:: wikimiki.org ::

Jin (Korean History)

Jin (Korean history)

Jin was an early Iron Age state which occupied some portion of the southern Korean peninsula during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, bordering the Korean kingdom Gojoseon to the north. Its capital was somewhere south of the Han River. It preceded the Samhan confederacies, which variously claimed to be successors of Jin.

History

Jin appears in various Chinese chronicles including the Sanguo Zhi, as sending occasional embassies to the court of the Han Dynasty. To what degree Jin was an organized state is not clear. It seems likely that it was a federation of small states much like the subsequent Samhan. For the state to be able to contend with Wiman Joseon and send embassies to the court of Han, there was probably some level of stable central authority. Lee (1984, p. 24) also suggests that the kingdom's attempt to open direct contacts "suggests a strong desire on the part of Chin [Jin] to enjoy the benefits of Chinese metal culture." However, for the most part Wiman Joseon prevented direct contact between Jin and China. King Jun of Gojoseon is reported to have fled to Jin after Wei Man seized his throne and established Wiman Joseon. This was the general pattern of migration at this time, leading to increased technological development in the southern Korean peninsula. Some believe that Chinese mentions of Gaeguk or Gaemaguk (蓋馬國, Kingdom of armored horses) refers to Jin. Goguryeo is said to have conquered "Gaemaguk" in 26 AD, but this may refer to a different tribe in northern Korea. Records are somewhat contradictory on Jin's demise: it either became the later Jinhan, or diverged into the Samhan as a whole. Archeological records of Jin have been found centered in territory that later became Mahan.

Archeology

Archeologically, Jin is commonly identified with the Korean bronze dagger culture, which succeeded the Liaoning bronze dagger culture in the late first millennium BCE. The most abundant finds from this culture have been in southwestern Korea’s Chungcheong and Jeolla regions. This suggests that Jin was based in the same area, which roughly coincides with the fragmentary historical evidence. Artifacts of the culture are found throughout southern Korea and were also exported to the Yayoi people of Kyushu, Japan (Lee, 1996).

Legacy

Jin was succeeded by the Samhan or "Three Hans." The Jin name continued to be used in the name of the Jinhan confederacy and in the name "Byeonjin," an alternate term for Byeonhan. In addition, for some time the leader of Mahan continued to call himself the "Jin king," asserting nominal overlordship over all of the Samhan tribes.

References

Lee, C.-k. (1996). The bronze dagger culture of Liaoning province and the Korean peninsula. Korea Journal 36(4), 17-27. [http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?VOLUMENO=36&BOOKNUM=4&PAPERNUM=2] Lee, K.-b. (1984). A new history of Korea. Tr. by E.W. Wagner & E.J. Schulz, based on the 1979 rev. ed. Seoul: Ilchogak. ISBN 89-337-0204-0. Category: Early Korean history

Iron Age

:This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age; for the mythological Iron Age see Ages of Man. In archaeology, the Iron Age is the stage in the development of any people where the use of iron implements as tools and weapons is prominent. The adoption of this new material coincided with other changes in past societies often including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles. The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system for classifying pre-historic societies and its meaning varies depending on the country or geographical region. This variation even occurs within Europe where the Iron Age distinction was first identified; the Nordic Iron Age and Roman Iron Age are examples. The Iron Age was preceded by the Copper Age and later the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia whilst in the rest of the world it was adopted directly after one or other sub-phases of the Stone Age. For each individual region, the period is very hard to state in years, but the Iron Age corresponds to the stage at which iron production was the most sophisticated form of metalworking. Iron's hardness, high melting point and the abundance of iron ore sources made iron more desirable and "cheaper" than bronze and contributed greatly to its adoption as the most commonly used metal. The arrival of iron use in various areas is listed below, broadly in chronological order. In the Americas and Australasia, there is no Iron Age, since iron working was introduced by European colonists and African slaves (in the Spanish colonies).

The Iron Age

The first signs of iron use come from Ancient Egypt and Sumer, where around 4000 BC small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from meteorites (see Iron: History). By 3000 BC to 2000 BC increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appear in Anatolia, Egypt and Mesopotamia. However, their use appears to be ceremonial, and iron was an expensive metal, more expensive than gold. Some sources suggest that iron was being created then as a by-product of copper refining, as sponge iron, and was not reproducible by the metallurgy of the time. The earliest systematic production and use of iron implements appears from the 14th century BC in the Hittite Empire though recent excavations in Middle Ganga Valley in India done by archaelogist Rakesh Tewari show Iron working in India since 1800 BC. By 1200 BC, iron was widely used in the Middle East but did not supplant the dominant use of bronze for some time.

The Iron Age in Africa and India

Archaeological sites in India like Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in state of Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in period 1800 BC - 1200 BC. The earliest known production of steel occurred around 1400 BC in North Africa where steel was being produced in carbon furnaces. The Egyptian ruler Tutankhamun died in 1323 BC and was buried with an iron dagger with a golden hilt. Also an Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah and a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze haft were both found in the excavation of Ugarit (see Ugarit: History and Steel: History of iron and steelmaking), dating to circa 1400 BC. The Kushite city of Meroe near modern-day Khartoum was an important site of iron-smelting during the 5th and 6th centuries BC. The Nok civilization became the first iron smelting people in West Africa. Iron and copper working then continued to spread southward through the continent, reaching the Cape around 200AD. The widespread use of iron revolutionised the Bantu farming communities who adopted it, driving out the stone tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of savannah. The technologically superior Bantu spread across southern Africa and became rich and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities. Perhaps as early as 300 BC, although certainly by AD 200, high quality steel was being produced in southern India by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in crucibles and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The resulting high-carbon steel, called fūlāḏ فولاذ in Arabic and wootz by later Europeans, was exported throughout much of Asia.

The Iron Age in Asia

Near East

The Iron Age in Asia is believed to have begun with the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in Anatolia or the Caucasus in the late 2nd millennium BC (circa 1300 BC). From here it spread rapidly throughout the Near East as iron weapons replaced bronze weapons by the early 1st millennium BC. The use of iron weapons by the Hittites is believed to have been a major factor in the rapid rise of the Hittite Empire. Because the area in which iron technology first developed was near the Aegean, where Asia meets Europe, the technology propagated equally early into both Asia and Europe, aided by Hittite expansion. The Sea Peoples and the related Philistines are often associated with the introduction of iron technology into Asia, as are the Dorians with respect to Greece. It ought also be noted that the Assyrian Empire had trade contacts with the area in which iron technology was first developed at the time that it was developing.

East Asia

Cast-iron artifacts are found in China that date as early as the Zhou dynasty of the 6th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings. In 1972, near the city of Gaocheng (藁城) in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei province), a iron-bladed bronze tomahawk(铁刃青铜钺) dating back to the 14th century BC was excavated. After the scientific examination, the iron was shown to be made from aerosiderite.

The European Iron Age

Iron working was introduced to Europe around 1000 BC, probably from Asia Minor and slowly spread westwards over the succeeding 500 years. In the Netherlands, a starting date from about 800 BC is generally accepted. The Romans introduced writing and therefore ended the prehistoric Dutch Iron Age around 50 AD.

Eastern Europe

The early 1st millennium BC marks the Iron Age in Eastern Europe. In the steppes north of the Black Sea and Azov Sea and the Caucasus, the Iron Age begins with the Koban and the Chernogorovka and Novocerkassk cultures from ca. 900 BC. By 800 BC, it was spreading to Hallstatt C via the alleged "Thraco-Cimmerian" migrations. From the Hallstatt culture, the Iron Age spreads west with the Celtic expansion from the 6th century BC. In Poland, the Iron Age reaches the late Lusatian culture in about the 6th century, followed in some areas by the Pomeranian culture. The ethnic ascriptions of many Iron age cultures has been bitterly contested, as the roots of Germanii and Slavs were sought in this area.

Central Europe

In Central Europe, the Iron Age is generally divided in the early Iron Age Hallstatt culture (HaC and D, 800-450) and the late Iron Age La Tène culture (beginning in 450 BC). The Iron age ends with the Roman Conquest.

