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João Da Nova

João da Nova

João da Nova (born c.1460 in Castillo de Maceda, Galicia; died 1509 in Cochin, India), also know as João da Nova Castelia or João Galego, was a Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic and Indian Ocean. Having been born in Galicia (in modern Spain), João da Nova (in Galician Xoán de Novoa), was, as a young boy, sent by his family to Portugal, in order to escape the struggles between aristocratic factions that were destroying the country (the Irmandiña Revolts). He soon adopted Portugal as his home country and his skills and talent earned him the appointement by King Manuel I of Portugal as Alcaide (Mayor) of Lisbon in 1496. In early 1501 João da Nova was appointed as commander of the third Portuguese expedition to India. During this expedition he was the discoverer of the Ascension (1501) and Saint Helena (1502) islands. He returned to Portugal and, in 1505, undertook another voyage to India in the company of the first Portuguese Viceroy of India Francisco de Almeida. This event seems to be the beggining of a series of misfortunes in João da Nova's life. He soon had to return to Portugal in conflict with Francisco de Almeida, who did not grant him the title of General-Capitain. In 1506 João da Nova was commander of the ship Flor de la Mar, belonging to the fleet of Tristão da Cunha that was heading for the island of Socotra (about 350 km to the south off the coast of East Africa). In this expedition Afonso de Albuquerque, commander of six ships of the fleet, had to arrest João da Nova because he intended to sail to India, contradicting Albuquerque's orders of going to Arabia to collect supllies for the conquest of Ormuz. Eventually João da Nova was pardonned, due to the bravery shown in the attack against Oman. In 1509 João da Nova died in Cochin, India. The French Juan de Nova Island, in the Indian Ocean (in the Mozambique Channel), is named after him. Nova, João da Category:History of Portugal

1460

Events


- The first Portuguese navigators reach the coast of modern Sierra Leone.
- March 5 - King Christian I of Denmark declares the unity of the two provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, who have been treated as one ever since (albeit under different national affiliations).
- March 6 - Treaty of Alcacovas - Portugal gives Castile the Canary Islands in exchange for claims in West Africa
- June - The Earl of Warwick and Edward, Earl of March, eldest son of the Duke of York, land in England with an army and seize London.
- July 18 - Battle of Northampton - Warwick and March defeat a Lancastrian army and seize King Henry. It is agreed that York will be Henry's heir, disinheriting the King's son Edward of Westminster, Prince of Wales.
- December 30 - Battle of Wakefield - A Lancastrian army under Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset and Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland defeats a Yorkist army under the Duke of York and his son, Edmund, Earl of Rutland. Both York and Rutland are killed, the latter murdered after the battle. York's son Edward becomes leader of the Yorkist faction.

Births


- May 8 - Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (died 1536)
- Judah Leon Abravanel, Jewish philosopher, physician, and poet
- Antoine Brumel, Flemish composer (died 1515)
- Elijah Delmedigo, Italian philosopher (died 1497)
- Edward Sutton, 2nd Baron Dudley (died 1532)
- Juan Pérez de Gijón, Spanish composer (died 1500)
- Konstanty Ostrogski, Grand Hetman of Lithuania (died 1530)
- Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, Spanish navigator (died 1523)
- Tilman Riemenschneider, German sculptor (died 1531)
- Arnolt Schlick, German organist and composer
- Charles Somerset, 1st Earl of Worcester (died 1526)
- Tristão da Cunha, Portuguese explorer (died 1540)

Deaths


- July 10 - Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham, English military leader (born 1402)
- August 3 - King James II of Scotland (born 1430)
- September 20 - Gilles Binchois, Flemish composer
- November 13 - Prince Henry the Navigator, Portuguese patron of exploration (born 1394)
- December 14 - Guarino da Verona, Italian humanist (born 1370)
- December 30 - Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, claimant to the English throne (killed in battle) (born 1411)
- December 31 - Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, English politician (executed) (born 1400)
- December 31 - Edmund, Earl of Rutland, brother of Kings Edward IV of England and Richard III of England (executed) (b. 1443)
- Francesco II Acciajouli, last Duke of Athens
- Israel Isserlein, German Jewish scholar
- Reginald Pecock, English prelate and writer Category:1460 ko:1460년

1509

Events


- February 2 - Battle of Diu took place near Diu, India.
- April 22 - Henry VIII becomes King of England on the death of his father, Henry VII.
- April 27 - Pope Julius II places Venice under interdict and excommunication for refusing to cede part of Romagna under Papal control
- May 14 - Battle of Agnadello - French forces defeat the Venetians.
- June 11 - Henry VIII of England marries Catherine of Aragon
- June 24 - King Henry VIII of England's and Queen consort's Catherine of Aragon coronation ceremony.

