Jiva

In Hinduism and Jainism, a jiva is the immortal essence of a living being, subject to maya. A jiva that is free of maya, i.e. is not tied to a body or earthly existence in any way, is called ãtmã. The Vedic concept of jiva is analogous, but by no means identical, to the concept of soul as presented in Abrahamic religions, and the Sanskrit word "jiva" is therefore best left untranslated.

Evolution of the jiva

The jiva is believed to evolve through many incarnations from mineral to vegetable to animal kingdom, its accumulated karma determining the form of the next birth taken after each death. Many traditons hold that human existence is followed by life on other planets with higher life forms and preceded by life on "lower" planets. Jains believe that the jiva can eventually transcend the miseries of life - often via reincarnation - thus escaping samsara, via moksha. In order to accomplish this, one should strive to avoid materialism and seek to "purify" one's personal ethics. One who accomplishes this, is a Jina (winner or conqueror). Hindu beliefs are similar, but differ in the means of achieving moksha and in that the jiva is then believed to reside with God. In Surat Shabda Yoga beliefs, attaining Self-Realization and above results in jivan moksha/mukti (liberation/release from the cycle of karma and reincarnation while in the physical body – spiritual freedom here and now). See also: Tirthankara Category:Shabd paths Category:Jainism

Hinduism

:This article is about the Hindu religion; for other meanings of the word, see Hindu (disambiguation). Hinduism (हिन्दू धर्म; also known as Sanātana Dharma - सनातन धर्म, and Vaidika-Dharma - वैदिक धर्म) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the Vedas and is the direct descendent of the Vedic Indo-Iranian religion. It encompasses many religious traditions that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. An array of deities are worshipped. Beliefs, codes and principles vary from region to region. It has proven impossible to trace the beginning of Vedic religion, although modern estimates of Hinduism's origin vary from 3102 BCE to 1300 BCE. It is also the third largest religion in the world with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Ninety-eight percent of Hindus can be found on the Indian subcontinent, chiefly in India. It is noteworthy however that the relatively small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion. See Hindu for more about a Hindu and different communities of Hindus.
Core Concepts

