region, the “Resident” of Delhi, to administer a political entity whose sovereignty was as ill-defined as its borders. For several reasons, the seat of administration was moved to Agra in 1834 and a “president” was appointed to govern the area. In 1836, the “North-western Provinces” was created, the name indicative of the fact that the area comprised the north-western frontier of British India at that time. While that circumstance changed almost immediately afterwards, the name persisted until 1877. Meanwhile, in 1856, the HEIC annexed Avadh (Oudh), a large principality which covered much of what is now eastern UP; this area was merged with the existing British province to create a behemoth that was given a name commensurate with its size: the “United Provinces of the north-west and Oudh”. In 1871, the district of Ajmer-Merwara, a British Indian enclave surrounded by native princely states of the Rajputana agency, was detached from this province and constituted a separate commissionership. In 1877, the province was renamed the “United Provinces of Agra and Oudh”, dropping the now glaringly misplaced reference to the “northwest”. However, it was generally referred to merely as “The United Provinces”; in 1902, the province was formally given that name. After India attained independence in 1947, the province was renamed "Uttar Pradesh", Hindi for "North Province". "Uttar" means "north" and "Pradesh" means "region" or "state". This name was proposed by Govind Ballabh Pant, noted freedom fighter and first chief minister of Uttar Pradesh; one reason for its adoption was certainly the fact that the acronym “U.P.” by which the province had been referred to for a century, was retained. In 2000, the north-western hill districts of Uttar Pradesh were constituted into a separate state named Uttaranchal.

Population

With nearly 176 million inhabitants, Uttar Pradesh is not only the most populous state in India but also the most populous subnational entity in the world. Only five countries (the People's Republic of China, India itself, the USA, Indonesia and Brazil) have higher populations (see List of countries by population). It is also one of the most economically and socially backward states in India. On virtually every index of social development, whether literacy, infant mortality or unemployment, Uttar Pradesh ranks among the lowest in India; the situation is compounded by the fact that figures for females is invaribly much lower than for males on every parameter.

History

India Uttar Pradesh plays an extremely important role in the history and growth of Hinduism, and in the history of ancient India. Indeed, the region has been vital to the power and stability of all of India's empires and kingdoms, of Hindus, Muslims and Europeans. Although the Rig veda was composed on the banks of the Sindhu and Saraswati rivers, the other three holy Vedas were said to have been composed by the banks of the rivers Ganga, Yamuna and others. The region came to be known as Aryavarta (Land of the Aryans), the earliest Aryan state in India. Lord Rama, the eighth Avatara of Vishnu, is the most popular Hindu God-King, and the legend of the Ramayana, the world's oldest and largest epic emanates from His life, and his reign as King of Bharat from Kosala, from the city of Ayodhya. The ancient Hindu kingdom of Kosala in Ayodhya, where Lord Rama of the Ramayana reigned was located in the modern day state. The holiest Hindu cities of Varanasi, Ayodhya, Mathura, Haridwar and Allahabad, by the holiest rivers - Ganga and Yamuna are all located in the state. The state hosts a Kumbha Mela every 12 years, where over 10 million Hindus congregate - the largest gathering of human beings in the world. Lord Krishna, the revered ninth Avatara of Vishnu, was born in the city of Mathura. He leads the Pandava brothers in the holy war of the Mahabharata over the ancient kingdom of Hastinapura, rumored to have existed on the banks of the Ganga or Yamuna. The ancient capital city of Indraprastha once stood close to the are where the modern national capital of Delhi today stands. The U.P.'s political importance was diminished with the rise of Maghada and the Mauryan Empire and the Gupta Dynasty, but it soon became an important region to the Muslim invaders of India. The region was subjugated with barbaric wars, pogroms and plunders, and thousands of Hindu temples were destroyed in the Middle Ages of Indian history. Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were also important as the capital city of Akbar, the great Mughal Emperor of India. The city of Lucknow was founded in the 18th century by the Muslim rulers of the province. The U.P. was especially important in modern Indian history as a hotbed of the Indian Independence Movement, and the city of Allahabad was home to prominent nationalists such as Motilal Nehru, Purushottam Das Tandon and Lal Bahadur Shastri. Allahabad was also home to a record five Prime Minister of India: Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Lal Bahadur Shastri, Vishwanath Pratap Singh and Rajiv Gandhi. Uttar Pradesh covers the area of the former princely state of Awadh (Oudh) and the British Province of Agra. The Province of Agra was originally the western-most British possession, after they expanded from Bengal, and thus was known as the North-West Province. The North-West Province was renamed the Province of Agra, and merged in 1858 with the Province of Oudh to form the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, known after 1902 as the United Provinces. Two princely states, Rampur and Tehri, were under the authority of the provincial governor. With the advent of Indian independence, the United Provinces was renamed "Uttar Pradesh," or "northern province", by Govind Ballabh Pant, the first chief minister. This preserved the commonly used abbreviation U.P. In 2000, the northwestern districts of Uttar Pradesh became the new state of Uttaranchal.