Births


- January 25 - Giovanni Morone, Italian cardinal (d. 1580)
- July 10 - John Calvin, French religious reformer (died 1564)
- August 3 - Étienne Dolet, French scholar and printer (died 1546)
- Nicholas Bacon, English politician (died 1579)
- Tommaso Campanella, Italian theologian, philosopher and poet (died 1639)
- John Erskine of Dun, Scottish religious reformer (died 1591)
- John of Leiden, Dutch Anabaptist leader (died 1536)
- Stanislaw Odrowaz, Polish noble (died 1545)
- Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, lawyer (died 1579)
- Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, Lord Protector of England (died 1552)
- Bernardino Telesio, Italian philosopher and natural scientist (died 1588)

Deaths


- April 21 - King Henry VII of England (born 1457)
- May 10 - Caterina Sforza, countess of Forli (born 1463)
- June 29 - Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII of England (born 1443) Category:1509 ko:1509년 simple:1509

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above the age of eighteen are eligible to vote. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature. India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are eighteen appellate High Courts, having jurisdiction over a large state or a group of states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.

Politics

Chief Justice of India For most of its independent history, India's national government has been controlled by the Indian National Congress Party. Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, Congress, usually led by a member of the Nehru-Gandhi family, dominated national politics for over forty years. In 1977, a united opposition, under the banner of the Janata Party, won the election and formed a non-Congress government for a short period after the unpopular 'emergency rule' imposed by Indira Gandhi in the previous Congress regime. In 1996, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a political party with a right wing nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established for the first time a serious opposition to the largely centre-left Congress. But power was held by two successive coalition governments, who stayed on with the support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) along with smaller parties and became the first non-Congress government to sustain the full five year term after it returned to power in 1999. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by short-lasting governments, with seven separate governments formed within that period. One however, a Congress government formed in 1991, lasted the full five years and initiated significant economic reforms. In the 2004 Indian elections the Congress party returned to power after winning the largest number of seats, by a narrow margin. Congress formed a government in alliance with the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and with several mostly-regional parties called the United Progressive Alliance. The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments formed since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single majority party, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.

States and union territories

India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into districts), six Union Territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government, though some have elected governments. India has had two scientific bases in Antarctica – the Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri, but has made no territorial claims so far.

Geography

Maitri in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]] India's entire north and northeast states are made up of the Himalayan Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile Indo-Gangetic plain. Towards western India, bordering southeast Pakistan, lies the Thar Desert. The southern Indian peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan plateau. The plateau is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. India is home to several major rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, and the Krishna. The rivers are responsible for the fertile plains in northern India which are conducive to farming. The Indian climate varies from a tropical climate in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalaya have a tundra climate. India gets most of its rains through the monsoons.

Economy

monsoon India has an economy ranked as the tenth largest in the world in terms of currency conversion and fourth largest in terms of purchasing power parity. It recorded one of the fastest annual growth rates of 6.9% for the year ending March 2005. India's per-capita income by purchasing power parity is US$ 3,262, ranked 125th by the World Bank. India's foreign exchange reserves amount to over US$ 143 billion. Mumbai serves as the nation's financial capital and is also home to both the headquarters of the Reserve Bank of India and the pre-eminent Bombay Stock Exchange. While a quarter of Indians still live below the poverty line, a large middle class has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the IT industry. The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on agriculture, which now contributes to less than 25 % of GDP. Other important industries are mining, petroleum, diamond polishing, films, textiles, information technology services, and handicrafts. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in software and business process outsourcing services, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005. Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages. business process outsourcing While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3 % of India's GDP. The actual employment generation, both direct and indirect, is estimated to be 42 million, or about 10 % of India's work force. In monetary terms, it contributes about US$4 billion in foreign exchange. India's major trading partners are the United States, Japan, China and the United Arab Emirates. India's main exports items include agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellry, software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals and leather products while its main import commodities are crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion while the imports were worth at US $89.33 billion.