The Eternal Way
"Sanātana Dharma" (सनातन धर्म, The Eternal Values ), Hinduism's traditional name, speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within and beyond our existence, the unsullied Soul of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine Brahman (ब्रह्मन्, pronounced as "brəhmən", nominative singular being ब्रह्म or "brəhmə"), the Supreme immanent and transcendent Reality or the Cosmic Spirit. Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following mantra: :OM Asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya, mrityor māmritam gamaya :"OM Lead me from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality." mantra
Basic beliefs
What can be said to be common to all Hindus is the belief in Dharma (duties and obligations), Reincarnation (rebirth), Karma ("actions", leading to a cause and effect relationship), and Moksha (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as Bhakti (devotion), Karma (action) and Jnana (knowledge), and of course, belief in God (Ishvara). Reincarnation or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains Moksha, is governed by Karma. The philosophy of Karma lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the soul or the self, called as ātman. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the divine supreme and lead to a birth with higher-consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the divine supreme and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal Dharma, which is the natural law. Even Heaven (svarga) and Hell (naraka) are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the "universal spirit" (depending on belief), is known as moksha, which is the ultimate goal of Hindus. The other principles include the guru/chela dynamic, the Divinity of Word of OM and the power of mantras (religious hymn), manifestations of the divine's spirit in all forms of existence (pantheism); that is an understanding that the essential spark of the (Atman/Brahman) is in every living being, the concept that all human beings are divine.
Practice (Yoga Dharma)
Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service (Karma Yoga), knowledge and meditation (Jnana or Raja Yoga). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu Yoga: The Bhagavad Gita and the Yoga Sutras. The Upanishads are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs and can also be used to categorize non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to moksha, or nirvana.
The four objectives Of Life
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the purusharthas, the "four objectives of life". They are kama, artha, dharma and moksha. It is said that all humans seek kama (pleasure, physical or emotional) and artha (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of dharma (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is moksha (salvation), also known as Mukti (spiritual liberation), Samadhi, Nirvana, or escape from Samsara (the cycle of birth and death).
The four stages of Life
Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four Ashramas ("phases" or "stages"). They are Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. The first quarter of one's life, Brahmacharya ("meditation in Brahma") is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as the renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed the body for the next life. sanyasa]]
Nature of God
The Vedas depict Brahman as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul (Param-atman), One without form, shape, gender, begining or the end (Nirguna, Nirankara). In Hinduism God is a form of Cosmic Energy or Universal Power to create, to preserve and to destroy. To make it easily understandable to primitive people more than five thousand years ago, a concept of the Trinity - god of creation (Brahma), god of preservation (Vishnu) and god of destruction (Shiva) - gods with various human forms and symbols was introduced. To humanize it further and to emphasize the importance of righteous way of life, there is a feminine aspect to the Trinity (Sarswati, Lakshmi and Parpati, respectively) and even their offsprings (Ganesha and Kartikeya). Hinduism because of its very concept, even incorporated some the religious beliefs, gods and goddesses of native peoples conquered by early Hindus. Some people misunderstand Hinduism as multigod religion but that is absolutely untrue. There also exists the lord of the universe, whom some call as Vishnu and some as Shiva, and other devas as different aspects of the potency of one Brahman. Brahman is the indescribable, inexhaustible, incorporeal, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal, both transcendent and immanent, absolute infinite existence, and the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end , who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. Brahman (not to be confused with the deity Brahmā) is seen as a panentheistic "universal spirit". The personality behind Brahman is known as Parabrahman (The superior Brahman). Unlike Abrahamic religions which believe in a strictly personal God, Hindus believe in a both the personal and impersonal concept of God, usually called as Ishvara (ईश्वर, lit., the Supreme Lord). Hindus maintain that Ishvara is One and only One, although He can be viewed as having many manifestations such as Vishnu or transformations such as Shiva while Vaishnavites and Shaivites view Vishnu or Shiva respectively to be the same as Ishvara. The terms Ishvara and devas must not be confused. Devas could be as numerous as 330 million. These Devas may variously be translated into English as gods, demi-gods, deities, spirits or angels. Ishvara could be viewed in any way, as a non-corporeal, infinite, spiritual being, or as anthropomorphic deities such as Shiva and Vishnu, for the sake of devotional worship. Note that Brahmā, Vishnu and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as Mahadevas. Brahman is viewed as without personal attributes (Nirguna Brahman) or with attributes (Saguna Brahman, equated with Ishvara) as God. In Advaita Vedanta, Ishvara is simply the manifested form of Brahman upon the human mind. Thus according to Smarta views, the divine can be with attributes, Saguna Brahman, and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female goddess) a devotee conceives. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, Saguna Brahman such Vishnu or Shiva is viewed as male. Vaishnavites consider Vishnu to be the source of Brahman. The divine power (or energy) of God is personified as female or Shakti. However, the Divine and divine energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents the divine and the actual heat Shakti. Though all the different paths of Moksha (salvation) are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of Brahman and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by Smarta traditions, depicts an inclusively monotheistic religion, which accordingly holds that the different deities are simply different manifestations of the One God.
Denominations
Each of the Hinduism's four major denominations share rituals, beliefs, traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (moksha, salvation) and on their concept of God (Ishvara). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all. Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. Just as Jews, Christians and Muslims differ on their view of God, Hindus believe in one God but differ in their views of God. The two primary form of differences are between the sects of Vaishnavism which conceives God as Vishnu, and Shaivism which conceives God as Shiva. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. Shaktism worships a female divine or goddess Devi or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of Shiva personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a pantheistic God. The Trimurti concept (also called the Hindu trinity) of Smartism denotes the three aspects of the divine as Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Shiva the Destroyer. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Arya Samaj which condemns iconolatry, veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire-sacrifices (yajña).
Smārtism
Smārtas invariably follow Advaita (monist) philosophy, seeing multiple manifestations emanating from a single source called Brahman. It is seen as ultimate unity, with the personal gods (deities) being different manifestations of Brahman which can be called by different names. Smārtism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly. The Smārta perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West because of the influence of eminent Smārtins like Swami Vivekananda.
Vaishnavism
A Vaishnavite considers Vishnu (विष्णु) as the supreme being, and considers other deities as subordinate (like demi-gods). Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that Vishnu ultimately grants moksha. Vaisnavites, consider worship of other gods as secondary due to Krishna's (who is a form of Vishnu) sayings in the Gita : Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, their wishes are granted by Me (Gita: 7:21-22) O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other subordinate deities (e.g., Devas, for example) with faith, they also worship Me, [but] following non-injunction (Gita: 9:23).
Shaivism
Vivekananda, the capital of Nepal. It is regarded by Hindus as one of the most sacred temples of Shiva.]] Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that Shiva (शिव) is the supreme being and all other deities sprung forth from him. They follow either monistic or dualistic philosophies.
Shaktism
Shaktas worship Shakti (or Devi) in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of masculine and neuter divinity. The "History of the Shakta Religion" explains that The Shaktas conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature. It is associated with Vedanta, Samkhya and Tantra philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of Bhakti yoga associated with it. Shaivite views often consider Shaktism to be sub-denomination of Saivism, arguing that Devi is worshipped as female in order to attain union with Siva, who in Saivism is the male counterpart of Devi and in Shaktism, is viewed as the formless Absolute.
Hindu sacred texts
The overwhelming majority of Hindu sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures. The Bhagavad Gita, or Song Celestial, is one of three traditional epic books. The others are the Ramayana and the Maha Bharata. The Eighteen Puranas, or Ancients, are divided into three groups of six. The Vedas, the Bhagavad Gita, the Ramayana and the Maha Bharata, the Puranas, and the Manu Smiriti. The Vedas are books that tell about rules that all Hindus have to follow. The Puranas' groups and their contents are: 1) the Brahma Puranas: Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, and the Vamana Purana; 2) the Vishnu Puranas: the Vishnu Purana, the Bhagavata Purana, the Naradeya Purana, the Garuda Purana, the Padma Purana, and the Varaha Purana; and 3) the Shiva Puranas: the Vayu Purana, the Lingu Purana, the Skanda Purana, the Agni Purana, the Matsya Purana, and the Karma Purana.
Shruti
The Vedas (वेद, literally, "Knowledge") are considered as Shruti by Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the Brahman to the rishis while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the Vedas, there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of "Eternal Knowledge". The four Vedas (the Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas) are various shakhas or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (mantra) or the Samhitā (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are the Brāhmaņas (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with Brahman) containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the Āranyakas (आरण्यक) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the Upanişhads (उपनिषद्) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul (Atman) and the Brahman. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals associated with like, like the Dharmashastras, Grihyasutras, etc but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the Shruti or Vedic literature. The Upanishads set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each man, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Vedas, Classical Hinduism, from the Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was moulded around the Upanishads. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vrtti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauna vrtti) as secondary: saksad upadesas tu srutih - "The instructions of the sruti-sastra should be accepted literally, without so-called fanciful or allegorical interpretations." (Jiva Gosvami, Krsna Sandarbha 29.26-27). The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as "purifying" by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its perfect preservation. Upanishads
Bhagavad Gita
A core sacred text of Hinduism and its philosophy, the Bhagavad Gita (भगवद् गीता), often referred to as the Gita, is a summation of the Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and Tantric philosophies. The Bhagavad Gita, meaning "The Song Divine", refers to itself as a 'Yoga Upanishad' and is sometimes called Gītopanişad. It expounds on Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jnana Yoga. It is an integral part of the epic Mahabharata. While technically it is considered as Smriti text, it has singularly achieved nearly the status of Shruti, or revealed knowledge. The Bhagavad-gita is described as the essence of the Vedas. This Gita is easy to follow and is also one of the most popular books in Hinduism. Unlike the Vedas, that are most esoteric and intricate, the Gita is read by many practicing Hindus.
Smriti
The other Hindu texts form the latter category, the most notable of which are the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, major epics considered sacred by all followers of Sanatana Dharma. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the Shrimad Bhagavatam, described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to Vishnu as the highest goal, Devi Mahatmya, an ode to Devi, and the Yoga Sutras, a key meditative yoga text of Shri Patanjali. There are also a number of revered Hindu Tantras, the Manusmriti, the 18 Puranas which vividly describe later Hinduism's deities and mythology, and Sutras that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the Mahanirvana Tantra, Tirumantiram and Shiva Sutras. The Ramayana, Mahabharata and many Puranas are much more widely read by today's Hindus than the Vedas, and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. Other important scriptures are the sectarian Hindu Agamas which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. The Shrutis take precedence over Smriti in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. Vaishnavas regard the Puranas to be as authoritative as the Vedas.
Origins and society

