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| Jim Crow |
Jim CrowJim Crow may refer to:
- Jim Crow, the title character of the song "Jump Jim Crow", performed by Thomas D. Rice beginning in 1828;
- The Jim Crow laws of the United States used to enforce racial segregation;
- Jim Crow, a character from the 1941 film Dumbo named for the Rice character and the laws.
Jump Jim Crow
Jump Jim Crow is a song and dance from 1828 done in blackface by white comedian Thomas Dartmouth (T.D.) "Daddy" Rice. The number was supposedly inspired by the song and dance of a crippled African American in Cincinnati called Jim Cuff or "Jim Crow". The song became a great 19th century hit and Rice performed all over the country as Daddy Jim Crow. The tune was one of the first major examples of African-American influence in popular music in the United States.
The tune became very well known not only in the United States but internationally; in 1841 the USA ambassador to Central America, John Lloyd Stephens, wrote that upon his arrival in Merida, Yucatan the local brass band played "Jump Jim Crow" under the mistaken impression that it was the USA's national anthem.
With time Jim Crow became a term often used to refer to African Americans, and from this the laws of racial segregation became known as Jim Crow laws.
The expression to jump Jim Crow came to mean "to act like a stereotyped stage caricature of a Negro". See Uncle Tom.
Here are the lyrics, from the band the Bluegrass Messengers, which has the song in its repetoire:
:Come, listen, all you gals and boys, I'm just from Tuckyhoe;
:I'm gwine to sing a little song, My name's Jim Crow.
:Chorus: Wheel about, an' turn about, an' do jis so;
:Eb'ry time I wheel about, I jump Jim Crow.
:I went down to de river, I didn't mean to stay,
:But there I see so many gals, I couldn't get away.
:I'm rorer on de fiddle, an' down in ole Virginny,
:Dey say I play de skientific, like massa Pagganninny.
:I cut so many munky shines, I dance de galloppade;
:An' w'en I done, I res' my head, on shubble, hoe or spade.
:I met Miss Dina Scrub one day, I gib her sich a buss;
:An' den she turn an' slap my face, an' make a mighty fuss.
:De udder gals dey 'gin to fight, I tel'd dem wait a bit;
:I'd hab dem all, jis one by one, as I tourt fit.
:I wip de lion ob de west, I eat de alligator;
:I put more water in my mouf, den boil ten load ob 'tator.
:De way dey bake de hoe cake, Virginny nebber tire;
:Dey put de doe upon de foot, an' stick 'em in de fire.
Or, with a more conventional english translation:
:Come, listen, all you girls and boys, I'm just from Tuckyhoe;
:I'm going to sing a little song, My name's Jim Crow.
:Chorus: Wheel about, and turn about, and do just so;
:Every time I wheel about, I jump Jim Crow.
:I went down to the river, I didn't mean to stay,
:But there I saw so many girls, I couldn't get away.
:I'm (rorer)? on the fiddle, and down in old Virgina,
:They say I play the scientific, like master Pagganninny
:I cut so many monkey shines, I dance the (galloppade)?;
:And when I'm done, I rest my head, on shovel, hoe or spade.
:I met Miss Dina Scrub one day, I give her such a buss(kiss);
:And then she turn and slap my face, and make a mighty fuss.
:The other gals are going to fight, I told them wait a bit;
:I'd have them all, just one by one, as I thought fit.
:I whip the lion of the west, I eat the alligator;
:I put more water in my mouth, then boil ten loads of potato.
:The way they bake the hoe cake(corn bread cooked on open fire on metal implement such as a hoe), Virginia never tire;
:They put the dough upon the foot, and stick them in the fire.
References
- [http://www.bluegrassmessengers.com/master/jimcrow5.html lyrics and background] from the Bluegrass Messengers
- In Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds, Charles Mackay reported his dismay at hearing the song in London.
Category:19th century songs
Category:Blackface minstrelsy
Jim Crow lawIn the United States, the Jim Crow laws were made to enforce racial segregation, and included laws that would prevent black people from doing things that a white person could do, and vice versa. For instance, Jim Crow laws regulated separate use of water fountains, public bath houses, and separate seating sections on public transport. Jim Crow laws varied among communities and states. The term is not applied to all racist laws, but only to those passed post-Reconstruction starting about 1890, the start of a period of worsening race relations in the United States. Similar laws passed immediately after the civil war were called the Black Codes. These were the codes that transformed into the Jim Crow laws of the twentieth century. The name comes from the character in a negro minstrel song written by Thomas D. Rice.