Demographics

India is the second most populous country in the world, with only China having a larger population. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China with the world's largest population, estimated at 1.6 billion. Language, religion, and caste are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse Indian population today. Its biggest metropolitan agglomerations are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Chennai (formerly Madras). Chennai]] India's literacy rate is 64.8 % with 53.7 % of females and 75.3 % of males being literate. The sex ratio is 933 females for every 1000 males. Work Participation Rate (WPR) (the percentage of workers to total population) stands at 39.1 % with male WPR at 51.7 % and female WPR at 25.6 % inote|eu{inote|demostats{inote|religion{ref|languages{inote|tongues{see2|Christianity in India|Jews in India{seealso3|List of Indian languages by total speakers|List of cities in India|Religion in India{main|Culture of India{seealso4|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India{main|Sports in India{main|Holidays in India{Official Holidays of India{Topics related to India{portal{sisterlinks|India{wikitravel{wikicities|india|India{explain-inote{Web reference | title=India facts and figures | work=Embassy of India| URL= http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Forex reserves up by $1bn | work=Economic Times| URL= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India Economy | work=Travel Document Systems |URL= http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Services | work=India in Business| URL= http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work=Times of India | URL= http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= US, UAE, UK, China, Japan among India's top trade partners | work=Indian Express| URL= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/business/20050102-0.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= CIA Factbook : India | work=CIA Factbook | URL= http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census| work=Census of India| URL=http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Debating India & India's literacy rate | work=Debating India | URL= http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India – Country profiles | work=indexmundi.com | URL= http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work=Census of India | URL= http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Languages of India | work=India image | URL= http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm| date=August 14 | year=2005{Book reference | Author=K.M. Matthew | Title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 | Publisher= Malaya Manorama | Year=2003 | ID=ISBN 8190046187{mnb|afgh|1{mnb|LoC|2{South Asia{Asia{Commonwealth of Nations{SAARC{Life in India{Link FA|sv{Link FA|sv

List of explorers

:Expedition redirects here. See also explorations, sea explorers, astronaut, conquistador, travelogue, the History of Science and Technology and Biography. Also, see International Space Station for ISS explorers, and for the Ford Motor Company's large SUV, see Ford Expedition (especially replacing the Ford Excursion). For the science-fiction book, see Expedition (book). __NOTOC__

A


- Antonio de Abreu (16th century Portuguese explorer of Indonesia)
- Charles Albanel (1616-1696), Canada
- Afonso de Albuquerque (16th century Portuguese naval explorer and viceroy of India)
- Pêro de Alenquer (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- Benedict Allen, (1960-), modern day British explorer
- Diego de Almagro
- Francisco de Almeida (16th century Portuguese naval explorer and viceroy of India)
- Pedro de Alvarado
- Francisco Alvarez (16th century Portuguese missionary and explorer in Ethiopia)
- Jorge Álvares (16th century Portuguese, the first to reach China)
- Roald Amundsen, (1872-1928), Norwegian, first at the South Pole, first to navigate the Northwest Passage in a single ship
- Fernão Pires de Andrade (16th century Portuguese merchant in China)
- Salomon August Andrée (1854 – 1897) Swedish, Arctic explorer
- Roy Chapman Andrews, (1884-1960), US explorer
- Diogo de Azambuja (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)

B


- George Back, (1796—1878), British naval officer, several expeditions to the Canadian Arctic
- William Baffin, (1584-1622)
- Samuel Baker, Africa
- Vasco Núñez de Balboa, (c. 1475-1519), Spanish, first to sight the Pacific Ocean, founded Darién, oldest surviving European settlement in the South American continent.
- Pêro de Barcelos (15th century/16th century Portuguese explorer of North America)
- Willem Barents, (1550?-1597), Dutch, died on Novaya Zemlya Northeast Passage
- Heinrich Barth (1821-1865), Northern and Central Africa
- Robert Bartlett (1875-1946), notable Arctic explorer
- George Bass - Australian explorer
- Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta, (1304?-1377?), Moroccan Berber Muslim, visited Mecca several times, travelled to Central Asia, East Africa, China, Tombouctou and other places
- Nicolas Baudin - 18th century French explorer, mapped the West Australian coastline.
- Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, Russian explorer
- Joseph René Bellot French Arctic explorer
- Moric Benovsky, Slovak
- Vitus Bering
- W T Blake The man who led the first attempt to fly round the world in 1922
- Vittorio Bottego (1860,1897), Italian explorer of the Giuba region in northeast Africa
- Pierre Savorgan de Brazza Italian explorer naturalized French. French Congo's founder.
- Saint Brendan - Irish abbot who sailed the Atlantic Ocean
- James Bruce
- William S. Bruce, (1867-1921) Scottish explorer of Antarctica
- Cornelis de Bruijn, (1652-1727), Dutch traveler and artist
- Lafayette Bunnell, (1824-1903), described Yosemite Valley
- Richard Francis Burton, (1821-1890), looking for the source of the Nile, discovered Lake Tanganyika
- Richard E. Byrd, (1888-1957), flew over South Pole