Origins of Hinduism
Devi, Orissa is one of the most famous stone monument in the world. The temple is conceived as a massive 24-wheel chariot of the Sun God Surya.]] Hinduism is the world's oldest major religion in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the Sanatana Dharma propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. Hindu puranas and astronomical evidence within place Lord Krishna's birth at a date of 3100 BCE Krishna's incarnation was preceded by Lord Rama's, sometimes dated at over 5,000 BCE, or even millions of years ago according to the Ramayana. It is believed by many Hindus that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord Rama, believed to be the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Modern indology, on the other hand, suggests that Hinduism only developed sometime between 1500-1300 BCE based on the linguistic and literary dating of the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Hindu spiritual texts. This, however, is based on the Aryan invasion theory, which has increasingly been doubted due to archaeological findings suggesting that there was never such an invasion. The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called rişhis, over a long period of time. The Vedas are said to have been transmitted to Lord Brahma by Lord Vishnu via meditative trance at the beginning of each creation. The term 'Hindu' itself is a corrupt form of the word 'Sindhu', which literally means 'dweller across the Indus Valley'. The religion is often named (more appropriately) as Sanatana Dharma in all of its books. Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism, is regarded to be an Arya Dharma, meaning, a noble religion.
Etymology
Though linguists and historians haven't reached a consensus, the term Hindu is generally accepted to be derived from the name of the Sindhu (सिन्धु, i.e., the Indus) river, which is known as Hindu in Persian. The term was used for people that lived around or beyond the Sindhu. In this region, Mohan-jo-Daro civilization is documented to be around five thousand years old. As evidenced by its structure, this was a very advanced civilization. Hinduism probably existed long before that. In the Iranian linguistic branch, the 's' of the Indic branch (as represented by Sanskrit) is cognate with the 'h' sound of Iranian (as represented by Avestan and Old Persian). In the Rig Veda, the Indo-Aryans mention their expanse as sapta sindhu (the land of seven rivers). This became The term Hapta-Hindu in Avesta (Vendidad: Fargard 1.18). Hindu (In-du or In-tu in China) is still used in some languages to denote an Indian or India. The Greek term "India" was originally pronounced Hindia, as in classical Greek there was no character for "h". In modern Persian and Arabic, the term Hindustan denotes the Indian subcontinent, and Hind or Al-Hind is used to denote the Republic of India. The word Hindu (हिन्दु), possibly due to Iranian influence, in the sense of people of India, is used in some early-medieval Sanskrit texts like BhaviŞhya Purāņa, Kālikā Purāņa, Merutantra, Rāmakosha, Hemantakavikosha and Adbhutarūpakosha. India is also traditionally, but unofficially called Hindustan or Hind in Hindi, Persian, Arabic, etc. Note that the word Hindustan also has other meanings. Until about 19th century the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic censuses and established a legal system, the need arose to define Hinduism as a distinct religion, along the lines of Christianity or Islam. Some scholars, such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, defined it as a religion based on the Vedas, using the analogy of the Bible being the basis of Christianity and the Koran being the Muslim scripture. That even an atheist may be called a Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far more than a simple religious system; it is actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving philosophies and ancient traditions.
Vedic religion
Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Rigveda centers on worship of the deities Indra and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They would perform fire-sacrifices called yajña (यज्ञ) with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The Ashvamedha was the most important sacrifice described in the Yajurveda, possibly performed for the last time by Samudragupta in the 4th century. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the Avesta, which are sometimes traced back to either the influence of the 3rd millennium BC Indus Valley Civilisation, or to a 2nd millennium BC Indo-Iranian migration (see Aryan invasion theory), or to a combination of these.
Hindu nationalism
Main Articles: Hindu Nationalism, Hindutva, Hindu Rashtra In the 20th century, emerging Indian nationalism began to emphasize Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to Islam, and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed Hindutva ("Hinduness", paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since "Hindu" is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that "no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms 'Hindu', 'Hindutva' and 'Hinduism'; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage." Hindutva ideology was enunciated first by Savarkar in his seminal work 'Hindutva'. Hindutva ideology rose to importance in Indian politics in the 1980s and is chiefly associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh movement. It has come to symbolize the rising bi-polarization of Indian polity in the late 1990's and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in the same period. One of their short term aims is to rebuild a Rama temple at the site of the controversial Babri mosque in Ayodhya. Rama was said to have born on that site, over which probably the Mughal commander Mir Baki had built the Babri mosque after destroying the Vaishnavite temple commemorating the birthplace, in his alleged frenzy of iconoclasm.
Temples
iconoclasm by the instructions of Bhagwan Swaminarayan.]] Swaminarayan Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the agama shastras and many are sites of pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four Shankaracharyas (the abbots of the monasteries of Badrinath, Puri, Sringeri and Dwarka, four of the holiest pilgrimage centers) are viewed as the four highest Patriarchs of the Hindudom. Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the divine), puja, meditation, and religious congregation among other religious activities. Puja or worship, frequently uses the aid of a murti (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of mantras. Devotional songs called bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), kirtan (devotional songs), and arti are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion. This form of icon and temple worship, puja, is integral to the Bhakti cult. Most Hindu homes also have a section devoted for daily worship of the deities with religious icons and meditation.
Current geographic distribution
Bhakti.]] Bhakti.]] Of the total Hindu population of the world, about 94% (890 million) live in India (i.e. Bharat). Nepal, some Indonesian islands, Bhutan, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, Fiji, Guyana, Singapore, and Suriname have significant density of Hindu populations. In Nepal and Bali the major religion is Hinduism and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. Prior to the arrival of Islam, areas of the region now known as Afghanistan and Pakistan were also predominantly Hindu or Buddhist. Apart from these countries Bangladesh (14.4 million), Sri Lanka (3 million), Pakistan (2.5 million), Malaysia (1.5 million), United States (1.5 million), South Africa (1.1 million) and the Middle East (1 million) also have sizable Hindu populations.
Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought
The six Āstika or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Sāmkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mīmāmsā (also called just 'Mīmāmsā'), and Uttara Mīmāmsā (also called 'Vedanta'). The non-Vedic schools are called Nāstika, or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are Purva Mimamsa, Yoga, and Vedanta. See Hindu philosophy for a discussion of the historical significance of Samkhya, Nyaya, and Vaisheshika.
Pūrva Mīmāmsā
The main objective of Pūrva ("earlier") Mīmāmsā school (also simply called Mīmāmsā) was to firmly establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought led to later development of advaita philosophy which is key to the Sanatana/Hindu Dharma and was especially championed by philosophers like Adi Sankara and Swami Vivekananda.
Yoga
Swami Vivekananda Yoga means union and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goals are moksha or samadhi. It, like the Upanishads, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit (Purusha) and the nature (Prakriti), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God (Ishvara). Upanishads, sage Patanjali's Yoga Sutra and the Bhagavad Gita are indispensable literature in the study of Yoga and elaborate on Raja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga and Gyana Yoga. Of these, the Yoga Sutra is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy.
Uttara Mimāmsā: Vedānta and its three main schools
The Uttara ("later") Mimāmsā school, also called as Vedanta, is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal and revival of Hinduism, and established strong philosophical foundation. Primarily associated with the Upanishads and their commentaries by Bādarāyaņa — the Vedanta Sutras, Vedānta thought, according to the pre-Shankaran Buddhist sources (Aryadeva, Kamalashila, Bhavya) monotheistic, later split into three principal groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of Adi Sankara. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by Vedantic thought, which focused on unity of the whole God. The great debate between followers the major Hindu philosophical school, Advaita and the schools such as those of Ramanuja and Madhva, focused on the true nature of Brahman, on whether Brahman was essentially monistic, qualified non-dualistic or dualistic in nature.
Pure monism: Advaita Vedanta
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) philosophy, which emphasizes oneness of all Divine. Its proponent was Sankara (788?-820?). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upanishads and his own guru Govinda Bhagavadpada. By the analysis of Vedas, he proposed the relative nature of the Universe and established the non-dual nature of Brahman in which Atman (the individual soul) and Brahman (the Ultimate Reality) are identified to be identical. To Advaitists (nondualists) Ultimate Reality is best expressed as Nirguna Brahman, or God without form, or God without physical attributes; indeed, some might go so far as to say it is not 'God' but something beyond - the Godhead. However, even that definition can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends all definitions. All personal forms of God (Ishvara) such as Vishnu or Shiva are different aspects of Nirguna Brahman in physical form, or God with attributes, Saguna Brahman. In fact, when man tries to know the Supreme Spirit (Brahman) through his mind, Brahman becomes the Supreme Lord (Ishvara), under the effect of an illusioanry power of Brahman called Māyā. True knowledge of the Brahman (Jñāna) is the only way to liberation. God's energy may also be personified as Devi, the Divine Mother. For Vaishnvaites who follow Ramanuja's philosophy, Devi is Lakshmi, who is the Mother of all and who pleads with Vishnu for mankind for salvation. For Shaivites, Devi is Parvati. For Shaktas, who worship Devi, Devi is the physical form of God. See Advaita Vedanta for more.
Qualified monism: Vishistadvaita Bhakti
Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Nārāyaņa as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), chit (soul) and achit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God Vishnu for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Rāmānuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism. Karma along with Bhakti for is the true path for liberation.
Dualism: Dvaita Bhakti
Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1238 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta. Bhakti is the only way for liberation.
Alternative cultures of worship