Mediterranean Europe

In Italy, the Iron Age was probably introduced by the Villanovan culture but this culture is otherwise considered a Bronze Age culture, while the following Etruscan civilization is regarded as part of Iron Age proper. The Etruscan Iron Age was then ended with the rise and conquest of the Roman Republic, which conquered the last Etruscan city of Velzna in 265 BC.

British Isles

For a fuller discussion see the British Iron Age article. In Britain, the Iron Age lasted from about the 5th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century AD in non-Romanised parts. Defensive structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example the brochs of northern Scotland and the hill forts that dotted the rest of the islands.

Northern Scandinavia and Finland

Scandinavia (including Finland) and Northern Balticum shows a small-scaled iron producing very early, but a further dating is currently impossible. The time varies from 3000 BC-1000 AD. This knowledge is associated to the non-Germanic part of Scandinavia. Metalworking and Asbestos-Ceramic pottery are somewhat synonymous in Scandinavia due to the latter's capability to resist and preserve heat. The iron ore used is believed to have been iron sand (such as red soil), because its high phosphorus content can be identified in slag. Together with asbestos ware axes belonging to the Ananjino Culture are sometimes found. The Asbestos-Ceramic remains a mystery, because there are other adiabatic vessels with unknown usage.

Northern Germany and Southern Scandinavia

The Iron Age is divided into the Pre-Roman Iron Age and the Roman Iron Age. This is followed by the migration period. Northern Germany and Denmark was dominated by the Jastorf culture, whereas the culture of the southern half of the Scandinavia was dominated by the very similar Nordic Iron Age.

Korean Peninsula

The Korean Peninsula is a peninsula in East Asia. It extends southwards for about 1,100 kilometres from the continental Asian mainland into the Pacific Ocean and is surrounded by the Sea of Japan/East Sea on the east, the East China Sea to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the west, the Korea Strait connecting the first two bodies of water. It is currently divided into the countries of South Korea in the south and North Korea in the north. The single term Korean Peninsula is therefore often used to refer to these two states at the same time. Up until the division of the peninsula following the end of World War II, Korea was a single political entity for many centuries whose territory roughly coincided with the Korean Peninsula. The northern boundaries for the Korean Peninsula is commonly (and tacitly) taken to coincide with today's political borders between North Korea and her northern neighbours, China (1,416 km) and Russia (19 km). These borders are formed naturally by the rivers Yalu/Amnok and Tumen/Tuman/Duman. Taking this definition, the Korean Peninsula has an area of approximately 220,000 km². By the inhabitants, it is called Han bando (Hangul: 한반도; Hanja: ) in South Korea, or Choson bando (조선반도; ) in North Korea, due to the different names for Korea.

Physical geography

Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are generally small and far in between the successive mountain ranges. The peninsula becomes more mountainous towards the north and the east, with the highest mountains (including Paektu-san/Baekdu-san which stands at 2,744 m) found in the north. The peninsula has 8,460 kilometres of coastline, and the south and west coasts are highly irregular in particular; most of the 3,579 islands off the peninsula are found along the south and the west coasts.

Climate

The climate of the Korean Peninsula differs dramatically from north to south. The southern regions experience a relatively warm and wet climate similar to that of Japan, affected by warm ocean waters including the East Korea Warm Current. The northern regions experience a colder and to some extent more inland climate, in common with Manchuria. For example, the annual precipitation of the Yalu River valley (600 mm) is less than half of that on the south coast (1500 mm). Likewise, there is a 20 °C difference in January temperature between the peninsula's southern and northern tips. The entire peninsula, however, is affected by similar general patterns, including the East Asian monsoon in midsummer and the frequent incidence of typhoons in autumn. The majority of rainfall takes place during the summer months, with nearly half during the monsoon alone. Winters are cold, with January temperatures typically below freezing outside of Jeju Island. Winter precipitation is minimal, with little snow accumulation outside of mountainous areas.

Biogeography

Surveys of Korean flora have identified more than 3,000 species on the peninsula, of which more than 500 are endemic. The peninsula's floristic provinces are commonly divided between warm-temperate, temperate, and cold-temperate zones. The warm-temperate zone prevails over the southern coast and islands, including Jeju. It is typified by a larg number of broad-leaved evergreens. The temperate zone covers the great majority of the peninsula, away from the southern coast and high mountains. It is dominated by the Korean pine and various broad-leaved deciduous trees. Cold-temperate vegetation is found along the peninsula's northern fringe and in the high mountains, including the upper reaches of Hallasan on Jeju. Evergreens in this area include larch and juniper. Much of this vegetation is shared with Manchuria.

Geology

The terrain of the Korean peninsula is rumpled, covered with low mountains. Most rocks are of Precambrian origin, although isolated pockets of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic rock can also be found. There are no active volcanoes on the peninsula. However, Baekdu Mountain in the north and Hallasan in the south have crater lakes, indicating that they were active not long ago. In addition, Ulleung Island in the Sea of Japan is believed to have been of volcanic origin. Furthermore, hot springs indicative of low-level volcanic activity are widespread throughout the peninsula. Roughly two earthquakes are recorded per year, but few have any major impact.

Symbolism

The Unification Flag has a blue map of the Korean Peninsula on a white background. The flag was introduced in 1991 to represent the joint North and South Korean team at the table tennis world championships. The athletes from the two Koreas marched together under this flag at the 2000 Sydney Olympics and the 2004 Athens Olympics.

Notes

# KOIS 2003, p. 17.

References

Gojoseon

Gojoseon ("ancient" Joseon, to distinguish from the later Joseon Dynasty) was the first Korean kingdom. According to legend, it was founded in 2333 BC by Dangun in the basins of the Liao and Taedong Rivers, ruling over northern Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria until 108 BC. Historians generally refer to this entire period as Gojoseon, but some classify Gija Joseon and Wiman Joseon as separate periods.

Founding legend

Dangun Wanggeom is the legendary founder of Korea. The oldest existing record of this founding myth appears in the Samguk Yusa, a 13th-century collection of legends and stories. A similar account is found in Jewang Ungi. Dangun's ancestry begins with his grandfather Hwanin (환인; 桓因;), the "Lord of Heaven" (a name which also appears in Indian Buddhist texts). Hwanin had a son Hwanung who yearned to live on the earth among the valleys and the mountains. Hwanin chose Mount Taebaek for his son to settle down in and sent him with 3,000 helpers to rule the earth and provide humans with great happiness. Hwanung descended to Mount Taebaek and founded a city, which he named Sinsi (신시; 神市), or "City of God." Along with his ministers of clouds, rain, and wind, he instituted laws and moral codes and taught the humans various arts, medicine, and agriculture. A tiger and a bear living in a cave together prayed to Hwanung that they may become human. Upon hearing their prayers, Hwanung called them to him and gave them 20 cloves of garlic and a bundle of mugwort. He then ordered them to only eat this sacred food and remain out of the sunlight for 100 days. The tiger shortly gave up and left the cave. However, the bear remained and after 21 days was transformed into a woman. The bear-woman (Ungnyeo; 웅녀; 熊女) was very grateful and made offerings to Hwanung. She lacked a husband, however, and soon became sad and prayed beneath a sandalwood tree to be blessed with a child. Hwanung, moved by her prayers, took her for his wife and soon she gave birth to a son, who was named Dangun Wanggeom (단군 왕검; 檀君王儉). Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of the reign of the Emperor Yao (the legendary Chinese sage Yao), the year of Gengyin, built the walled city of P'yŏngyang, and called the kingdom Joseon. He then moved his capital to Asadal on Mount Baegak (or Mount Gunghol). 1,500 years later, in the year Kimyo, King Wu of the Zhou Dynasty enfeoffed Jizi to Joseon, and Dangun moved his capital to Jangdangyeong. Finally, he returned to Asadal and became a mountain god at the age of 1,908.