Early history
The conclusion of the American Civil War in 1865 led to the policy of Reconstruction, in which the Republican-controlled Federal government intervened to protect the rights conferred on black Americans by the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the United States Constitution, as well as (upon their introductions) the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Civil Rights Act of 1875. In almost-immediate response Southern legislatures, overwhelmingly dominated by Democrats, passed the black codes, which attempted to return freed slaves to bondage in legal fact, rather than official terminology.
This government-controlled Reconstruction ended by 1877. In its aftermath the resurgent white elites, who referred to themselves as Redeemers, reversed many of the civil rights gains that black Americans had made during Reconstruction, passing laws that mandated discrimination by both local governments and by private citizens. These became known as the Jim Crow laws, a reference to the character Jim Crow (popular in antebellum minstrel entertainment) that was a racist stage depiction of a poor and uneducated rural black. Since Jim Crow law is a blanket term for any of this type of legislation following the end of Reconstruction, the exact date of inception for the laws is difficult to isolate; common consensus points to the 1890s and the adoption of segregational railroad legislation in New Orleans as the first genuine "Jim Crow" law. By 1915 every Southern state had effectively destroyed any gains in civil liberties that blacks had enjoyed due to the Reconstructionist efforts.
As an example, many state governments prevented blacks from voting by requiring poll taxes and literacy tests, both of which were not enforced on whites of British descent due to grandfather clauses. One common "literacy test" was to require the black would-be voter to recite the entire U.S. Constitution and Declaration of Independence from memory.
The Supreme Court of the United States held in the Civil Rights Cases 109 US 3 (1883) that the Fourteenth Amendment did not give the federal government the power to outlaw private discrimination, then held in Plessy v. Ferguson 163 US 537 (1896) that Jim Crow laws were constitutional as long as they allowed for separate but equal facilities. In the years that followed, the Court made this "separate but equal" requirement a hollow phrase by approving discrimination even in the face of evidence of profound inequalities in practice.
It is estimated that of 181,471 African-American males of voting age in Alabama in 1900, only 3,000 were registered.
In 1902, Reverend Thomas Dixon published the novel The Leopard's Spots, which intentionally fanned racial animosity.
Jim Crow laws were a product of the solid Democratic South. As the party which supported the Confederacy, the Democrats quickly dominated all aspects of local, state and federal political life in the post-Civil War South, right up through the 1970s. Even as late as 1956, a resolution condemning the Supreme Court's ruling in Brown v. Board of Education was read into the Congressional Record, and supported by 96 Southern Congressman and Senators, each one a Democrat.
Twentieth century
The Leopard's Spots
The Supreme Court began to overturn Jim Crow laws on constitutional grounds in the 20th century. The Supreme Court held in Guinn v. United States 238 US 347 (1915) that an Oklahoma law that denied the right to vote to some citizens was unconstitutional. (Nonetheless, the majority of African Americans were unable to vote in most states in the Deep South of the USA until the 1950s or 1960s.) In Buchanan v. Warley 245 US 60 (1917), the Court held that a Kentucky law could not require residential segregation. The court outlawed the white primary in Smith v. Allwright 321 US 649 (1944), and in 1946 in Irene Morgan v. Virginia ruled segregation in interstate transportation to be unconstitutional, though its reasoning stemmed from the commerce clause of the Constitution rather than any moral objection to the practice. It wasn't until 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 347 US 483 that the Court held that separate facilities were inherently unequal in the area of public schools, effectively overturning Plessy v. Ferguson to outlaw Jim Crow in other areas of society as well. These decisions, along with other cases such as McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Board of Regents 339 US 637 (1950), NAACP v. Alabama 357 US 449 (1958), and Boynton v. Virginia 364 US 454 (1960), slowly dismantled the state-sponsored segregation imposed by Jim Crow laws.
In addition to Jim Crow laws, in which the state compelled segregation of the races, businesses, political parties, unions and other private parties created their own Jim Crow arrangements, barring blacks from buying homes in certain neighborhoods, from shopping or working in certain stores, from working at certain trades, etc. The Supreme Court outlawed some forms of private discrimination in Shelley v. Kraemer 334 US 1 (1948), in which it held that "restrictive covenants" that barred sale of homes to blacks or Jews or Asians were unconstitutional, on the ground that they represented state-sponsored discrimination in that they were only effective if the courts enforced them.