The Bhakti schools
Bhakti and Parvati. He is widely worshipped as Vignesh, the remover of obstacles.]] The Bhakti (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming devotion of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to relate to the personal form of God. Seen as a form of Yoga, or union, it seeks to interlink the self with God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a limiting factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the devotion of God. The Bhakti movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of devotion and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing elaborate rituals.
Tantra
This is one of the least understood areas of Hinduism. A tantra literally means an act. A mantra is a hymn or sacred words associated with a deity. A mantra is associated with an Yantra ,which is a mystical digram. All acts of worship which include Mantras,Yantras are called Tantras. Tantras can be divided into two paths - The right hand path( also known as samayachara or Dakshinachara) and the Left hand path (Vamachara). Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. :For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given, said Shiva on the Kaula school of Tantrism. The word "tantra" also means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and Yoga.
Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism
Yoga (made out of ash, referred to as vibhuti) and on his chest a rudraksha (eye of Rudra) and mala (rosary), both symbols of Lord Shiva.]]
Tilaka (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows)
The tilaka (or tilak) is a mark worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. It is believed to symbolize the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye." It is most commonly seen as a dot (or Bindu) worn by women, especially married women, and carries connotations of marriage and auspiciousness. Hindus stress meditation to acquire knowledge beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god Shiva. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent Ţīkā (tilaka) mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for Vishnu, a group of three horizontal lines for Shiva. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).
Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow
, Sacred cow, Vegetarianism Ahimsa is a concept which advocates non-violence and a respect for all life — human, as well as animal. The term ahimsa first appears in the Upanishads and in Raja Yoga, it is the first of the five yamas, or eternal vows/restraints of yoga. A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in South India, in certain northerly states like Gujarat, where there is significant Jain influence, and in many Brahmin and Marwari enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian - primarily lacto-vegetarian. Some avoid even onion and garlic, as they are regarded as rajasic. Those Hindus who do eat meat predominantly abstain from beef, some even avoid the usage of leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations relied so heavily on the cow for dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (so the term gau mata). While most Hindus do not worship the cow, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that Krishna is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and Shiva's attendant is Nandi, the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days) and the sacred nature of the cow (Sacred cow), it is no wonder that most Hindu holy cities have a ban on selling beef.
Hindu symbolism
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, two are quintessentially a part of its culture and representative of its general ethos: Sacred cow] Sacred cow)]] Aum (ॐ) is the sacred symbol of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu mantras and prayers. Its contains a deep symbolic message; which is considered as divine primordial vibration of the Universe which represents all existence, encompassing all of nature into the One Ultimate Reality. Swastika (卐) is an Arya, or noble and auspicious symbol. It stands for satya, truth, and stability within the power of Brahma or, alternatively, of Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used in ancient cultures around the world and predominantly in Hinduism since the early Vedic culture and is still widespread in the Indian subcontinent. Many other cultures still hold it to be auspicious, especially in India, in spite of the recent association with Nazism which used a modified version of this symbol.
Murtis (icons)
Nazism, is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art]] Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks contact with the personal source of Brahman, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. Worship of God is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons (mūrti) which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of God. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines). In a Hindu Temple, the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. Veneration of such Mūrtis is done everyday in a temple. Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a temple in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues. Some of deities worshipped are Vishnu (as Krishna or Rama), Swaminarayan, Shiva, Devi (the Mother as many female deities, such as Lakshmi, Saraswati, Kali and Durga), Ganesha, Agni, Skanda and Hanuman. Also, the Puranas list twenty-five avatara of Vishnu : Caturasana, Narad, Varaha, Matsya, Yajna, Nara-Narayana, Kapila, Dattatreya, Hayasirsa, Hamsa, from Mathura]] Jainism (pronounced in English as //), traditionally known as Jain Dharma (जैन धर्म) , is a classical religion with its origins in the prehistory of India. The Jains, although a small minority in India now, have continued to sustain the shraman (श्रमण) tradition. Jainism is significantly influential in both the ethical and economic spheres in India. Jainism places great stress on compassion to all living beings. Self-control (व्रत, vrata in Sanskrit) forms a central part of being a Jain. A lay Jain is termed a shravaka (श्रावक) i.e. a listener. The Jain Sangha (संघ) has four components: monks (साधु), nuns, lay men and women.
Overview of Jain Dharma
According to Jain beliefs, Jain philosophy is a codification of eternal universal truths which at times lapse among humanity, but later reappear through the teachings of human beings who have gained enlightenment or omniscience (Keval Gnan). According to jain tradition, Lord Rishabha (ऋषभ, sometimes pronounced as िरषभ) was the first human to receive the philosophy in this part of the universe, in the present cycle, and more recently Vardhaman Mahavira (599–527 BCE), or Lord Mahavira (महावीर). Jainism teaches that every single living thing is an individual and eternal soul, called jīva, which is responsible for its own actions. Jains see their faith as teaching the individual to live, think and act in ways that respect and honor the spiritual nature of every living being to the best of one's human abilities. Jains view God as the unchanging traits of the pure soul of each living being, chief among them being Infinite Knowledge, Perception, Consciousness, and Happiness ('Ananta Gnana, Darshan, Chaitanya,' and 'Sukh') — but as such does not believe in any single Omnipotent Supreme Being (see Ishvara). The universe itself is seen as being eternal, having no beginning and no end, precluding God from being any creator. The primary figures of Jainism are the Tirthankaras. Jainism has two main variants: Digambar and Shvetambar. Jains believe in ahimsa (or ahinsā), asceticism, karma, samsara, and the jiva. Jain philosophy has many scriptures written over a long period of time. One of the most cited scripture among all Jains is Tattvartha Sutra, or Book of Realities written over 18 centuries ago by the monk-scholar Umasvati (also known as Umasvami). The holy Vedas of the orthodox Hindus is not regarded as authoritative, and hence, Jainism (along with Buddhism) is a Shramana Paramparā (monastic tradition) as opposed to orthodox Hinduism which is a Vaidika Paramparā (Vedic tradition). Compassion to all fellow living beings (along with humans) is central to being a Jain. Jainism is the only religion where all followers, both monks and practicing lay persons, are traditionally vegetarian. In regions of India with strong Jain influence, often the majority of the population is vegetarian. In many towns, the Jains run animal shelters. In Delhi, there is a bird hospital run by a Jain temple. Many historians believe that Hinduism adopted vegetarianism as a recommendation (though never a requirement or a dogma) because of the strong influence of Jainism and Buddhism. As part of its stance on nonviolence, Jainism goes even beyond vegetarianism, in that the Jain diet also excludes most root vegetables as Jains believe such vegetables have an infinite number of individual souls, invisible to the naked eye. Jains also do not eat certain other foods believed to be unnecessarily injurious. Observant Jains do not eat, drink or travel after sunset and always rise before sunrise. Anekantavada, meaning simultaneous validity of multiple points of view is an important principle in Jainism. Another foundational principle of Jainism is the theory of relativity of knowledge, ie, Syādvāda. The Jains can be remarkably open minded towards other dharmas. There are several Hindu temples that are administered by Jain individuals. The Jain Heggade family has run the institutions of Dharmasthala including the Manjunath Temple for eight centuries. There are examples of Jains donating money for building churches and mosques. In India the Jains have often helped organize multi-religious discussions and functions. They have also sometimes been involved in activities to promote harmony among followers of rival faiths to help defuse communal tensions. Jains have been an important presence in Indian culture, contributing to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, sciences and the politics of Mohandas Gandhi which led to Indian independence.