History

Gojoseon is said to have been established in 2333 BC, based on the description of the Dongguk Tonggam (1485), but the date differs among historical sources; nevertheless, all of them put it during Yao's reign (traditional dates: 2357 BC-2256 BC). Samguk Yusa says Dangun ascended to the throne in the 50th year of Yao's reign, while Sejong Sillok says the first year and Dongguk Tonggam says the 25th year. The people of Gojoseon are called in Chinese records Dong-i, "eastern bowmen," belonging to the Tungusic family and linguistically affiliated with the Altaic. They propagated in Manchuria, far eastern China, north of the Yangtze River, and the Korean Peninsula. Gojoseon eventually consolidated in Manchuria and the Korean Peninsula, and was praised by Confucius and Mencius for the decorum of its people. However, it was called arrogant and cruel by the Yan. The Bronze Age began around 2500 – 1000 BC. Rice, red beans, soybeans and millet were cultivated, and rectangular huts and increasingly larger dolmen burial sites are found throughout the peninsula. [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/977] Around 2000 BC, a new pottery culture is evidenced, with painted designs, in Manchuria and northern Korea. Bronze daggers, and mirrors have been excavated from the Korean bronze age. Bronze was employed as weaponry and helped in the conquest of Neolithic communities. Archeological evidence of walled-town states are found from this time. Gija, a subject of the Yan state, entered Gojoseon and introduced the culture of Yin around the 11th century BCE. Gojoseon clashed with the Zhou during China's Warring States Period (475-221 BC), and lost the territories west of the Liao River to the Yan people in the third century BC. By this time, iron culture was developing and the warring states pushed the refugees eastward. Around this time, Jin-guk existed in the southern part of the Korean peninsula. Very little is known about this state, except it was the apparent predecessor to the Samhan confederacies. Among the Yan refugees, Wiman entered the service of Gojoseon as military commander with a base on the Amnokgang river. He usurped control from King Jun in 194 BC. In 109 BC, the Han emperor Wudi began a massive invasion of Gojoseon near the Liao River. Gojoseon fell after over a year of war, and four Chinese commanderies were set up in southern Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula: Lelang or Luolang (樂浪; Korean: Nangnang), Xuantu (玄菟; Hyeondo), Zhenfan (真番; Jinbeon), and Lintun (臨屯; Imdun). Numerous small states and confederations arose from the remnants of Gojoseon. Three of the commanderies fell quickly to the Koreans of Samhan, and the last, Lelang (Korean: Nangnang) was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313.

Annals of Danguns

Hwandan-gogi is a controversial text said to detail ancient Korean history, but its authenticity has been widely questioned. It appears to be partly based on other known "alternative history" texts. The Annals of the Danguns are recorded in Gyuwon Sahwa (1675), which is described by its author as a nationalistic, rather than mainstream, history. #Dangun Wanggeom BC 2333-BC 2240 #Dangun Buru BC 2240-BC 2182 #Dangun Garuk BC 2182-BC 2137 #Dangun Osagu BC 2137-BC 2099 #Dangun Gueul BC 2099-BC 2083 #Dangun Dalmun BC 2083-BC 2047 #Dangun Hanyul BC 2047-BC 1993 #Dangun Useohan BC 1993-BC 1985 #Dangun Asul BC 1985-BC 1950 #Dangun Noeul BC 1950-BC 1891 #Dangun Dohae BC 1891-BC 1834 #Dangun Ahan BC 1834-BC 1782 #Dangun Holdal (a.k.a. Daeumdal) BC 1782-BC 1721 #Dangun Gobul BC 1721-BC 1661 #Dangun Daeum (a.k.a. Huhuldal) BC 1661-BC 1610 #Dangun Wina BC 1610-BC 1552 #Dangun Yeoul BC 1552-BC 1484 #Dangun Dongum BC 1484-BC 1435 #Dangun Gumoso BC 1435-BC 1380 #Dangun Sotae BC 1337-BC 1285 #Dangun Saekbullu BC 1285-BC 1237 #Dangun Aheul BC 1237-BC 1161 #Dangun Solna BC 1150-BC 1062 #Dangun Churo BC 1062-BC 997 #Dangun Dumil BC 997-BC 971 #Dangun Haemo BC 971-BC 943 #Dangun Mahyu BC 943-BC 909 #Dangun Naehyu BC 909-BC 874 #Dangun Deungol BC 874-BC 849 #Dangun Chumil BC 849-BC 819 #Dangun Gammul BC 819-BC 795 #Dangun Orumun BC 795-BC 772 #Dangun Sabeol BC 772-BC 704 #Dangun Maeruk BC 704-BC 646 #Dangun Mamul BC 646-BC 590 #Dangun Damul BC 590-BC 545 #Dangun Duhol BC 545-BC 509 #Dangun Daleum BC 509-BC 491 #Dangun Umcha BC 491-BC 471 #Dangun Uleuji BC 471-BC 461 #Dangun Mulli BC 461-BC 425 #Dangun Gumul BC 425-BC 396 #Dangun Yeoru BC 396-BC 341 #Dangun Boeul BC 341-BC 295 #Dangun Goyeolga BC 295-BC 237

Han river

Han River is the name of four unrelated rivers:
- Han River, or Han Gang, is a river in Korea, passing through Seoul and entering the Yellow Sea
- Han River, or Han Shui, is a tributary of the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) in central China
- Han River, or Han Jiang, is a river in eastern Guangdong province, in southern China
- Han River is a river in Danang, Vietnam

Sanguo Zhi

The Sānguó Zhì (Chinese 三国志, or 三國志), variously translated as Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms, Records of the Three States and Records of the Three Kingdoms, was the official and authoritative historical text on the Three Kingdoms Period compiled by Chen Shou during the Jin Dynasty (265-420). The work collects the smaller histories of the rival states Cao Wei, Shu Han and Eastern Wu into a single text and provided the basis for the later more popular historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Origin and structure of Sanguo Zhi

Together with the Shi ji (Records of the Grand Historian), Han Shu (Book of Han) and Hou Han Shu (Book of the Later Han), Sanguo Zhi is part of the 'Four Histories', as well as the canon of histories known as the Twenty-Four Histories. The work contains sixty five volumes in all, broken into three books, one on each kingdom. The Book of Wei contains thirty volumes, the Book of Shu contains fifteen volumes and the Book of Wu contains twenty volumes. Each volume is organised in the form of one of more biographies. The amount of space a biography takes up is dictated by the importance of the figure. For example, Sun Quan's life occupied one volume whilst the profiles of Zhou Yu, Lu Su and Lü Meng were pushed into another. The original author was Chen Shou (233-297), who was a native of Anhan of Western Ba. After Jin conquered Shu, Chen became the Gentleman of Works, and was assigned to creating a history of the Three Kingdoms. After the fall of Wu, Chen Shou's Sanguo Zhi received the acclaim of senior minister Zhang Hua, who suggested assigning him to the creation of the history of Jin. It cannot be specified the year the work was completed. At the time Wei and Wu both had their own histories and it was with these works as basis that Chen Shou began work. Since Shu lacked a history of its own, data was compiled by Chen himself. The Sanguo Zhi used the dates of Wei kingdom as standard after the fall of Han. That is, years are quoted by eras set out by Wei rulers (eg. year of Huangchu: 220 AD). The Wei volumes always name Cao Cao, Cao Pi and Cao Rui as emperors whilst rulers of Shu were called zhu (lord) and rulers of Wu only by their names. This is to uphold the legitimacy of Jin as inheritor of the Mandate of Heaven from Wei. The use of "lord" titles for Shu rulers shows in part Chen's sympathy towards his native land.

Pei Songzhi's Annotations

In the fifth century, Sanguo Zhi was annotated by Pei Songzhi (372-451), a native of Wenxi, Hedong (present day Shushan, Shanxi). After he moved to Jiangnan, he became Gentleman of Texts under Liu Song of the Song Kingdom (420-479), and was given the assignment of editing the Sanguo Zhi, which he completed in 429. Pei went about providing detailed explanations to some of the geography and other elements mentioned in the original. More importantly, he made corrections to the work, in consultation with records he collected of the period. In regard to historical events and figures, as well as Chen Shou's opinions, Pei added his own commentary. From his broad research Pei was able to create a history which was relatively complete, without many of the loose ends of the original.