C


- John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto), (c. 1450 – 1499), Italian navigator in English service, crossed the Atlantic Ocean to North America
- Pedro Álvares Cabral, (c. 1467-c. 1520), Portuguese navigator, discovered Brazil and Madagascar
- João Rodrigues Cabrilho (16th century Portuguese discoverer of California)
- Alvise Cadamosto (1432-1488), Portuguese explorer of Venetian origin
- Alvaro Caminha (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands)
- Pêro Vaz de Caminha (15th century Portuguese explorer of the sea route to Brazil)
- Diogo Cão, (15th century), Portuguese navigator, explored the area around the West African coast
- Jan Carstensz, (c.1595—?), Dutch explorer of New Guinea coast, navigated the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1623
- Jacques Cartier, (1491-1557), discovered the St. Lawrence River and sailed up it to Montreal; failed in an attempt to set up a colony
- Thomas Cavendish, (died 1592), English sailor and explorer.
- Samuel de Champlain, (c. 1567-1635), established the French colony in Canada; discovered the Great Lakes
- William Clark, (1770-1838), with Meriwether Lewis led the first American expedition to reach the west coast.
- Gonçalo Coelho (15th century/16th century Portuguese explorer of the South American coast)
- Nicolau Coelho (15th century Portuguese explorer of the sea route to Brazil)
- Christopher Columbus, (1451-1506), reached America looking for a searoute to the Indies; discovered various lands and islands and established a colony on Hispaniola
- Niccolò Da Conti, (1395–1469), Venetian explorer of South and Southeast Asia
- James Cook, (1728-1779), explored the Pacific, discovering or mapping many lands and islands
- Francisco Vasquez de Coronado, (c. 1510-1554), explored New Mexico and American southwest
- João Vaz Corte-Real (15th century Portuguese explorer of North America)
- Gaspar Corte-Real (16th century Portuguese explorer of North America)
- Miguel Corte-Real (16th century Portuguese explorer of North America)
- Hernán Cortés, (1485-1547), conquered the Aztec empire in Mexico; sent out expeditions to Baja California
- Juan de la Cosa
- Jacques-Yves Cousteau, (1910-1997), French marine biologist and explorer
- Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral (20th century Portuguese air pioneers, the first to cross the South Atlantic Ocean by air)
- Pero da Covilhã (15th century/16th century Portuguese diplomat and explorer in Ethiopia)
- Tristão da Cunha (16th century Portuguese naval general and discoverer)

D


- Alexandra David-Néel, (1868-1969), French explorer, visited Lhasa, Tibet in 1924
- Semyon Dezhnev, Russian explorer, first European who sailed through Bering Strait
- Bartolomeu Dias, (1450-1500), Portuguese explorer who first rounded the Cape of Good Hope
- Dinis Dias, 15th century Portuguese explorer, first European to reach Cape Verde
- Diogo Dias (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands, of the African coast and the Indian Ocean, discovered Madagascar)
- Pêro Dias (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- Bernal Díaz del Castillo
- David Douglas, Scottish explorer, botanist
- Sir Francis Drake, (c. 1540-1596), pirate, leader of the second circumnavigation
- Jules Dumont d'Urville, (1790-1842), explorer of the Pacific and Antarctica

E


- Gil Eanes (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- Juan Sebastián Elcano - completed the first circumnavigation, started by Magellan
- Eric the Red, (c.950-1003), explored and colonized Greenland
- Leif Ericson, (born 970), attempted to colonize Vinland, discovered America
- Pedro Escobar (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands)
- George Everest, (1790-1866)