Constituent regions

The state comprises the regions of Rohilkhand in the northwest, The Doab, or Brij (Braj) (Braj-bhoomi) in the southwest, Awadh (Oudh) (the historic country of Koshal) in the centre, the northern parts of Bagelkhand & Bundelkhand in the south, and the south-western part of the Bhojpur country, commonly called Purvanchal ("Eastern Province"), in the east. In 1991, the Uttar Pradesh government set up development funds, known as nidhis, for Bundelkhand (7 districts) and Purvanchal (28 districts), to "ensure the twin objectives of balanced development and reducing inter-regional disparities and backwardness". Note: The purvanchal as an administrative unit is not the same as the ethnic purvanchal region. Ethnically purvanchal/ bhojpuri speaking areas are those that are contiguous with North western Bihar. Many of the 28 districts in the above Purvanchal list are traditional Awadhi or Baghel Khandi bastions.

Divisions and districts

See also: Districts of Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh state consists of 70 districts, which are grouped into 17 divisions: Agra, Azamgarh, Allahabad, Kanpur, Gorakhpur, Chitrakoot, Jhansi, Devipatan, Faizabad, Bahraich, Bareilly, Basti, Mirzapur, Moradabad, Meerut, Lucknow, Varanasi, and Saharanpur.

Languages

The languages of the different regions are distinct, and the language of the western parts, called (Khadiboli) is the basis for the official Hindi language, created during the late 19th century. The most commonly spoken language in urban areas is Urdu/Hindi. Regardless of the script used, the language of Lucknow is called Lucknowie Urdu. It is a pure form of literary Urdu used by most Urdu poets. Urdu is one of the two official languages of the state. Other languages are Koshali, Braj (which is more than two thousand years old), Koeli, Bagheli, Bundeli and Bhojpuri. The Bhojpuri ethnic homeland is divided between Nepal in the north, Bihar state in the east and Uttar Pradesh in the west.

Politics

See also: List of political parties in the state The current chief minister of Uttar Pradesh is Mulayam Singh Yadav, one of the leaders of the Samajwadi Party (Socialist Party). The former Prime Minister of India, Atal Behari Vajpayee, represents the constituency of Lucknow. Unfortunately, the state has been marred by a lot of caste based politics, which has been hindering a sound economic development of the state. The state has a large number of village councils known as Panchayats just like the other states of India. One of the Most Develop Panchayat during 2001-2005 is Shahabad in Maharajganj District of Uttar Pradesh.

Education

Panchayat The State of U.P. has made investments over the years in all sectors of education and has achieved some success. The female literacy situation in Uttar Pradesh is dismal. Only one out of four in the 7+ age group was able to read and write in 1991. This figure goes down to 19 % for rural areas, 11 % for the scheduled castes, 8 % for scheduled castes in rural areas, and 8 % for the entire rural population in the most educationally backward districts. Possibly Bihar is the only state in India which fares worse than U.P. in education. In terms of more demanding criteria of educational attainment on the completion of primary or secondary education, in Uttar Pradesh, in 1992-1993 only 50 % of literate males and 40 % of literate females could complete the cycle of eight years of schooling involved in the primary and middle stages. One other notable feature of the Uttar Pradesh education system is the persistence of high level of illiteracy in the younger age group. Within that age group, the illiteracy was endemic in the rural areas. In the late 1980s, the incidence of illiteracy in the 10-14 age group was as high as 32 % for rural males and 61 % for rural females, and more than two-thirds of all rural girls in the 12-14 age group never went to school. The problems of education system is exacting. Due to public apathy the schools are in disarray, privately run school (including those run by Christian missionaries) are functional, but beyond the reach of ordinary people. The State government has taken programmes to make the population totally literate. There are special programmes like World Bank aided DPEP. Steps are being taken with the help of NGOs and other organizations to raise popular participation. As a result, some progress in adult education has been made and the [http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/census01/cen01-5.htm census] of 2001 indicates a male literacy rate of 70.23 % and a female literacy rate of 42.98 %. At the level of higher education and technical education Uttar Pradesh has 16 general universities, famous among those are Allahabad University, Banaras Hindu University and Aligarh Muslim University, one prestigeous Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), one Indian Institute of Management (Lucknow), one Indian Institute of Information Technology (Allahabad), one National Institute of Technology (Allahabad) [http://www.mnnit.ac.in] and large number polytechnics, engineering institutes and industrial training institutes.