Sanguo Zhi as historical record

The romantic and historical traditions of Three Kingdoms have been so confused in the centuries after the period that the Sanguo Zhi is an invaluable resource. Its information, although full of errors itself, is nevertheless much more accurate than the embellishments of later writers. Many of the political, economic and military figures of the Three Kingdoms are included in the work as well as those who contributed to the fields of culture, arts and science. In its nature the work is indeed a chronicle, much like those of early Medieval Europe. The text is bland and little more than a collection of historical facts. A typical extract: "In the twenty-fourth year, the Former Lord became King of Hanzhong, and made Guan Yu General of the Vanguard. In the same year, Guan Yu attacked Cao Pi at Fan with his followers. Lord Cao sent Yu Jin to aid Cao Pi. In the autumn, great rains caused the Han River to flood, Yu Jin and the seven armies were lost." From this we can establish reasonably accurately the flow of events and how history unfolded but almost nothing about society or elements of institutions or policies. The amount of creative imagination used in ancient Chinese historical narratives - of 'fictionalising', is impossible to estimate precisely; but it is obviously considerable. The great historian Sima Qian employed this devise greatly and it can be assumed that Chen Shou also did this in his text. It is highly unlikely that various remarks which leaders or soldiers are supposed to have made in the heat of battle could have been taken down stenographically and thus many of them may be false. Take the description of Gongsun Zan's early campaign against the Xianbei, for instance. After a defeat he supposedly said "If we don't charge today, then it will be a offense until death" and charged into the enemy ranks. Nevertheless, some of the dialogue seems to be at least credible. A criticism against the Sanguo Zhi was that Chen Shou, as a former subject of Shu Han, had a pro-Shu Han bias in the work, and while he was forced by political practicalities (after all, Jin Dynasty, under which he served, was a successor state to Cao Wei) into acknowledging Cao Wei's authorities in his history, he appeared to have a contemptuous view of Eastern Wu. For example, while he referred to the Shu Han emperors Liu Bei and Liu Shan as "lords" (主), he referred to the Eastern Wu emperors by name, and never referred to their wives as empresses, instead referring to them as "ladies" (夫人).

Han Dynasty

The Han Dynasty (; 206 BC - AD 220) followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The dynasty was founded by the Liu family. The Chinese people consider the Han Dynasty to be one of the greatest periods in the entire history of China. As a result, the members of the ethnic majority of Chinese people to this day still call themselves "people of Han," in honor of the Liu family and the dynasty they created. During the Han Dynasty, China officially became a Confucian state and prospered domestically: agriculture, handicrafts and commerce flourished, and the population reached 50 million. Meanwhile, the empire extended its political and cultural influence over Vietnam, Central Asia, Mongolia, and Korea before it finally collapsed under a combination of domestic and external pressures. The first of the two periods of the dynasty, namely the Former Han Dynasty (Qian Han 前漢) or the Western Han Dynasty (Xi Han 西漢) 206 BC - AD 9 seated at Chang'an. The Later Han Dynasty (Hou Han 後漢) or the Eastern Han Dynasty (Dong Han 東漢) 25 - 220 seated at Luoyang. The western-eastern Han convention is used nowadays to avoid confusion with the Later Han Dynasty of the Period of the Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms although the former-later nomenclature was used in history texts including Sima Guang's Zizhi Tongjian. Intellectual, literary, and artistic endeavors revived and flourished during the Han Dynasty. The Han period produced China's most famous historian, Sima Qian (145 -87 BC?), whose Records of the Grand Historian provides a detailed chronicle from the time of legendary Xia emperor to that of the Emperor Wu ( 141- 87 BC). Technological advances also marked this period. One of the great Chinese inventions, paper, dates from Han times. It is fair enough to state that contemporary empires of the Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire were the two superpowers of the known world. Several Roman embassies to China are recounted in Chinese history, starting with a Hou Hanshu (History of the Later Han) account of a Roman convoy set out by emperor Antoninus Pius that reached the Chinese capital Luoyang in 166 and was greeted by Emperor Huan. The Han dynasty was notable also for its military prowess. The empire expanded westward as far as the rim of the Tarim Basin (in modern Xinjiang-Uyghur Autonomous Region), making possible relatively secure caravan traffic across Central Asia. The paths of caravan traffic are often called the "Silk Road" because the route was used to export Chinese silk. Chinese armies also invaded and annexed parts of northern Vietnam and northern Korea (Wiman Joseon) toward the end of the second century BC. Han control of peripheral regions was generally insecure, however. To ensure peace with non-Chinese local powers, the Han court developed a mutually beneficial "tributary system." Non-Chinese states were allowed to remain autonomous in exchange for symbolic acceptance of Han overlordship. Tributary ties were confirmed and strengthened through intermarriages at the ruling level and periodic exchanges of gifts and goods.

The Emergence

Within the first three months after Qin Dynasty emperor Qin Shi Huang's death at Shaqiu, widespread revolts by peasants, prisoners, soldiers and descendants of the nobles of the six Warring States sprang up all over China. Chen Sheng and Wu Guang, two in a group of about 900 soldiers assigned to defend against the Xiongnu, were the leaders of the first rebellion. Continuous insurgence finally toppled the Qin dynasty in 206 BC. The leader of the insurgents was Xiang Yu, an outstanding military commander without political expertise, who divided the country into 19 feudal states to his own satisfaction. The ensuing war among those states signified the 5 years of Chu Han Contention with Liu Bang, the first emperor of the Han Dynasty, as the eventual winner. Initially, "Han" (the principality as created by Xiang Yu's division) consisted merely of modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and southern Shaanxi and was a minor humble principality, but eventually grew into an empire; Han Dynasty was named after the principality, which was itself named after Hanzhong (漢中) -- modern southern Shaanxi, the region centering the modern city of Hanzhong. The beginning of the Han Dynasty can be dated either from 206 BC when the Qin dynasty crumbled and the Principality of Han was established or 202 BC when Xiang Yu committed suicide. __NOTOC__

Taoism and Feudal System

The new empire retained much of the Qin administrative structure but retreated a bit from centralized rule by establishing vassal principalities in some areas for the sake of political convenience. After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Emperor Gao (Liu Bang) divided the country into several "feudal states" to satisfy some of his wartime allies - but planned to get rid of them once he had consolidated his power. After his death, his successors from Emperor Hui to Emperor Jing tried to rule China combining Legalist methods with the Taoist philosophic ideals. During this "pseudo-Taoism era", a stable centralized government over China was established through revival of the agriculture sectors and fragmentations of "feudal states" after the suppression of the Rebellion of the seven states.

Emperor Wu and Confucianism

During the "Taoism era", China was able to maintain peace with Xiongnu by paying tribute and marrying princesses to them. During this time, the dynasty's goal was to relieve the society of harsh laws, wars, and conditions from both the Qin, external threats from nomads, and early internal conflicts within the Han court. The government reduced taxation and assumed a subservient status to neighboring nomadic tribes. This policy of the government's reduced role over civilian lives (與民休息) started a period of stability, which was called the Rule of Wen and Jing (文景之治), named after the two emperors of this particular era. However, Under Emperor Wu's leadership, the most prosperous period (140-87 BC)of the Han Dynasty, the Empire was able to fight back. At its height, China incorporated the present-day Qinghai, Gansu, and northern Vietnam into its territories. Emperor Wu decided that Taoism was no longer suitable for China, and officially declared China to be a Confucian state; however, like the emperors before him, he combined Legalist methods with the Confucian ideal. This official adoption of Confucianism led to not only a civil service nomination system, but also the compulsory knowledge of Confucian classics of candidates for the imperial bureaucracy, a requirement that lasted up to the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912. Confucian scholars gained prominent status as the core of the civil service.