Universal History and Jain Cosmology
According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each of these upward or downward cycles is divided into six world ages (yugas). The present world age is the fifth age of one of these "cycles", which is in a downward movement. These ages are known as "Aaro" as in "Pehela Aara" or First Age, "Doosra Aara" or Second Age and so on. The last one is the "Chhatha Aara" or Sixth Age. All these ages have fixed time durations of thousands of years. When this reaches its lowest level, even Jainism itself will be lost in its entirety. Then, in the course of the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders called Tirthankaras (literally "Crossing Makers" or "Ford Finders"), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on. In each of these enormously long alternations of time there are always twenty-four Tirthankaras. In the current world age, the twenty-third Tirthankar was Parshva, an ascetic and teacher, whose traditional dates are 877-777 BC, i.e., 250 years before the passing of the last Tirthankar Lord Mahavira in 527 BC. Jains regard him and all Tirthankars as a reformer who called for a return to beliefs and practices in line with the eternal universal philosophy upon which the faith is said to be based. Hence the epithet Bhagavan is applied to Mahavira and most other Tirathankaras in the sense of the Venerable One. Bhagavan is shelter from ocean of rebirths]] The twenty-fourth and final Tirthankar of this age is known by his title, Mahāvīr, the Great Hero (599-527 BC). He too was a wandering ascetic teacher who attempted to recall the Jains to the rigorous practice of their ancient faith. Jains believe that reality is made up of two eternal principles, jiva and ajiva. Jiva consists of an infinite number of identical spiritual units; ajiva (that is, non-jiva) is matter in all its forms and the conditions under which matter exists: time, space, and movement. Both jiva and ajiva are eternal; they never came into existence for the first time and will never cease to exist. The whole world is made up of jivas trapped in ajiva; there are jivas in rocks, plants, insects, animals, human beings, spirits, et cetera. Any contact whatsoever of the jiva with the ajiva causes the former to suffer. Thus the Jains believed that existence in this world inevitably means suffering. Neither social reform nor the reform of individuals themselves can ever stop suffering. In every human being, a jiva is trapped, and the jiva suffers because of its contact with ajiva. The only way to escape from suffering is for the jiva to completely escape from the human condition, from human existence. Karma and transmigration keep the jiva trapped in ajiva. Achieving release from the human condition is difficult. The Jains believe that the jiva continues to suffer during all its lives or reincarnations, which are of an indefinite number. They believe that every action that a person performs, be it good or evil, opens up channels of the senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste and smell), through which an invisible substance, karma, filters in and adheres to the jiva within, weighing it down and determining the conditions of the next reincarnation. The consequence of evil actions is a heavy karma, which weighs the jiva down, forcing it to enter its new life at a lower level in the scale of existence. The consequence of good deeds, on the other hand, is a light karma, which allows the jiva to rise in its next life to a higher level in the scale of existence, where there is less suffering to be endured. However, good deeds alone can never lead to release. karma The way to moksha (release or liberation) is withdrawal from the world. Karma is the cause-and-effect mechanism by virtue of which all actions have inescapable consequences. Karma operates to keep the jiva chained in an unending series of lifetimes in which the jiva suffers to a greater or lesser extent. Thus the way of escape must involve an escape from karma, the destruction of all karma and the avoidance of new karma. Then, at death, with no karma to weigh it down, the jiva will float free of all ajiva, free of the human condition, free of all future embodiments. It will rise to the top of the universe to a place or state called Siddhashila, where the jiva, identical with all other pure jivas, will experience its own true nature in eternal stillness, isolation and noninvolvement. It will be totally free. The way to burn up old karma is to withdraw from all involvement in the world as much as possible, and close the channel of the senses and the mind to prevent karmic matter from entering and adhering to the jiva. Such kind of an eternal liberation from the unbinding of the Jiva and the Pudgala (ajiva), such that no new reincarnation occurs into the material world, is called as Moksha. Ignorance (ajñāna) is the cause of binding, and true knowledge (kevala jñāna) is the cause of liberation. S. Vernon McCasland, Grace E. Cairns and David C. Yu describe Jain cosmology after the following manner: :"In Jain tradition, the first teacher of the religion, Rishabha, lived in the third period of Avasarpini, during which half of the world cycle things are getting worse. Since evil had begun to be found, a teacher called a Tirthankara was needed in order for people to cope with the problems of life. In the fourth period, evils proliferated such that twenty-three more Tirthankaras came into the world to teach people how to defeat evil and achieve mokasha. The present time, part of the fifth period, is 'wholly evil.' Now, men live no longer than 125 years, but the sixth epoch will be even worse. 'Man's life span will be only sixteen to twenty years and his height will be reduced to the size of a dwarf. . . . But then the slow upward movement of the first half of the world cycle, Utsarpini, will begin. There will be steady improvement until, in the first era, man's needs will be fulfilled by wishing trees, and man's height will be six miles, and evil will be unknown.' However, eventually things will degenerate again, with a repeat of Avasarpini; Usarpini will come again afterwards, in a neverending cycle, according to Jain cosmology." (McCasland, Cairns, and Yu, Religions of the World, New York: Random House, 1969: pages 485-486)
Beliefs and practices
Moksha." The wheel represents the dharma-chakra. This logo represents halting the cycle of reincarnation through relentless pursuit of truth.]] On one hand, there are the monks, who practice severe asceticism and strive to make this birth their last. On the other hand, there are the lay people, who pursue less rigorous practices, striving to attain rational faith and do good deeds in this birth. Due to the strict ethics embedded in Jainism, the laity must choose a profession and livelihood that does not involve violence to self and other living beings. In their effort to attain their highest and most exalted state of being a Siddha, which is the permanent release of the jiva from all involvement in worldly existence, the Jains believe that no spirit or divine being can assist them in any way. The Jains consider that the devas (angels or celestial beings) cannot help the jiva to obtain release. This has to be achieved by individuals through their own efforts. In fact, the devas cannot even gain their own release until they are reincarnated as humans and undertake the difficult actions of removing the karmas. The ethical code of Jainism is taken very seriously. Summarized in the Five Vows, they are followed by both lay people and monastics. These are: #Nonviolence (ahinsa, or ahimsa) #Truth (satya) #Non-stealing (asteya) #Chastity (brahmacharya) #Non-possession or Non-possessiveness (aparigrah) For lay people, 'chastity' means confining sexual experience to the marriage relationship. For monks/nuns, it means complete celibacy. Nonviolence involves being strictly vegetarian. The Jain is expected to follow the principle of non-violence in all his/her thoughts, words and deeds, not only towards fellow human beings, but also towards all living creature. There are some Jains who wear masks over their mouths and noses to avoid any possibility of breathing in tiny insects. Along with the above 5 traits JAINS also believe in forgiving others and keeping no harm feelings against any one in the heart. There is few more things which they completely believe in like AATMA can lead one to become PARMATMA but voice has to come form inner-self and no one can lead some one to any path but can only show the path. Also they think that one should not become angry as that is the biggest enemy on a human. They completely trust in the belief “JEEYO AUR JEENE DO” (live and let others live). Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced by the Jain emphasis on a peaceful, non-harming way of life which is common to the Jain philosophy and made it an integral part of his own philosophy.
Jain Symbols
Jains have few core symbols. One Jain symbol incorporates a wheel on the palm of the hand. The holiest one is a simple unadorned swastika or svastika. Major Jains symbols include:
- 24 Lanchhanas for Tirthankaras
- The Ashta-mangalas
- Om
- Triratna and Shrivatsa symbols.
- The dreams of Tirthankara's mother
- Dharma-chakra and Siddha-chakra
Jain Literature