The Supreme Court was unwilling, however, to attack other forms of private discrimination; it reasoned that private parties did not violate the Equal Protection clause of the Constitution when they discriminated because they were not "state actors" covered by that clause.
As attitudes turned against segregation in the Federal courts after World War II, the segregationist white governments of many of the states of the South East countered with even more numerous and strict segregation laws on the local level until the start of the 1960s. The modern civil rights movement is often considered to have been sparked by an act of civil disobedience against Jim Crow laws when Rosa Parks, an African-American woman, refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man. This led to a series of legislation and court decisions in which Jim Crow laws were repealed or annulled.
However, the Montgomery Bus Boycott led by Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr., which followed Rosa Parks' decision not to give up her seat, did not come in a vacuum. Numerous boycotts and demonstrations against segregation had occurred throughout the 1930's and 1940's. These early demonstrations achieved positive results and helped spark political activism. For instance, K. Leroy Irvis of Pittsburgh's Urban League led a demonstration against employment discrimination by Pittsburgh's department stores in 1947, and later became the first 20th Century African American to serve as a state Speaker of the House.
In 1964 the U.S. Congress invoked the commerce clause to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed discrimination in public accommodations, i.e., privately owned restaurants, hotels and stores, and in private schools and workplaces, that Congress attacked the parallel system of private Jim Crow practices. This use of the Commerce clause was upheld in Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States 379 US 241 (1964)..
The Name
1964
The term Jim Crow comes from the minstrel show song "Jump Jim Crow" written in 1828 and performed by Thomas Dartmouth "Daddy" Rice, a white English migrant to the U.S., the originator of blackface performance. The song and blackface itself were an immediate hit. "Jim Crow" became a standard character in Minstrel shows, being a caricature of a shabbily dressed rural black; "Jim Crow" was often paired with the character "Zip Coon," a flamboyantly dressed urban black who associated more into white culture. By 1837, Jim Crow was being used to refer to racial segregation.
References
- John Howard Griffin. Black Like Me. Signet, 1996. ISBN 0451192036
External links
- [http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/resources/lessonplans/hs_es_etiquette.htm Racial Etiquette: The Racial Customs and Rules of Racial Behavior in Jim Crow America] - A detailed article outlining the basics of Jim Crow etiquette.
- [http://www.ferris.edu/news/jimcrow/what.htm What Was Jim Crow?]
- [http://www.ferris.edu/news/jimcrow/newforms/ An article on "New Racist Forms: Jim Crow in the 21st Century"]
- [http://www.robinwashington.com/jimcrow/1_home.html "You Don't Have to Ride Jim Crow!"] PBS documentary on first Freedom Ride, in 1947
- [http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/scripts/jimcrow/courtcases.cgi?casetype=Segregation The History of Jim Crow]
Category:History of racial segregation in the United States
Category:Reconstruction
Category:Legal history of the United States
Category:African-American history
DumboFor the Brooklyn, New York City, neighborhood, see DUMBO.
DUMBO
Dumbo is the fourth animated feature in the Disney animated features canon. It was produced by Walt Disney, and first released on October 23, 1941 by RKO Radio Pictures. The main character is Jumbo Jr., an anthropomorphic elephant who is cruelly nicknamed Dumbo. He is ridiculed for his big ears, but it turns out that he is capable of flying by using them as wings. His only friend is the mouse Timothy, parodying the stereotypical animosity between mice and elephants. Dumbo was a deliberate exercise in simplicity and economy for the Disney studio, and is today considered one of its finest films.
Story
The film takes place in a circus setting, ostensibly in present-day 1941, and begins with a formation of storks delivering newborn offspring to the various circus animals. Mrs. Jumbo's baby is delivered to her belatedly by a mixed-up stork, but the baby is well received by the other elephants until the size of his ears is revealed. The elephant, named Jumbo Jr. by his mother, is immediately renamed "Dumbo" by the gossipy female elephants, who regard both mother and son as outcasts. The two get along fine without them, however, until Mrs. Jumbo is imprisoned as a "mad elephant" after trying to defend her son from a crowd of teasing spectators. A mouse named Timothy becomes Dumbo's friend and mentor, and crafts a plan to make the sorrowful little elephant a star.