Beginning of the Silk Road

1912 travels of Zhang Qian to the West, Mogao Caves, 618-712 AD mural.]] From 138 BC, Emperor Wu also dispatched Zhang Qian twice as his envoy to the Western Regions, and in the process pioneered the route known as the Silk Road from Chang'an (today's Xi'an, Shaanxi Province), through Xinjiang and Central Asia, and on to the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Following Zhang Qian' embassy and report, commercial relations between China and Central as well as Western Asia flourished, as many Chinese missions were sent throughout the 1st century BC, initiating the development of the Silk Road: :"The largest of these embassies to foreign states numbered several hundred persons, while even the smaller parties included over 100 members... In the course of one year anywhere from five to six to over ten parties would be sent out." (Shiji, trans. Burton Watson). China also sent missions to Parthia, which were followed up by reciprocal missions from Parthian envoys around 100 BC: :"When the Han envoy first visited the kingdom of Anxi (Parthia), the king of Anxi dispatched a party of 20,000 horsemen to meet them on the eastern border of the kingdom... When the Han envoys set out again to return to China, the king of Anxi dispatched envoys of his own to accompany them... The emperor was delighted at this." (Shiji, 123, trans. Burton Watson). The Roman historian Florus describes the visit of numerous envoys, included Seres (Chinese), to the first Roman Emperor Augustus, who reigned between 27 BC and 14 AD: :"Even the rest of the nations of the world which were not subject to the imperial sway were sensible of its grandeur, and looked with reverence to the Roman people, the great conqueror of nations. Thus even Scythians and Sarmatians sent envoys to seek the friendship of Rome. Nay, the Seres came likewise, and the Indians who dwelt beneath the vertical sun, bringing presents of precious stones and pearls and elephants, but thinking all of less moment than the vastness of the journey which they had undertaken, and which they said had occupied four years. In truth it needed but to look at their complexion to see that they were people of another world than ours." ("Cathey and the way thither", Henry Yule). Henry Yule In 97 AD the Chinese general Ban Chao went as far west as the Caspian Sea with 70,000 men and established direct military contacts with the Parthian Empire, also dispatching an envoy to Rome in the person of Gan Ying. Several Roman embassies to China soon followed from 166 AD, and are officially recorded in Chinese historical chronicles. Good exchanges such as Chinese silk, African ivory, and Roman incense increase the contacts between the East and West. Contacts with the Kushan Empire led to the introduction of Buddhism to China from India in the first century. See also: Silk Road, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

Rise of landholding class

To draw funds for his triumphant campaigns against the Xiongnu, Emperor Wu relinquished land control to merchants and the riches, and in effect legalized the privatization of lands. Land taxes were then drawn based on the sizes of fields. It was no longer on their income(harvest), which could not guarantee to pay their taxes completely. Incomes from selling harvest were often market-driven - a stable amount could not be guaranteed especially after harvest-reducing natural disasters. Merchant and prominent families then lured peasants to sell their lands since land accumulation guaranteed living standards of theirs and their descendants' in the agricultural society of China. Lands were hence accumulating into a new class of landholding families. The Han government in turn imposed more taxes on the remaining independent servants in order to make up the tax losses, therefore encouraging more peasants to come under the landholding elite or the landlords. Xiongnu Ideally the peasants pay the landlords certain periodic (usually annual) amount of income, who in turn provide protection against crimes and other hazards. In fact an increasing number of peasant population in the prosperous Han society and limited amount of lands provided the elite to elevate their standards for any new subordinate peasants. The inadequate education and often complete illiteracy of peasants forced them into a living of providing physical services, which were mostly farming in an agricultural society. The peasants, without other professions for their better living, compromised to the lowered standard and sold their harvest to pay their landlords. In fact they often had to delay the payment or borrow money from their landlords in the aftermath of natural disasters that reduced harvests. To make the situation worse, some Han rulers double-taxed the peasants. Eventually the living conditions of the peasants worsened as they solely depended on the harvest of the land they once owned. The landholding elite and landlords, for their part, provided inaccurate information of subordinate peasants and lands to avoid paying taxes; to this very end corruption and incompetence of the Confucian scholar gentry on economics would play a vital part. Han court officials who attempted to strip lands out of the landlords faced such enormous resistance that their policies would never be put in to place. In fact only a member of the landholding families, for instance Wang Mang, was able to put his reforming ideals into effect despite failures of his "turning the clock back" policies.

Interruption of Han rule

After 200 years, Han rule was interrupted briefly during AD 9–24 by Wang Mang, a reformer and a member of the landholding families. The economic situation deteriorated at the end of Western Han Dynasty. Wang Mang, believing the Liu family had lost the Mandate of Heaven, took power and turned the clock back with vigorous monetary and land reforms, which damaged the economy even further.

Rise and Fall of Eastern Han Dynasty

A distant relative of Liu royalty, Liu Xiu, led the revolt against Wang Mang with the support of the landholding families and merchants. He "re-established" the Han Dynasty at Luoyang, which would rule for another 200 years, and became Emperor Guangwu. In 105, During Eastern Han Dynasty, an official and inventor named Cai Lun invented the technique for making fine paper. The invention of paper is considered a revolution in communication and learning, dramatically lowering the cost of education. Cai Lun).]] Nevertheless the Eastern Han emperors failed to put forward any groundbreaking land reforms after the failure of its precedent dynasty. Rife bureaucratic corruption and bribery contributed into lingering adverse consequences of land privatizations throughout the dynasty. Prestige of a newly founded dynasty during the reigns of the first three emperors was barely able to hinder the corruption; however Confucian scholar gentry turned against eunuchs for their corrupted authorities, while consort clans and eunuchs struggled for power in subsequent reigns. None of these three parties was able to improve the harsh livelihood of peasants under the landholding families. Land privatizations and accumulations on the hands of the elite affected the societies of the Three Kingdoms and the Southern and Northern Dynasties that the landholding elite held the actual driving and ruling power of the country. Successful ruling entities worked with these families, and consequently their policies favored the elite. Adverse effects of the Nine grade controller system or the Nine rank system were brilliant examples. Taiping Taoist ideals of equal rights and equal land distribution quickly spread throughout the peasantry. As a result, the peasant insurgents of the Yellow Turban Rebellion swarmed the North China Plain, the main agricultural sector of the country. Power of the Liu royalty then fell into the hands of local governors and warlords, despite suppression of the main upraising of Zhang Jiao and his brothers. Three overlords eventually succeeded in control of the whole of China proper, ushering in the period of the Three Kingdoms. The figurehead Emperor Xian reigned until 220 when Cao Pi forced his abdication. In 311, around one hundred years after the fall of the Eastern Han, its capital Luoyang was sacked by Huns.

Sovereigns of Han Dynasty

External links

- [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/prehistory/china/early_imperial_china/han.html Han Dynasty by Minnesota State University] Category:History of China Category:Iron Age
- ko:한나라 ja:漢

Wei Man

Wei Man was a Chinese general who established the Wiman Joseon kingdom in northwestern Korea in the 2nd century BC. He was the first figure in the history of Korea who was recorded in documents of the same age. The Records of the Grand Historian simply calls him Man, so the surname Wei was probably added later.

Korea

Man was a general of the Yan Principality, whose prince Lu Wan (盧綰), Emperor Gao's old ally, ruled. However, Lu Wan fled to the Xiongnu in 195 B.C. because he was suspected of rebellion and was attacked by the Emperor. According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Man led 1,000 people, dressed in barbarian costume, crossed the Pei River(浿水; Chŏngchŏn River?) into Korea. He organized natives in Zhenfan and Chaoxian and Chinese refugees from Yan and Qi and came to the crown. He put the capital in Wangxian (P'yŏngyang), and his kingdom came to be known as Wiman Joseon today. Since the Han Empire was not completely stabilized yet, the Governor of Liaodong appointed Man as an outer subject, provided that he did not prevent natives to go up to the empire. With the support of the Han Empire, he expanded the territory by conquering a lot of small towns. His kingdom was eventually conquered by Emperor Wu in 108 B.C during the reign of his grandson Youqu. Weilue, which was written about 400 years later, says that Man took power in a coup from King Zhun, a descendant of the Chinese sage Jizi. Zhun fled to the south and proclaimed himself the King of Han. Some scholars believe that this story came from the Han clan, who claimed themselves as descendants of Jizi, and have spread to China because of Chinese direct rule of the northern Korean peninsula.