The oldest Jain literature is in Ardha-Magadhi and Maharashtri Prakrit (Agamas, Agama-tulya, Siddhanta texts etc). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tatvartha Sutra, Puranas, Koshas, Shravakacharas, Mathematics, Nighantus etc). Jain literature was also written in Apabhramsha (Kahas, rasas, grammars etc), Hindi (Chhah-dhala, Mokshamarga Prakashaka etc), Tamil (Jivakachintamani, Kural etc), Kannada (Vaddaradhane etc.). See Jain literature for more details.
Jain Worship and Rituals
Jains have built temples where images of their Tirthankaras are venerated. Jain rituals can be elaborate and include offerings of symbolic objects, with the Tirthankaras being praised in chant. In some Jain sects, temples and images are not required. Every day Jains bow their heads and say their universal prayer, the Namokar-mantra. All good work and events start with this prayer of salutation and worship. णमो अरिहंताणं - I bow to the Arahantas, the perfected human beings (Tirathankaras), Godmen.
णमो सिद्धाणं - I bow to the Siddhas, liberated bodiless souls, regarded as God.
णमो आयरियाणं - I bow to the Acharyas, the masters and heads of congregations.
णमो उवज्झायाणं - I bow to the Upadhyayas, the spiritual teachers.
णमो लोए सव्व साहुणं - I bow to all the spiritual practitioners in the universe, Sadhus.
एसो पंच णमोकारो - This fivefold obeisance mantra,
सव्व पाप पणासणो - Destroys all sins and obstacles, मंगलाणं च सव्वेसिम - And of all auspicious repetitions,
पढ्मम हवइ मंगलम - Is the first and foremost...
The pronunciation of this great mantra is most important. One who completely knows the pronunciation should only try to rhyme this. The English format of the same is
OM NAMO ARIHANTANAM,
OM NAMO SIDHDHANAM,
OM NAMO AYARIYANAM,
OM NAMO UVAJZAYANAM,
OM NAMO LOE SAVVA SAHUNAM,
ESO PANCH NAMOKKARO,
SAVVA PAV PPANHA SANHO,
MANGALANAM CHA SAVVASIM,
PADHAMAM HAVAI MAMGALAM.,
In the above prayer, Jains salute the virtues of their five benevolent. They do not pray to a specific Tirthankar or monk by name. By saluting them, Jains receive the inspiration from the five benevolent for the right path of true happiness and total freedom from the misery of life. Jain prayers do not ask for any favors or material benefits from their gods, the Tirthankaras or from sadhus and sadhvis. Jain worship may or may not involve temples. The sadhumargi Shvetambar Jains and the followers of Shrimad Rajachandra sect do not have temples. The Taranpanthi Jains have temples, but have books in place of idols. Jain rituals include:
- Pancha-kalyanaka Pratishtha
- Pratikramana
- Guru-vandan, Chaitya vandan etc. The Jain rituals for marriage and other family rites are distinct and uniquely Indian, usually minor variants of those in orthodox Hinduism.
Digambar and Shvetambar Traditions
It is generally believed that the Jain sangha became divided two major sects, Digambar and Shvetambar, about 200 years after the nirvana of Mahāvīr. Bhadrabahu, chief of the Jain monks, foresaw a period of famine and led about 12,000 people, to southern India. Twelve years later, they returned to find that the Svetambar sect had arisen. The followers of Bhadrabahu became known as the Digambar sect. The Digambar monks do not wear any clothes, the Svetambar monks wear white clothes. The sadhvis (lady religiuos persons) of both sects wear white clothes. There are also minor differences in the enumeration and validity of each sect's Agama (sacred) literature. However historians have noted that there was no clear division until the 5th century. The Valabhi council of 453 resulted in editing and compilation of scriptures of the Svetambar tradition. Excavations at Mathura have revealed many Kushana period Jain idols. In all of them the Tirthankaras are represented without clothes. Some of them show monks with only one piece of cloth which is wrapped around the left arm. They are identified as belonging to the ardha-phalaka sect mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniaya sect is believed to have have originated from the Ardha-phalakas. They followed Digambara practice of nudity, but held several beliefs like the Svetambaras. Both traditions are further subdivided into several sects. In recent decades, attempts have been made to bring the sects together. In 1974, a new religious text Samana Suttam was compiled by a committee consisting of representatives of all the sects.
Geographical spread and influence
Samana Suttam] It has been advanced that the pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism. The Buddhists always maintained that by the time Buddha and Mahavira were alive, Jainism was already an ancient and deeply entrenched faith and culture in the region. For a discussion about the connections between Jainism and Buddhism see Jainism and Buddhism. At 4 to 5 million adherents, Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much more significant than the numbers would suggest. The Jains live throughout India, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain population among Indian states. Other states of India with relatively large Jain populations among its residents are Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh. Jainism has a large following in the Indian region of Punjab, especially the town of Ludhiana and Patiala. There were many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947. Many then fled to the Indian section of Punjab. It is practiced by adherents in all the metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai as well as Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad. There are 85 Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They speak local languages and sometimes follow different rituals. However they all follow essentially the same principles. Outside of India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania & Uganda) have large Jain communities. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, Japan, Singapore, Australia etc. Jainism as a religion was at various times found all over South Asia including Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Burma, and Afghanistan, though in much minority as compared to Buddhism. Jain philosophy and culture have been a major cultural, philosophical, social and political force since the dawn of civilization in South Asia, and its ancient influence has been traced beyond the borders of modern India into the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean regions. Jainism is presently a growing faith in the United States as well, where several Jain temples have been built. American Jainism tends to accommodate all the sects in its institutions. Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu philosophy and religion have been considerable, while Hindu influence on Jain temple worship and rituals can be observed in certain Jain sects. For a detailed discussion see Jainism and Hinduism.
Jain Contributions to Indian Culture
While the Jains are only 0.4% of the Indian population, their contributions to culture and society in India have been considerable. The Jains are among the wealthiest of the Indians. They are also among the most philanthropic, they run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals. They have been the most important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat. Jains have greatly influenced the cuisine of Gujarat. Gujarat is dominantly vegetarian, and its dishes all have pleasing and soothing aromas due to the lack of foods with pungent odors, such as onions garlic etc. According to the 2001 census, the Jains are the most literate community in India. India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer have been preserved by Jain institutions. The Jains have contributed writings in many of the India's classical and popular languages. Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. In Kannada almost entire early literature is of Jain origin. Many of the Tamil classics are also Jain. Practically all of the known texts of Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
Jainism and Indian Archaeology
Decipherment of Brahmi James Princep in 1788, permitted reading of ancient inscriptions in India, which established the antiquity of Jainism. Discovery of Jain manuscripts, a process that continues today, has added significantly to retracing the history of Jainism. Jain archaeological findings are from Maurya, Sunga, Kushana, Rashtrakuta, Chalukya, and Rajput and later period. Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. They include western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan who has worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions. Archaeological evidence such as various seals and other artifacts from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000–1500 BC) has been cited by some scholars as attesting to the faith's roots in pre-Indo-Aryan migration India.
Holy sites
Indo-Aryan migration ]] There are many Jain tirthas (pilgrimage sites) throughout India.
- Shravanabelagola, monumental statue of the Jain saint Gomateshwara in Hassan District, Karnataka.
- Dilwara Temples, complex of white marble Jain temples on Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
- Ranakpur Temples, extensive complex of white marble Jain temples in Ranakpur, Rajasthan.
- Palitana, most visited Jain temple in Gujarat.
- Bawangaja, a complex of Jain temples and monumental statues in Barwani District, Madhya Pradesh.
- Gwalior's fort is home to dozens of Jain rock-cut sculptures.
- Shikharji in Madhuban, Bihar has a series of temples on mountains where the Tirthankaras attained Keval Gyan
- The Bhagwan Adinath derasar at Vataman near Ahmedabad
- Bajrangarh, Atisaya-kshetra in Guna district in Madhya Pradesh, India
- Kundalpur, Siddha-kshetra having 63 temples, famous for beautiful statue of Bade Baba in Damoh district in Madhya Pradesh, India
Jain Temples Outside India