Timothy subliminally convinces the circus ringmaster to set up a "pyramid of pachyderms," to the top of which Dumbo will jump (using a springboard). The act goes horribly wrong, the big top falls to the ground, the other elephants are seriously injured, and Dumbo is unceremoniously demoted to being a clown. Dumbo's clown act involves him falling from a platform in a dramatized fire rescue into a vat of pie filling. The audience reacts well to the act, and the clowns decide to alter the act for the next show so that Dumbo falls from an platform many times higher than the original one.
After an emotional visit to his mother's holding cell, Dumbo and Timothy try to plot their next step. They settle down for a drink of water outside of the clowns' tent. Unbeknownst to them, the water has been spiked with moonshine, and the elephant and mouse become inebriated and hallucinatory, seeing pink elephants sing and dance before their eyes.
Dumbo and Timothy awake the next morning--in a tree over 100 feet (30 m) up, awoken by a murder of amused black crows. Timothy surmises that Dumbo flew the both of them to the top of the tree while they were drunk, an idea the crows find hilarious. Nevertheless, the crows decide to help Timothy teach Dumbo to fly. By convincing the elephant he can fly with the use of a "magic feather," they succeed in getting Dumbo to fly.
Dumbo shows up at the next clown "fire rescue" performance with his magic feather; however, he loses the feather after leaping from the platform. Timothy admits that Dumbo can fly without the magic feather, and, barely avoiding death from the fall, Dumbo opens his ears and soars through the air, to the amazement of the audience. Dumbo the Flying Elephant is made the star of the circus and an international celebrity, and he and his mother are reunited and given their own private coach on the circus train.
Production of Dumbo
The film was designed as a economical feature, to help generate income for the Disney studio after the financial failures of both Pinocchio and Fantasia in 1940. Storymen Dick Huemer and Joe Grant were the primary figures in developing the plot, based upon a manuscript written by Helen Aberson and Harold Perl for a children's book.
When the film went into production in early 1941, supervising director Ben Sharpsteen was given orders to keep the film simple and inexpensive. As a result, Dumbo lacks the lavish detail of the previous three Disney animated features (Fantasia, Pinocchio, and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs): character designs are simpler, background paintings are less detailed, and a number of held cels (or frames) were used in the character animation. However, the simplicity freed the animators from being overly concerned with detail, and allowed them to focus on the most important element of character animation: acting. Bill Tytla's animation of Dumbo is today considered one of the greatest accomplishments in American traditional animation.
On May 29, 1941, during the production on Dumbo, much of the Disney studio staff went on strike. The strike lasted five weeks, and ended the "family" atmosphere and camaraderie at the studio. A number of the strikers are caricatured into this film as the clowns who want to put Dumbo at risk for their own gain and go to "hit the big boss up for a raise".
None of the voice actors for Dumbo received screen credit, but Timothy Mouse, who befriended even Dumbo in his darkest days and was instrumental in helping him find greatness within himself, was voiced by Edward Brophy, a character actor known for portraying gangsters who has no other known animation voice credits. The pompous matriarch of the elephants was voiced by Verna Felton, who also played the Fairy Godmother in Cinderella and Flora of the good fairies in Sleeping Beauty. Other voice actors include the perennial Sterling Holloway in a cameo role as Mr. Stork, and Cliff Edwards, better known as the voice of Jiminy Cricket, as Jim Crow, the ringleader of the crows.
To save costs, watercolor paint was used to render the backgrounds. Dumbo and Snow White are the only two classic Disney features to use the technique, which was regularly employed for the various Disney cartoon shorts. The other Disney features used oil paint and gouache. 2002's Lilo & Stitch, a simple, emotional story with influences from Dumbo, also made use of watercolor backgrounds.
Release and reaction
Dumbo was completed and delivered to Disney's distributor, RKO Radio Pictures, in fall 1941. RKO balked at the fact that the film only ran 64 minutes, and demanded that Walt Disney either (a) expand it to 70 minutes or more, (b) edit it to short subject length, or (c) allow RKO to release it as a b-movie. Disney refused all three options, and RKO reluctantly issued Dumbo, unaltered, as an a-film.