Goguryeo

Goguryeo (37 BC-668) was an empire in Manchuria and northern Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, along with Baekje and Silla. The modern English name "Korea" derives from the medieval Korean kingdom of Goryeo, which in turn took its name from "Goguryeo". See Names of Korea. It is said to have been founded in 37 BC by King Jumong, after the fall of Gojoseon. Among the other various small states in former Gojoseon territory were the neighboring Buyeo, and Okjeo and Dongye in the northeast of the Korean peninsula, all of which were later conquered by Goguryeo. It grew into a major regional power until defeated by the Silla-Tang alliance in 668, resulting in Unified Silla and Balhae states of Korea.

History

Founding

According to the Samguk Sagi, a 12th century Korean history, King Jumong (posthumously called King Dongmyeongseong) founded the state in 37 BC in Jolbon Buyeo, around what is now the border between China and North Korea. However, Goguryeo likely coexisted with the declining Gojoseon around 2nd century BC, and a state named Guru (likely referring to Goguryeo, although Okjeo was sometimes also called Guru) is recorded for this period. Goguryeo already existed when Han Chinese installed commanderies in the fallen Gojoseon territory in 107 BC. In 75 BC, Goguryeo repelled the Hyeonto Chinese commandery, and a confederacy united by a Goguryeo king took its place. Goguryeo people originated from Bukbuyeo, integrating with existing chiefdoms. In the aftermath of the disintegration of Gojoseon and Buyeo, various small tribes coalesced into five chiefdoms along the banks of the Yalu River, and these five were eventually lead by the king of Goguryeo.

King Jumong

Jumong is a Korean name transcribed in hanja as 朱蒙 (jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (jungmo, 중모), with the family name of Hae (a Buyeo name), which was posthumousely changed to Go, after the kingdom he founded. He is said to have descended from a branch of Buyeo, but records conflict on the exact relationship: a son of the North Buyeo's king, or son-in-law of Jolbon Buyeo's king, or merely married to a Buyeo woman. Goguryeo was founded in "Jolbon Buyeo", a possible branch of Buyeo or a city name, and had a close early relationship with East Buyeo. Jumong is recorded to have conquered the states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 BC, Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 BC, and North Okjeo in 28 BC.

King Taejo

Goguryeo became a significant independent kingdom in the first century, and expanded its power in the region. By the time of King Taejo of Goguryeo in 53, the five tribes became five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom, and foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Goguryeo became fully independent of the Han commanderies and began large-scale, organized attacks against the Chinese, as well as conquering neighboring statelets such as Okjeo and Dongye. The royal family changed its name from ‘’Hae’’ to ‘’Go’’, possibly indicating some internal power struggle. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court.

King Micheon

As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodung peninsula, the last Chinese commandery, at Lelang, was destroyed by King Micheon of Goguryeo in 313 AD, and the Three Kingdoms completely dominated the peninsula. The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, the Senbei (鮮卑) tribe of Former Yan state (前燕) attacked Goguryeo’s capital, and in 371, King Geunchogo of Baekje attacked Goguryeo’s capital at Pyongyang and killed King Goguwon of Goguryeo in battle. Turning to domestic stability and unificiation of various conquered tribes, King Sosurim of Goguryeo proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the national religion in 372, and established educational institutes called Taehak. By 391, the kingdom's rulers had achieved undisputed control of all of Manchuria east of the Liao River as well as of the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula.

King Gwanggaeto the Great

The maximum territorial extent of the kingdom was reached during the reigns of King Gwanggaeto the Great and his son King Jangsu around the year 400. During this period the Goguryeo empire included three fourths of the Korean peninsula, including today's Seoul, and most of Manchuria and the Russian maritime province. It was also during this time that Goguryeo shifted its capital southward to what is now Pyongyang in North Korea, evidence of the intensifying rivalries between it and the other two Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to its south. In 598 the Sui Dynasty of China, provoked by Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaodong region, attacked Goguryeo in the first of four costly campaigns. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui met with defeat (the campaign of 614 had limited success). These expensive, and in some cases disastrous, engagements contributed significantly to the fall of the Sui Dynasty in 618. The campaign of 598 also provided Goguryeo, and modern Korea, with one of its great national heros: the general Eulji Mundeok, who led the Sui troops into a trap outside of Pyongyang, ensuring their retreat during which they were decimated. Chinese histories record that of the over 300,000 Sui troops that crossed into Goguryeo in 598, less than 3,000 returned to China. The succeeding Tang dynasty in China also tried its hand at defeating Goguryeo. A combination of bad weather and flawed strategy meant Tang's first attempts under the personal leadership of Emperor Gaozu proved inconclusive.

The decline and fall

Under Gaozu's successor Taizong Tang forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla. This, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of its king Yeongnyu at the hands of the military strongman Yeon Gaesomun, proved the kingdom's undoing. In 666 Yeon Gaesomun, the de facto leader, died and civil war ensued between his three sons. This greatly contributed to the kingdom's weakness as it faced its gravest challenge. Goguryeo was overthrown by a military alliance between Silla and Tang Dynasty, in 668. Following Goguryeo's fall, some of its populace relocated to China, while other elements made their way north to form a part of the future kingdom of Balhae. Tang initially attempted to set up a military occupational government in Goguryeo's stead, but this did not last. The southern portion of the ertwhile Goguryeo territory was claimed by Silla, while the rest was succeeded by the kingdom of Balhae. In her diplomatic language with Japan Balhae, established in 698, claimed to be a successor state to Goguryeo. In the early 10th century, Taebong (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), which briefly rose in rebellion against Silla, also claimed to be a successor to Goguryeo, as did Goryeo, the state that succeeded Silla to rule a unified Korean peninsula.

Culture

Remains of walled towns, fortesses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in Manchuria, for example at Onyeosan ("Five Maiden Peaks") near Ji'an (集安) in northeastern China along the present border with North Korea, site of the state's first permanent capital. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the most well-known Goguryeo artifact, the mammoth funeral stele of King Gwanggaeto, around whose interpretation a debate still rages. The stele is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history. Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigor of its imagery. It absorbed influences from the northern dynasties of China. Cultural vestiges of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, Ondol, Goguryeo's unique floor heating system. A modernized version can be found in the floor of every modern house in Korea.

Language

The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was similar to the language of Silla and influenced by the Tungusic languages. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classifies the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Most Korean linguists see that Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the three dominant states after Old Joseon. Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found. The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla. Chinese record suggest that the languages of Goguryeo and Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Old Joseon (Go-Joseon) were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe). Similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese have been noted as well. [http://www.msu.edu/~jk13/Abs.Beckwith.pdf] Some linguists propose the so-called "Fuyu languages" that included the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, and Baekje, and Old Japanese. Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long; however, some of these words in the old Korean language are closer to the original word of the Goguryeo language than of the Shilla. See also: Korean language

Modern politics

Historians have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Chinese have traditionally viewed Goguryeo as a Korean state that engaged in the terriotial competition with the Han China in Manchuria. Then, in accordance with a more inclusive view of the modern People's Republic of China as a multi-ethnic nation state, the concept of Chinese history was expanded to encompass all states that developed principally in the current territory of China. The accepted position among Chinese government historians therefore became that the history of Goguryeo before the capital was transferred to Pyongyang in the Korean Peninsula was to be considered part of Chinese history, a regional power of China. The Chinese government launched a 20-billion-yuan (2.4 billion US dollars) project dealing with China's Northeast in 2002, rewriting history textbooks and restoring important Goguryeo sites in China. This was followed by protests from scholars from South Korea. In 2004 this dispute threatened to lead to diplomatic disputes between China and South Korea, although all of the governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations. The existence of a sizeable ethnic Korean minority in the former Goguryeo territories in China, the issue of political influence over North Korea in the case of a collapse of the regime, and some nervousness over the rapidly increasing power of China add to the fuel of the dispute. See also: Gando Convention

Goguryeo Kings

The following tables give the names of the Goguryeo Kings in Korean followed by Chinese characters with Pinyin transcription.