F


- Edmund Fanning, (1769-1841), "Pathfinder of the Pacific", discoverer of numerous South Pacific islands
- António Fernandes (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- Baltazar Fernandes (17th century Portuguese explorer of Brazil's interior)
- Duarte Fernandes (16th century Portuguese diplomat in Thailand)
- Matthew Flinders, (1774-1814), first to circumnavigate Australia and Tasmania, extensively charted the coastline and named such features as the Great Barrier Reef and the Great Australian Bight.
- Alexander Forbes, Scottish explorer of North American Pacific coast
- John Franklin, (1786-1847), disappeared exploring Arctic Canada in search of the Northwest Passage
- John C. Fremont, (1813-1890), "Pathfinder of the West" explored the Oregon Trail and the Sierra Nevada, first Republican nominee for President of the United States
- Louis de Freycinet, (1779-1842), explored coastal regions of Western Australia

G


- Alfons Gabriel, (1892-1976) Austrian explorer of the Iranian deserts.
- Yuri Gagarin first man in Space and Cosmonaut
- Juan Galindo (1802-1839) explorer of Central American ruins
- Estevão da Gama (16th century Portuguese explorer of the Indian Ocean)
- Paulo da Gama (15th century Portuguese explorer of the sea route to India)
- Vasco da Gama, (1469?-1524), Portuguese navigator, first to reach India from Europe by sea route in 1498
- Thomas Gann, explorer
- Francis Garnier, (1839-1873), Mekong River
- Pierre Gaultier de Varennes et de la Vérendrye, (1685-1749), explorer
- Romolo Gessi ( (1831, 1881)), Italian explorer of the Nile and of Sudan
- Ernest Giles, (1835-1897), explorer of central Australia
- André Gonçalves (15th century Portuguese explorer of the sea route to Brazil)
- Antão Gonçalves (15th century Portuguese explorer of the West African coast)
- Lopes Gonçalves (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic)
- James Augustus Grant, (1827-1892), Scottish officer and explorer, explored the eastern equatorial Africa
- João Grego (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- Juan de Grijalva

H


- Hanno the Navigator - Carthageinian who travelled along the coast of Africa
- Hannu, ancient Egyptian explorer (around 2750 BC) and the first explorer of whom there is any knowledge
- Dirk Hartog, (1580—1621), Dutch VOC captain, charted mid-western coast of Australia
- Sven Hedin, (1865-1952), Swedish explorer of Central Asia
- Louis Hennepin - discoverer of Niagara Falls and the Saint Anthony Falls (the only waterfall on the Mississippi)
- Bjarni Herjulfsson - Viking, probable discoverer of North America
- Thor Heyerdahl, (1914-2002), Norwegian explorer
- Sir Edmund Hillary, with Tenzing Norgay was the first person to the summit of Mount Everest
- Himilco the Navigator, Carthaginian navigator
- Clement Hodgkinson - (1818-1893) Australian explorer
- Cornelis de Houtman, (1565—1599), brother to Frederick, established Dutch trading route to the Spice Islands
- Frederick de Houtman, (1571—1627), brother to Cornelis, charted several constellations in the southern skies, explored coast of Western Australia
- William Hovell - Australian explorer
- Henry Hudson, (died 1570), discovered the Hudson River and sailed up it to Albany, discovered Hudson Bay
- Alexander von Humboldt, (1769-1859), German naturalist, explored Central and South America, visited Siberia
- Hamilton Hume - Australian explorer

I


- Ibn Battuta, (1304-1377), Moroccan explorer of Africa and Asia, author of the Rihla
- Ibn Rustah, 10th century Persian explorer of Russia, Scandinavia and Arabia
- João Infante (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- Helge Ingstad, (1899-2001) Norwegian-Danish explorer, Governor of Greenland

K


- Thorfinn Karlsefni, (fl 1010), Icelandic explorer
- George Kennan, (1845-1924), Siberia
- Edmund Kennedy, (1818-1848), Australian explorer
- Ferdinand Konščak, (1703-1759), Croatia, California, Mexico
- Pyotr Kuzmich Kozlov (1863-1935), Mongolia and Tibet

L


- Richard Lemon Lander (1804-1834)
- Jean François La Pérouse, (1741-1788), French explorer of the Pacific
- René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle, (1643-1687), French explorer of the Mississippi basin
- João Fernandes Lavrador (15th century/16th century Portuguese explorer of North America)
- Albert von Le Coq, (1860-1930), German explorer of Central Asia
- John Ledyard, (1751-1789), American explorer of Russia and sailor with Captain James Cook
- Miguel López de Legaspi, Spanish explorer of the Philippines and Mexico
- Ludwig Leichhardt, (1813-1848), Prussian explorer of Australia
- Gaspar de Lemos (15th century/16th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic and of the sea route to Brazil)
- Dragutin Lerman, (1863-1918), Croatia, (Congo, Africa)
- Meriwether Lewis, (1774-1809), leader of the first American expedition to cross the continent
- David Livingstone, (1813-1873), Scottish explorer of south and east Africa, determined the course of the Zambezi, discovered Lake Nyasa