After its October 23 release, Dumbo proved to be a financial success. The simple film only cost 813,000 USD to produce, half the cost of Snow White and less than a third of the cost of Pinocchio. Dumbo eventually grossed 1.3 million USD during its original release; it and Snow White were the only two pre-1943 Disney features to turn a profit (Barrier, 318). The United States entered World War II in December 1941, reducing the box office draw of the film, which was nevertheless the most financially successful Disney film of the 1940s, thanks to a 1949 re-release.
Dumbo won the 1941 Academy Award for Original Music Score, awarded to musical directors Frank Churchill and Oliver Wallace. Churchill and lyricist Ned Washington were nominated for the 1941 Academy Award for Best Song for "Baby Mine", the song that plays during Dumbo's visit to his mother's cell. The film also won Best Animation Design at the 1947 Cannes Film Festival.
The film's simplicity and charm have made it the favorite Disney film of many people, including film and animation historian Leonard Maltin. Of particular note is the "Pink Elephants on Parade" sequence, which depicts Dumbo and Timothy's drunken hallucinations. The sequence was the first venture into surrealism for a narrative Disney film, taking its cue from the experimental Fantasia. The sequence essentially breaks all of the "rules" that the Disney animators had lived by for creating realistic animation over the previous decade: pink, polka-dot, and plaid elephants dance, sing, and morph into an number of various objects. The design of the sequence is highly stylized, and many of the artists who worked on it were the younger artists at the studio who joined the picket line in May 1941 and eventually would become the nucleus of United Productions of America, the most influential animation studio of the 1950s. Speaking of the 1950s, this film was one of the first of Disney's animated films to be broadcast, albeit severly edited, on television, as part of Disney's anthology series.
The crow characters in the film are in fact African-American caricatures; the leader crow voiced by Caucasian Cliff Edwards is officially named "Jim Crow". The other crows are all voiced by African-American actors, all members of the Hall Johnson Choir. Though Dumbo is often criticized for the inclusion of the black crows, it is notable that they are the only truly sympathetic characters in the film outside of Dumbo, his mother and Timothy. They apologize for picking on the elephant, and they are in fact the ones that help Timothy teach Dumbo to fly. The roustabout scene which features African American laborers largely in shadow and singing a working song that many find offensive has drawn similar complaints.
The film received another distinction of note in 1980, when it was the first of Disney's canon of animated films to be released on home video.
Dumbo also made a cameo appearance in the 2002 video game Kingdom Hearts as a summonable character to assist in battle.
Dumbo's Circus
Dumbo's Circus was a live-action puppet television show that aired on the Disney Channel in the 1980s, which used the Dumbo character and, a few new ones for a preschool-oriented program. Each character would perform a special act, which ranged from dancing and singing to telling knock knock jokes.
A Sequel
Noted as then being in production around the time the 60th Anniversary DVD Edition of Dumbo was released, was the sequel, Dumbo II. This was apparently Disney's attempt at further cornering a market with recognizable animated film properties such as Tarzan, Lilo & Stitch and so many other films they were producing sequels for.
The sequel has seemingly been scrapped though as Disney has made no news announcements regarding it and the only proof of its early existence seems to be documented on the Dumbo DVD release and nowhere else.
See also
- Disney animators' strike
References
- Barrier, Michael (1999). Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation in Its Golden Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-503759-6.
- Maltin, Leonard (1980, updated 1987). Of Mice and Magic: A History of American Animated Cartoons. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-452-25993-2.
External links
-
- [http://www.bcdb.com/bcdb/cartoon.cgi?film=17&cartoon=Dumbo Dumbo] at the Big Cartoon DataBase
- [http://www.toonopedia.com/dumbo.htm Don Markstein's Toonopedia]
Category:Walt Disney Company motion picture
Category:1941 films
Category:Disney animated features canon
Category:Fictional elephants
Category:Musical films
Category:Best Song Oscar Nominee
Olga Nicolaïevna
La Grande Duchesse Olga Nikolaevna de Russie (Olga Nikolaevna Romanov), née le 15 novembre 1895 et décédée le 17 ou 18 juillet 1918. Elle est la fille ainée du tsar Nicolas II et de la tsarine Alice de Hesse-Darmstadt.
Nicolaïevna, Olga
Nicolaïevna, Olga
Catégorie:Russie
catégorie:Maison d'Oldenbourg
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