- UK
- The [http://www.jaincentre.com/ Jain Centre ]in Leicester, England, the first Jain Temple consecrated in the western world
- USA
- The [http://www.jcgb.org/ Jain Center of Greater Boston ] in Norwood, Massachusetts is the first Jain Center in North America.
- The [http://www.jsmconline.org/ Jain Society of Metropolitan Chicago] in Barlett, Illinois
- The [http://www.jcnc.org/ Jain Center of Northern California ] in Milpitas, California
- The [http://www.nyjaincenter.org/ Jain Center of America] in Elmhurst, New York
- The [http://www.jsgatemple.org/ Jain Center of Greater Atlanta] in Atlanta, Georgia Find more links at http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainsoc.html
Holy days

- Paryushan Parva, 10/8 (Digambar/Shwetambar) day fasts, to observe, 10/8 important principles to follow.
- Mahavir Jayanti, birthday of Mahavir.
- Diwali, day of attaining nirvana by Mahavir.
- Kshamavaani, The day of asking forgiveness from all. The [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/calendar.html Jain Calendar] gives the dates for major Jain festivals, vratas and fairs.
Jainism and other religions
India has a rich history of diverse philosophies. The term Hindu includes followers of Vedic, Vaishnava, Shaiva and other traditions. These traditions share a common cultural background with Jainism. Buddhism, like Jainism, represents the ancient Shramana tradition of India. Along with Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism share the concept of dharma (hence these are called Arya Dharma, ie, noble religions). Connections among these are discussed at:
- Jainism and Hinduism
- Jainism and Buddhism
- Jainism and Sikhism Even though Jainism is of Indian origin, it shared some principles with the Hellenic tradition, specially with Stoic and Pythagorean philosophies of Europe. A comparison with modern western religions can be found at:
- Jainism and Christianity
- Jainism and Judaism
- Jainism and Islam
See also