M


- Alexander Mackenzie, (1764-1820), Scottish, Western and Northern Canada to Arctic and Pacific Oceans
- Ferdinand Magellan, (c. 1470-1521), Portuguese navigator, leader of first expedition around the world and the first European to have sailed the Pacific Ocean
- Teoberto Maler (1840-1917) Maya ruins
- Lourenço Marques (16th century Portuguese trader and explorer in East Africa)
- Álvaro Martins (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- Pedro Mascarenhas (16th century Portuguese explorer of the Indian Ocean)
- Douglas Mawson - Australian explorer of Antarctica
- Hugh McNeil, Lewis and Clark Party member
- Álvaro de Mendaña
- Archibald Menzies (1754-1852)
- Thomas Mitchell - (1792-1855), Scottish explorer of Australia

N


- Fridtjof Nansen, (1861-1930), arctic explorer, scientist and international statesman
- Nehsi, ancient Egyptian explorer in service of Egyptian queen Hatshepsut
- Jean Nicolet, (1628-1642), early French explorer of the Old Northwest
- Joseph Nicollet, (1786-1843), explorer of the Upper Mississippi River and Missouri River
- Afanasiy Nikitin (the first European to visit India and to document his travels)
- António Noli (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands and of the African coast)
- Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, (1832-1901), arctic explorer
- Fernão de Noronha (15th century/16th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic)
- João da Nova (16th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic and of the Indian Ocean)
- Paulo Dias de Novais (16th century Portuguese explorer and colonizer of Africa)
- Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca

O


- Francisco de Orellana - first to navigate down the Amazon River
- John Oxley - Australian explorer

P


- Mungo Park (1771-1806), Scottish explorer of Western Equatorial Africa
- William Parry, (1790-1855), Arctic explorer
- Robert Edwin Peary, (1856-1920), notable Arctic explorer and leader of expedition usually credited as being first to reach the North Pole, actual attainment disputed in some quarters
- Paul Pelliot, French explorer of Central Asia
- Duarte Pacheco Pereira (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic)
- Bartolomeu Perestrelo (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands)
- Auguste Piccard, (1884-1962), physicist and explorer
- Jacques Piccard, (born 1922), undersea explorer
- Zebulon Pike, (1779-1813), explored Louisiana Purchase, Pikes Peak
- Alonso Alvarez de Pineda, (1494?-1519?)
- Serpa Pinto (19th century Portuguese explorer and soldier in Africa)
- Fernão Mendes Pinto (16th century Portuguese explorer and adventurer, was among the first Europeans to reach Japan)
- Martin Alonzo Pinzón (1441?-1493)
- Vicente Yáñez Pinzón (1460? - after 1523)
- Luís Pires (15th century Portuguese explorer of the sea route to Brazil)
- Francisco Pizarro, (1471-1541), conqueror of the Inca Empire
- Fernão do Pó (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- Marco Polo, (1254-1323), Venetian Republic, travelled to China in the 13th century
- Peter Pond, (c. 1739 - 1807), Northwest Canada
- Gaspar de Portolà (fl. 1734-1784), explored California
- John Wesley Powell, (1834-1902), explorer, environmentalist
- Nathaniel Pryor, (c. 1785-1850), US explorer
- Nikolai Przhevalsky, (1839-1888), Russian explorer in central and eastern Asia
- Pytheas, Greek explorer who visited Britain and other north and northwest European countries

Q


- Pedro Fernandes de Queiroz (1565-1614), Portuguese seaman and explorer of the southwest Pacific, some have claimed he discovered Australia

R


- John Rae, (1813-1893), travelled widely through the Canadian Arctic
- Walter Raleigh, (1554?-1618), English explorer
- Diogo Rodrigues (16th century Portuguese explorer of the Indian Ocean)
- Cândido Rondon, (1865-1958), Explored the Amazon Basin with Teddy Roosevelt
- James Clark Ross, (1800-1862), Scottish explorer