Legendary line

Posthumous name (Shi Hao 諡號)	Personal names	Period of reign
King Dongmyeong 동명성왕 東明聖王 Dōngmíng shèngwáng	Gojumong 고주몽 高朱蒙 Gāozhūméng, Chumo 추모 鄒牟 Jùmóu, Sanghae 상해 象解 Xiàngjiě	(37 BC-19 BC)
King Yuri 유리왕 琉璃明王 Liúlí míngwáng	Yuri 유리 琉璃 Liúlí, Yuri 유리 類利 Lèilì, Yuryu 유류 孺留 Rúliú	(19 BC-18 AD)
King Daemusin 대무신왕 大武神王 Dàwǔ shénwáng, 大解朱留王 Dàjiězhūliúwáng	Muhyul 무휼 無恤 Wúxù	(18-44)
King Minjung 민중왕 閔中王 Mǐnzhōng wáng	Haesaekju 해색주 解色朱 Jiěsèzhū	(44-48)
King Mobon 모본왕 慕本王 Mùběnwáng	Hae-u 해우 解憂 Jiěyóu, (Hae) Aeru (해)애루 (解)愛婁 (Jiě) Àilǚ	(48-53)

Note: These are the names and dates given in the Samguk Sagi. The Wei shu (History of the Wei dynasty) gives the following names: 朱蒙 Zhūméng, 閭達 Lǘdá, 始閭諧 Shǐlǘxié, 如栗 Rúlí, and 莫來 Mòlái. The legendary line had already been formed with some variants in the early 5th century when King Jangsu built a monument for his father and Goguryeo made contacts with the Northern Wei. The inscription of that monument gives these names: 鄒牟 Chumo, 儒留 Yuryu, and 大朱留 Daejuryu. The connection between those names is not clear.

Great king line

Posthumous name	Personal name	Period of reign
King Gukjo 태조대왕 國祖王 Guózǔ wáng, 大祖王 Dàzǔ wáng, 大祖大王 Dàzǔ dàwáng	Gung 궁 宮 Gōng, Eosu 어수 於漱 Yúshù	53-146
King Chadae 차대왕 次大王 Cìdà wáng	Suseong 수성 遂成 Suìchéng	146-165
King Sindae 신대왕 新大王 Xīndà wáng	Baekgo 백고 伯固 Bógù, Baekgu 백구 伯句 Bógōu	165-179

Hwando-Guknae line

Posthumous name	Personal name	Period of reign
King Gogukcheon 고국천왕 故國川王 Gùguóchuān wáng, 國襄王Guóxiāng wáng	Nammu 남무 男武 Nánwǔ, I-imo 이이모 伊夷謨 Yīyímó	179-197
King Sansang 산상왕 山上王 Shānshàng wáng	Jeon-u 정우 廷優 Tíngyōu, Wigung 위궁 位宮 Wèigōng	197-227
King Dongcheon 동천왕 東川王 Dōngchuān wáng, 東襄王 Dōngxiāng wáng	Uwigeo 우위거 憂位居 Yōuwèijū, Gyoche 郊彘 Jiāozhì	227-248
King Jungcheon 중천왕 中川王 Zhōngchuān wáng, 中襄王 Zhōngxiāng wáng	Yeonbul 연불 然弗 Ránfú	227-248
King Seocheon 서천왕 西川王 Xīchuān wáng, 西襄王 Xīxiāng wáng	Yak-ro 약로 藥盧 Yàolú, Yak-u 약우 若友 Ruòyóu	248-270
King Bongsang 봉상왕 烽上王 Fēngshàng wáng, 鴙葛王 Zhìgě wáng	Sangbu 상부 相夫 Xiāngfú, Sapsiru 插矢婁 Chāshǐlǚ	292-300
King Micheon 미천왕 美川王 Měichuān wáng, 好攘王 Hǎoràng wáng	Eubul 을불 乙弗 Yǐfú, Ubul 우불 憂拂 Yōufú	300-331
King Gogugwon 고국원왕 故國原王 Gùguóyuán wáng, 國岡上王 Guógāngshàng wáng	Sayu 사유 斯由 Sīyóu, Yu 유 劉 Liú (?), Soe 쇠 釗	331-371
King Sosurim 소수림왕 小獸林王 Xiǎoshòulín wáng, 小解朱留王 Xiǎojiězhūliú wáng	Gubu 구부 丘夫 Qiūfū	371-384
King Gogugyang 고국양왕 故國攘王 Gùguóràng wáng	Yiryeon 이련 伊連 Yīlián, Eojiji 어지지 於只支 Yúzhǐzhī	384-391
King Gwanggaeto the Great 광개토대왕 廣開土王 Guǎngkāitǔ wáng	Damdeok 담덕 談德 Tándé, An 안 安 Ān	391-413

P'yŏngyang line

Posthumous name	Personal name	Period of reign
King Jangsu 장수왕 長壽王 Chángshòu wáng	Georyeon 거련 巨連 Jùlián, Goryeon 고련 高璉 Gāolián	413-490
King Munjamyeong 문자명왕 文咨明王Wénzīmíng wáng, 文咨王 Wénzī wáng, 明治好王 Míngzhìhǎo wáng	Na-un 나운 羅雲 Luóyún, Go-un 고운 高雲 Gāoyún	491-519
King Anjang 안장왕 安藏王 Ānzàng wáng	Heung-an 흥안 興安 Xīng’ān, Go-an 고안 高安 Gāo’ān	519-531
King Anwon 안원왕 安原王 Ānyuán wáng	Bojeon 보정 寶廷 Bǎotíng, Gojeon 고정 高廷 Gāotíng	531-545
King Yangwon 양원왕 陽原王 Yángyuán wáng, 陽崗上好王 Yánggāngshànghǎo wáng	Pyongseong 평성 平成 Píngchéng	545-559
King Pyeongwon 평원왕 平原王 Píngyuán wáng, 平崗上好王 Pínggāngshànghǎo wáng, 平崗上王 Pínggāngshàng wáng, 狛鵠香岡上王 Pògéxiānggāngshàng wáng	Yangseong 양성 陽成 Yángchéng, Tang 탕 湯 Tāng, Goyang 고양 高陽 Gāoyáng	559-590
King Yeongyang 영양왕 嬰陽王 Yīngyáng wáng, 平陽王 Píngyáng wáng	Gowon 고원 高元 Gāoyuán, Daewon 대원 大元 Dàyuán	590-618
King Yeongnyu 영류왕 營留王 Yíngliú wáng, 建武王 Jiànwǔ wáng	Gogeonmu 고건무 高建武 Gāojiànwǔ, Seong 성 成 Chéng, Gomu 고무 高武 Gāowǔ	618-642
King Bojang 보장왕 寶藏王 Bǎozàng wáng	Gojang 고장 高藏 Gāozàng, Bojang 보장 寶藏 Bǎozàng	642-668

Note: According to one theory, the surname Gao/Go was adopted in the early 5th century when King Gwanggaeto was acknowledged as a member of the Northern Yan imperial family by Gao Yun 高雲 (or Murong Yun 慕容雲), Emperor of the Northern Yan, whose grandfather He (和) was in line of the Goguryeo royal family. According to the Jin shu (History of the Jin dynasty), Gao Yun took the surname Gao from Gaoyang 高陽氏 (or Zhuan Xu, one of the San Huang Wu Di) but it is doubtful. Later history books say that Gao/Go was named after the country name Goguryeo.