- Jain community
- Tamil Jains
- Jainism in Delhi
- American Jainism
- Jainism in Mumbai
References
Introductory:

- Duli C. Jain (Editor), Studies In Jainism: Primer, Jain Study Circle, 1997.
- Vastupal Parikh Jainism and the New Spirituality, Peace Publications, 2002. Detailed Introduction:

- Natubhai Shah, Jainism : The World of Conquerors, Motilal Banarsidass, 2004.
- Padmanabh S. Jaini, Jaina Path of Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, 2001.
- Kurt Titze, Jainism : A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998.
- Kristi Wiley, Historical Dictionary of Jainism, Scarecrow Press, 2004.
- Mamta Mishra, Bharatiya Darshan, Kala Prakashan, Varanasi, 2000. Specialized Sources:

- Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions (5th Edition), 2003, p.130
- Bhaskar, Bhagchandra Jain, Jainism in Buddhist Literature. Alok Prakashan: Nagpur, 1972.
- Campbell, Joseph, Oriental Mythology, 1962.
- Nakamura, Hajime, Gotama Buddha: A Biography Based on the Most Reliable Texts. Kosei Publishing: Tokyo, 2000.
- Ramachandran, T.N., Harrappa and Jainism 1987.
- Subramaniyam, Ka Naa, Tiruvalluvar and his Tirukkural. Bharatiya Jnanpith: New Delhi 1987.
- Thomas, Edward, Jainism, or the Early Faith of Asoka. Asian Educational Services: New Delhi, 1995 (reprint of the original by Trubner: London, 1877).
- [http://www.iep.utm.edu/j/jain.htm#H2 Jain Philosophy, Webb, Mark Owen]
External links

- [http://www.jaina.org Federation of Jain Associations in North America ]
- [http://www.garamchai.com/jains.htm Listings of Jain Temples and places of worship in North America ]
- [http://www.yja.org Young Jains of America ]
- [http://www.yjponline.org Young Jains Professionals ]
- [http://www.yja.org/blog Jain Diaries: The Jain Blog ]
- [http://www.flickr.com/photos/yja Jain Photos (By YJA) ]
- [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/jainhlinks.html Jainism: Jain Principles, Tradition and Practices] Jainism resources on the web
- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/jai/index.htm Jaina Sutras], Translated from the Prakrit by Hermann Jacobi, 1884
- [http://www.AtmaDharma.com AtmaDharma.com - Collection of Original Jain Texts]
- [http://www.shubhlabh.net Jain Samaj Europe ]
- [http://www.jainworld.com Jainworld ] ja:ジャイナ教
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Body

:For other uses, see Body (disambiguation). With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual, and contrasts with soul, personality and behavior. In some contexts, a superficial element of a body, such as hair may be regarded as not a part of it, even while attached. The same is true of excretable substances, such as stool, both while residing in the body and afterwards. Plants composed of more than one cell are not normally regarded as possessing a body. "Body" often is used in connection with appearance, health issues and death. The body of a dead person is also called a corpse (human) or cadaver. The dead bodies of vertebrate animals and insects are sometimes called carcasses, and dead viruses are called ghosts. The human body consists of a head, neck, trunk, two arms, two legs and the genitals of the groin, which differ between males and females. The study of the working of a body is anatomy. A body is also a held-together collection or group of physical objects or abstract ideas and, in particular, an organisation of such. The whole is more than the simple sum of the individual members, because the whole contains, in addition, information about the relationships among the elements of the whole. The body of evidence is a phrase which defines the sum total of all knowledge or evidence of some thing. Body Ecology focuses on the ecology within the body. We are made up of trillions of microbes. It is beneficial to keep the balance of good guys greater than their opponents.

Injury

Injury is damage or harm caused to the structure or function of the body caused by an outside agent or force, which may be physical or chemical.

Books

- Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men, 2., revised ed., New York, N.Y : Basic Books, 1992
- Mary Roach, Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers, 2004, Penguin Books Ltd., UK (ISBN 0141007451)
- Jessica Snyder Sachs, Corpse: Nature, Forensics, and the Struggle to Pinpoint Time of Death (ISBN 0738207713) Category:Death Category:Core issues in ethics ko:몸 ja:死体

Vedic religion

The religion of the Vedic civilization is the predecessor of classical Hinduism, usually included in the term. Its liturgy is reflected in the text of the Vedas. The religion centered on a clergy (the Brahmins) administering sacrificial rites. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period, composed in Vedic Sanskrit, are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads are also considered Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the purohitas. To the rishis, the hymns of the Rigveda and other Vedic hymns divinely revealed and they were rather "hearers", of divine revelation. (shrauta means "what is heard"). The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices and chanting of hymns (see Vedic chant). The priests helped the common man in performing rituals. People prayed for abundance of children, cattle and wealth. The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (fire), and Soma. Other deities were Varuna, Surya (the Sun), Mitra, Vayu (the wind). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi (the Earth) and Aditi. Rivers, especially Sarasvati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between the devotee and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire ritual also preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in India allegedly continued until the 4th century AD. Vegetarianism, the practice now thought by many to be so characteristic of Hinduism, arose only in late or post-Vedic times, possibly already at the time of Panini: The root-compound goghan "slaying cattle", in RV 7.56.17 used parallel to nrhan "slaying men" in reference to the referring to the weapon vadha of the Maruts, :17c aaré gohaá nRhaá vadháH vaH astu "far be your cow-slaying, men-slaying weapon!" in Panini is taught to refer to a "receiver of a cow" exclusively; this change occurred parallel to the rise of, and possibly under the influence of, Buddhism, which began as a reform-movement of the Vedic religion. In later texts, the cow is often described as aditi and aghnya (that which should not be killed). Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:
- The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice.
- Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice, cf. Zoroastrianism:
- The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni
- The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar.
- The Agnistoma or fire sacrifice
- The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice described in the Yajurveda
- The Purushamedha or human sacrifice, probably very early reduced to a symbolic sacrifice.
- The rituals described in the Atharvaveda concerned with demonology and magic.

Post-Vedic religions

Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas. The Vedic pantheon was interpreted as a unitary view of the universe with God seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman, projected into various deities in the human mind. Religions considered to be related to the Vedic religion include:
- Buddhism
- Hinduism
- Jainism
- Sikhism

Analogy

Analogy is either the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular subject (the analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target), or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. In a narrower sense, analogy is an inference or an argument from a particular to another particular, as opposed to deduction, induction and abduction, where at least one of the premises or the conclusion is general. The word analogy can also refer to the relation between the source and the target themselves, which is often, though not necessarily, a similarity, as in the biological notion of analogy. Analogy plays a significant role in problem solving, decision making, perception, memory, creativity, emotion, explanation and communication. It lies behind basic tasks such as the identification of places, objects and people, e.g. in face perception and facial recognition systems. It has been argued that analogy is "the core of cognition" (see Hofstadter in Gentner et. al. 2001). Specifically analogical language comprises exemplification, comparisons, metaphors, similes, allegories, and parables, but not metonymy. Phrases like and so on, and the like, as if and the very word like also rely on an analogical understanding by the receiver of a message including them. Analogy is important not only in ordinary language and common sense, where proverbs and idioms give many examples of its application, but also in science, philosophy and the humanities. The concepts of similarity, resemblance, homology, comparison, association, correspondence and isomorphism are closely related to analogy. In cognitive linguistics, the notion of conceptual metaphor may be equivalent to that of analogy. Analogy has been studied and discussed since classical antiquity by philosophers, scientists and lawyers. The last few decades have shown a renewed interest in analogy, most notable in cognitive science.

Models and theories of analogy

Identity of relation

In ancient Greek the word αναλογια (analogia) originally meant proportionality, in the mathematical sense, and it was indeed sometimes translated to Latin as proportio. From there analogy was understood as identity of relation between any two orde