S


- René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, (1643-1687) French merchant and explorer, explored Great Lakes, navigated Mississippi and looked for its delta
- João de Santarém (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands)
- Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
- Robert Falcon Scott, (1868-1912), reached the South Pole less than one month after Amundsen, but died on the return voyage
- Scylax of Caryanda - a Greek explorer sent by the king of Persia to sail down the Indus River and around Arabia to Egypt
- Tibor Sekelj Croatia, South America
- Mirko Seljan (1821-1912?(3)), Croatia,( Ethiopia, South America)
- Stjepan Seljan (1873-1936), Croatia, (Ethiopia, South America)
- Ernest Shackleton, (1874-1922), attempted to reach the South Pole and went further south than anyone before him
- Eric Shipton, (1907-1977), explored Himalayas & Patagonian icecap with Harold William Tilman
- Diogo Silves (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands)
- Pêro de Sintra (15th century Portuguese explorer of the African coast)
- William Smith (born around 1775), discovered South Shetland Islands
- Hernando de Soto, (died 1542), explorer
- Martim Afonso de Sousa (16th century Portuguese explorer and soldier in India)
- John Hanning Speke, (1827-1864), discovered the main source of the Nile River, Lake Victoria
- William Stairs, (1863-1892), Victorian explorer, discovered one source of the Nile River, first non-African to ever climb in the Ruwenzori.
- Henry Morton Stanley, (1841-1904), successfully searched for Livingstone in Africa; later explored Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika and the Congo River
- Marc Aurel Stein, Hungarian explorer of Central Asia
- John Lloyd Stephens (1805-1852) explored Middle East, Central America
- Sir Paul Edmund Strzelecki, (1793-1873), Polish explorer and geologist
- John McDouall Stuart (1815-1866), Scottish explorer of inland Australia
- Charles Sturt - Australian explorer
- Ignacije Szentmartony (1718-1793), Croatia (Jesuit, astronomer), Amazon River, Brazil

T


- Abel Tasman, (1603-1659), discovered Tasmania and New Zealand
- Pedro Teixeira (17th century Portuguese explorer of the Amazon river)
- Tristão Vaz Teixeira (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands)
- Tenzing Norgay, with Sir Edmund Hillary was the first person to the summit of Mount Everest
- Harold William Tilman (Bill Tilman) (1897-1977), explored Himalayas & Patagonian icecap with Eric Shipton
- Yermak Timofeyevich, Russian cossack, explored West Siberia and claimed it for Russia
- Luis Váez de Torres (16th century/17th century Portuguese explorer of southwest Pacific)
- Nuno Tristão (15th century Portuguese explorer of the West African coast)

U


- Andrés de Urdaneta, Spanish geographer who discovered the Urdaneta Route, giving so way to the Manila Galleon.

V


- George Vancouver, (1757-1798), British Royal Navy captain; explored the Pacific coast of North America, naming many locations in the Pacific Northwest.
- Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye (1685-1749), French Canadian military officer, fur trader and explorer, explored Western Canada
- Gonçalo Velho (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands)
- Giovanni da Verrazano, (died 1528), sea explorer
- Amerigo Vespucci, (1454-1512), discovered other parts of America and gave his name to the new continents
- Ruy López de Villalobos. Spanish; explored the Pacific and the Philippines, which he named after Philip II of Spain
- Willem de Vlamingh (1640-?). Flemish/Dutch captain; in 1696 and 1697 he charted the coast of northwest Australia.

W


- Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, (1766-1875), French antiquarian, artist, explorer
- Thomas Walker, medical doctor and early explorer of North America west of the Appalachian Mountains
- Langdon Warner, American explorer of Central Asia
- Harry de Windt Explorer, adventurer and author.

Y


- Sir Francis Younghusband, (1863-1942), India and Tibet

Z


- João Gonçalves Zarco (15th century Portuguese explorer of the Atlantic islands)
- Zhang Qian - spent 12 years starting in 138 BC exploring much of Central Asia for Emperor Han Wu Di
- Zheng He, (1371-1435), Chinese admiral who travelled widely over the Indian Ocean and other seas, reaching Africa and Arabia and many other countries

Þ


- Guðríður Þorbjarnardóttir, female explorer of the Middle Ages Explorers Category:Exploration
- ja:探検家