Tourism

Indian Institute of Technology Uttar Pradesh attracts a large number of both national and international visitors. There are two regions in the state where a majority of the tourists go. These are the city of Agra and the holy cities on the banks of the Ganges River that include Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi. A vast number of tourists visit the Taj Mahal in Agra. Other important tourist attractions in Agra are the Agra Fort. Also famous is a 16th century capital city built by the Mughal emperor Akbar known as Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. Millions of tourists and piligrims visit the cities of Allahabad and Varanasi, as they are considered to be two of the holiest cities in India. Every year thousands gather at Allahabad to take part in the festival on the banks of the Ganges, the Magh Mela. The same festival is organised in a larger scale every 12th year and attracts millions of people and is called the Kumbha Mela. Varanasi is widely considered to be the second oldest city in the world after Jerusalem. It is famous for its ghats (steps along the river) which are populated year round with people who want to take a dip in the holy Ganges River. About 13 km from Varanasi is the historically important town of Sarnath. Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon at Sarnath after his enlightenment and hence is an important pilgrimage site for the Buddhists. Also at Sarnath are the Ashoka Pillar and the Lion Capital, both important archeological artifacts which have national significance.

Arts and crafts

Uttar Pradesh is famous for its arts and crafts. Specific regions such as Varanasi for its saris and silk, Mirzapur for its carpets, Agra and Kanpur for their leathercraft, Moradabad for its metalware, Lucknow for its clothwork and embroidery, and the entire state for its pottery are not only famous in India but around the world.

See Also


- Hinduism
- History of India
- Ramayana
- Mahabharata
- Mughal Empire
- Indian Independence Movement

References


- [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_BrProvinces.htm Provincial History]

External links


- [http://www.upgov.nic.in/ Official Website of the government of Uttar Pradesh]
- [http://mapsofindia.com/maps/uttarpradesh/h3s3105.htm Railway Map]
- A very useful site: [http://www.upgov.nic.in/upinfo/poli_hist.html/ Political History] Category:States and territories of India

Orissa

Orissa (2001 provisional pop. 36,706,920), 60,162 sq mi (155,820 sq km) is a state situated in the east coast of India. Orissa is bounded on the north by Jharkhand, on the north-east by West Bengal, on the east by the Bay of Bengal, on the south by Andhra Pradesh and on the west by Chhattisgarh. The relatively unindented coastline (c.200 mi/320 km long) lacks good ports save for the deepwater facility at Paradip. The narrow, level coastal strip, including the Mahanadi River delta, is exceedingly fertile. Rainfall is heavy and regular, and two crops of rice (by far the most important food) are grown annually. The state is known for its temples, especially in the cities of Konark, Puri, and Bhubaneswar. The dense population, concentrated on the coastal alluvial plain, is Oriya-speaking. The interior, inhabited largely by indigenous people (Adivasis), is hilly and mountainous. Orissa is subject to intense cyclones; in October 1999, Tropical Cyclone 05B caused severe damage and some 10,000 deaths. Orissa holds the promise of becoming one of India's major manufacturing hubs in the near future. Recently 43 companies have lined up to set up mammoth steel plants in the state, inclusing POSCO of South Korea which has agreed to construct a mammoth $12 billion steel plant, which would be the largest ever investment in India. The state is attracting huge investments in aluminum, coal-based power plants, and petrochemicals. Although Paradip is Orissa's only large port, the coastal towns of Dhamra and Gopalpur are being developed into major ports as well. If things go as planned in Orissa, the state could emerge as one of the most significant FDI destinations in the world, rivalling Shenzhen in China.