External link

- [http://hcs.harvard.edu/~yisei/backissues/fall_98/mark_byington.html Korean history in Manchuria]
- [http://www.koguryo.org/ Information about the ancient kingdom]
- [http://www.goguryeo.org/doc/murals/tp-hwanghaedo-anak-tomb%20no.%203.htm Excavated paintings about the ancient kingdom] Category:Three Kingdoms of Korea Category:Fuyu languages
- Category:History of Korea ko:고구려 ja:高句麗

Samhan

Samhan referrs to the three ancient confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan which dominated the southern Korean peninsula during what some historians call the Proto-Three Kingdoms Period The Samhan are thought to have formed around the time of the fall of Gojoseon in 108 BC, coinciding with the decline of the Jin state. Around the third century CE, they were conquered by and absorbed into the Three Kingdoms of Korea. During this time, Baekje and Silla were incipient states within the Han confederacies, and Goguryeo had not yet conquered the neighboring Buyeo, Okjeo, and Dongye in the northern Korean peninsula and Manchuria. This period is often considered a subdivision of the Three Kingdom period, but is sometimes called Proto-Three-Kingdoms period. Sam means "three", and Han is a Korean word meaning "great" or "leader." Han was transliterated into Chinese characters 韓, 幹, or 刊, but is unrelated with the Chinese people and states also called Han. The name of this period is reflected in the current name of South Korea, Daehan Minguk (literally, "Great Han People's Nation"). See Names of Korea.

Three Hans

:Main articles: Byeonhan, Jinhan, Mahan The Samhan are generally considered confederated kingdoms composed of walled-town states. Each appears to have had a ruling elite, whose power was a mix of politics and shamanism. Although each state appears to have had its own ruler, there is no evidence of systematic succession. The name of the poorly understood Jin state continued to be used in the name of the Jinhan confederacy and in the name "Byeonjin," an alternate term for Byeonhan. In addition, for some time the leader of Mahan continued to call himself the King of Jin, asserting nominal overlordship over all of the Samhan confederations. Byeonhan included 12 minor states, which later gave rise to the Gaya confederacy, subsequently absorbed by Silla. It is usually considered to have been located in the Nakdong River valley. Jinhan included 12 minor states, one of which would later become Silla. It is usually considered to have been located along the Sea of Japan (East Sea) coast. Mahan was the largest of the three confederacies. It was reckoned to include 54 minor states, one of which was the precursor of Baekje. Mahan is usually considered to have been located in the southwest of the peninsula, covering Jeolla, Chungcheong, and portions of Gyeonggi.

Geography

The exact locations occupied by the different Samhan confederations are disputed. It is also quite likely that their boundaries changed over time. Samguk Sagi indicates that Mahan was located in the northern region later occupied by Goguryeo, Jinhan in the region later occupied by Silla, and Byeonhan in the southwestern region later occupied by Baekje. However, the earlier Chinese San guo zhi places Mahan in the southwest, Jinhan in the southeast, and Byeonhan between them. Villages were usually constructed deep in high mountain valleys, where they were relatively secure from attack. Mountain fortresses were also often constructed as places of refuge during war. The minor states which made up the federations are usually considered to have covered about as much land as a modern-day myeon, or township. Based on historical and archeological records, river and sea routes appear to have been the primary means of long-distance transportation and trade (Yi, 2001, p. 246). It is thus not surprising that Jinhan and Byeonhan, with their coastal and river locations, became particularly prominent in international trade during this time.

Technology

The Samhan saw the systematic introduction of iron into the southern Korean peninsula. This was taken up with particular intensity by the Byeonhan states of the Nakdong River valley, which manufactured and exported iron armor and weapons throughout Northeast Asia. The introduction of iron technology also facilitated growth in agriculture, as iron tools made the clearing and cultivation of land much easier. It appears that at this time the modern-day Jeolla area emerged as a center of rice production (Kim, 1974).

Relations

Until the rise of Goguryeo, the external relations of Samhan were largely limited to the Chinese commanderies located in the northern part of the peninsula. The longest standing of these, the Lelang commandery, appear to have maintained separate diplomatic relations with each individual state rather than with the heads of the confederacies as such. In the beginning, the relationship was tributary: a political trading system in which "tribute" was exchanged for titles or prestige gifts. Official seals identified each tribal leader's authority to trade with the commandery. However, after the fall of the Kingdom of Wei in the third century, San guo zhi reports that the Lelang commandery handed out official seals freely to local commoners, no longer symbolizing political authority (Yi, 2001, p. 245). The Chinese commanderies also supplied luxury goods and consumed local products. Han dynasty coins and beads are found throughout the Korean peninsula. These were exchanged for local iron or raw silk. After the second century CE, as Chinese influence waned, iron ingots came into use as currency for the trade based around Jinhan and Byeonhan. Trade relations also existed with the emergent states of Japan at this time, most commonly involving the exchange of ornamental Japanese bronzeware for Korean iron. These trade relations shifted in the third century, when the Yamatai federation of Kyushu gained monopolistic control over Japanese trade with Byeonhan.

References

- Kim, J.-B. (1974). Characteristics of Mahan in ancient Korean society. Korea Journal 14(6), 4-10. [http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?VOLUMENO=14&BOOKNUM=6&PAPERNUM=1]
- Lee, K.-b. (1984). A new history of Korea. Tr. by E.W. Wagner & E.J. Schulz, based on 1979 rev. ed. Seoul: Ilchogak. ISBN 89-337-0204-0
- Yi, H.-h. (2001). International trade system in East Asia from the first to the fourth century. Korea Journal 41(4), 239-268. [http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?VOLUMENO=41&BOOKNUM=4&PAPERNUM=11] Category:Early Korean history Category: Ancient peoples ja:三韓 ko:삼한

Mahan

Mahan was a tribal confederation in Iron Age Korea around the beginning of the Common Era. Along with Jinhan and Byeonhan, Mahan is considered one of the Samhan, or "Three Han." At its height, the Mahan confederation covered much of the modern-day provinces of Gyeonggi, Chungcheong, and Jeolla. Our primary source of information about the Mahan is the Chinese chronicle San Guo Zhi, which includes a list of the 54 tribes in Mahan. The Mahan tribes are also mentioned in the much later Korean chronicles Samguk Yusa and Samguk Sagi. In the first and second centuries AD, the Baekje kingdom gained increasing power among the Mahan tribes, eventually absorbing or conquering all of them. Thus the Three Han gave way to the Three Kingdoms period.

First millennium BC

(2nd millennium BC – 1st millennium BC – 1st millennium – other millennia) ----

Events

- The Iron Age spread to Western Europe
- Egypt declined as a major power
- The Tanakh was written
- Buddhism was founded by Siddharta Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha (6th century BC)
- Jainism was founded by Mahavira (6th century BC)
- Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon and created the Persian Empire (6th century BC)
- Sparta and Athens fought the Peloponnesian War
- Darius the Great expanded the Persian Empire to its greatest reach, which extended from Greece, down towards Egypt, and east towards Pakistan (5th century BC)
- Alexander the Great conquers the Persian Empire (4th century BC)
- Hellenic Greek culture spread through the Mediterranean
- Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire (4th century BC)
- Ashoka the Great expanded the Mauryan Empire to its greatest extant, after conquering most of the Indian subcontinent along with Afghanistan (3rd century BC)
- China was unified under the Qin Dynasty (3rd century BC)
- Celts invaded Western Europe
- The Roman Republic rose and fell
- Rome and Carthage fought the Punic wars
- The Maya civilisation began

Significant persons

- David, Israelite king
- Zoroaster, founder of Zoroastrianism
- Mahavira, founder of Jainism (6th century BC)
- Gautama Buddha, Hindu prince, founder of Buddhism (6th century BC)
- Lao Zi, Chinese philosopher and founder of Taoism (6th century BC)
- Confucius, Chinese philosopher (6th century BC)
- Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire (6th century BC)
- Darius the Great, ruler of the Persian Empire (5th century BC)
- Pānini, Indian Sanskrit grammarian, world's first known linguist, considered the father of computing machines (7th-4th century BC)
- Homer, Greek poet (6th-3rd century BC)
- Isaiah, Hebrew prophet
- Jeremiah, Hebrew prophet
- Ezekiel, Hebrew prophet
- Pericles, Athenian statesman
- Socrates, Greek philosopher
- Plato, Greek philosopher
- Aristotle, Greek philosopher
-