Geography

The capital of Orissa is Bhubaneswar, famed for its magnificent temples numbering around a thousand is known as the Cathedral City. The city of Puri is nearby on the coast of the Bay of Bengal. Puri is a famous holy city and the site of the annual festival of Lord Jagannath and is one of the four Dhams (holy places) of Hinduism. The Eastern Ghats range and the Chota Nagpur plateau occupy the western and northern portions of the state, while fertile alluvial plains occupy the coastal plain and the valleys of the Mahanadi, Brahmani, and Baitarani rivers, which empty into the Bay of Bengal. These alluvial plains are home to intensive rice cultivation. Chilka Lake, a brackish water coastal lake on the Bay of Bengal, south of the mouth of the Mahanadi River, is the largest coastal lake in India. It is protected by the Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary, which harbors over 150 migratory and resident species of birds. http://www.orissaa.com/orissafacts.htm : for geographical facts on Orissa

History and culture

Oriya is the state's official language. The state has a very opulent cultural heritage, one of the richest in India, and the capital city of Bhubaneswar is known for the exquisite temples that dot its landscape. The famous classical dance, Odissi originated from Orissa. Other popular cultural interests include the well known Lord Jagannath Temple in Puri, known for its annual Rath Yatra or Car Festival, the unique and beautiful applique artwork of Pipili, silver filigree ornamental works from Cuttack, the Patta chitras (silk paintings) and various tribal influenced cultures. Orissa has a glorious history spanning a period of over 3000 years. In ancient times, it was the proud kingdom of Kalinga. Kalinga was a major seafaring nation that controlled most of the sea routes in the Bay of Bengal. For several centuries, a substantial part of Southeast Asia, such as Kampuchea (Cambodia), Java, Sumatra, Bali and Thailand were colonies of Orissa. In fact the name of the country "Siam" is derived from Oriya/Sanskrit Shyamadesha. The temple of Angkor Wat is a fine example of Orissan architecture, with some local variations. Bali still retains its Hindu Orissan heritage. A major turning point in world history took place in Orissa. The famous Kalinga war that led emperor Asoka to embrace non-violence and the teachings of Buddha was fought here in 261 BC. Later on, Asoka was instrumental in spreading Buddhist philosophy all over Asia. In the second century BC, Kalinga flourished as a powerful kingdom under Kharavela. It is he who was built the superb monastic caves at Udayagiri and Khandagiri. Subsequently, the kingdom was ruled under various monarchs, such as Samudragupta and Sasanka. It also was a part of Harsha's empire. In 795 AD, the king Yayati united Kalinga, Kosala and Utkala into a single empire. He also built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri. King Narasimha Dev is reputed to have built the magnificent sun temple in Konark. Although now largely in ruins, the temple would easily have rivaled the Taj Mahal in splendor. The ruins of a major ancient university and center of Buddhist learning, Ratnagiri, was recently discovered in Orissa. Scholars from far away lands, such as Greece, Persia and China used to study philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and science at this famed University. Taxila, Nalanda and Ratnagiri are the oldest universities in the world. The ruins of Ratnagiri University have not been fully excavated yet. During the medieval period of Indian civilization, Orissa was ruled by a succession of Muslim kings. It was later annexed by emperor Akbar and became part of the Mughal empire. After the fall of the Mughals, the Marathas under Shivaji invaded the land and continued to rule until 1803 AD when Orissa fell prey to the British. Modern Orissa was carved out of Bihar in 1936. Contemporary Orissa has a proud cultural heritage that arose due to the intermingling of three great religious traditions - Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. It has been further enriched by Islam and Christianity. The culture of the Adivasis (the original inhabitants of India) is an integral part of modern Orissan heritage. The dynasties that ruled Orissa beginning in the third century BC included:
- Murundas Dynasty
- Matharas Dynasty
- Nala Dynasty
- The Vigrahas and the Mudgalas
- Sailodbhava Dynasty
- Bhaumakaras Dynasty
- Nandodbhavas Dynasty
- Somavamsis Dynasty
- The Eastern Gangas
- Suryavamsi Dynasty After long resistance to the Muslims, the region was overcome (1568) by Afghan invaders and passed to the Mughal empire. After the fall of the Mughals, Orissa was divided between the Nawabs of Bengal and the Marathas. In 1803 it was conquered by the British. The coastal section, which was made (1912) part of Bihar and Orissa Province, became in 1936 the separate province of Orissa. In 1948 and 1949 the area of Orissa was almost doubled and the population was increased by a third with the addition of 24 former princely states. In 1950, Orissa became a constituent state of India. The state is governed by a chief minister and cabinet responsible to an elected unicameral legislature and by a governor appointed by the president of India. http://www.orissaa.com/orissahistory.htm: For historical facts on Orissa

Interesting facts about the state


- The world's oldest coins were discovered in Sonepur, in western Orissa. These priceless silver punch marked coins could be as old as 1000 BC. They are preserved in the Orissa State Museum.
- Rasgolla, the sweet delicacy enjoyed all over India, originated from Puri, Orissa. It became popular in Kolkata in the nineteenth century and eventually spread across the rest of the country.
- The ancient people of Kalinga sided with the