Indian Ocean

:This article is about the water body. For the Indian fusion music band, see Indian Ocean (band). The Indian Ocean is the third-largest body of water in the world, covering about 20% of the Earth's water surface. It is bounded on the north by southern Asia (the Indian subcontinent); on the west by the Arabian Peninsula and Africa; on the east by the Malay Peninsula, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20°east meridian south of Africa, and from the Pacific by the 147°east meridian. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30°north latitude in the Persian Gulf. This ocean is nearly 10,000 km (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 km² (28,400,000 mi²), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 km³ (70,086,000 mi³). Small islands dot the continental rims. Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar (formerly Malagasy Republic), the world's fourth largest island; Comoros; Seychelles; Maldives; Mauritius; and Sri Lanka. Indonesia borders it. The ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict. Because of its size, however, no one nation had successfully dominated until the early 1800s when Britain controlled much of the surrounding land. right

Environment

The African, Indian, and Antarctic crustal plates converge in the Indian Ocean. Their junctures are marked by branches of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge forming an inverted Y, with the stem running south from the edge of the continental shelf near Mumbai, India. The eastern, western, and southern basins thus formed are subdivided into smaller basins by ridges. The ocean's continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 km (125 mi) in width. An exception is found off Australia's western coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 km (600 mi). The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m (12,760 ft). Its deepest point, in the Java Trench, is estimated to be 7,450 m (24,442 ft). North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the main basin is covered by pelagic sediments, of which more than one-half is globigerina ooze. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments. Glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes.

Climate

The climate north of the equator is affected by a Monsoon wind system. Strong northeast winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea the violent monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere the winds generally are milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Hydrology

Bay of Bengal Among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Arvandrud/Shatt-al-Arab, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irrawaddy. Currents are largely controlled by the monsoon. Two large circular currents, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving counterclockwise, constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deepwater circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, and Antarctic currents. North of 20°south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22°C (72°F), exceeding 28°C (82°F) to the east. Southward of 40°south latitude, temperatures drop quickly. Surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1,000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and southwestern Australia. Pack ice and icebergs are found throughout the year south of about 65°south latitude. The average northern limit of icebergs is 45°south latitude.

Economy

The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The warmth of the Indian Ocean keeps phytoplankton production low, except along the northern fringes and in a few scattered spots elsewhere; life in the ocean is thus limited. Fishing is confined to subsistence levels. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna.

History

The earliest known civilizations, in the valleys of the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, and Indus rivers and in Southeast Asia, have developed near the Indian Ocean. During Egypt's 1st dynasty (c. 3000 BCE), sailors were sent out onto its waters, journeying to Punt, thought to be part of present-day Somalia. Returning ships brought gold and Myrrh. Phoenicians of the 3rd millennium BCE may have entered the area, but no settlements resulted. The Indian Ocean is far calmer and thus open to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail them west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed Indonesian peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in Madagascar. In the second or first century BCE Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean. Hippalus is said to have discovered the direct route from Arabia to India around this time. During the first and second century CE intensive trade relations developed between Roman Egypt and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern India. Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the Ocean. The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this route and the ports and trade goods along the coasts of Africa and India around 70 CE. In 1497 Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed to India, the first European to do so. The European ships, armed with heavy cannon, quickly came to dominate the trade. Portugal at first attempted to achieve pre-eminence setting up forts an the important straits and ports. But the small nation was unable to support such a vast project and they were replaced in the mid-1600s by other European powers. The Dutch East India Company (1602-1798) sought control of trade with the East across the Indian Ocean. France and Britain established trade companies for the area. Eventually Britain became the principal power and by 1815 dominated the area. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 revived European interest in the East, but no nation was successful in establishing trade dominance. Since World War II the United Kingdom has withdrawn from the area, to be only partially replaced by India, the USSR, and the United States. The last two have tried to establish hegemony by negotiating for naval base sites. Developing countries bordering the ocean, however, seek to have it made a "zone of peace" so that they may use its shipping lanes freely. Though the United States did manage to salvage a naval base for itself at Deigo Garcia in the middle of the Indian Ocean. On December 26 2004 the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean were hit by tsunamis caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The waves resulted in more than 226,000 deaths and over 1 million homeless.

Data

Southern Ocean: A spring 2000 decision by the International Hydrographic Organization delimited a fifth world ocean, stripping the southern portions of the Indian Ocean. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60°south latitude which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Indian Ocean remains the third-largest of the world's five oceans. Area:
- total: 68.556 million km²
- seas: includes Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Laccadive Sea, Mozambique Channel, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Strait of Malacca, and other tributary water bodies Coastline: 66,526 km Climate: northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean Terrain: surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean; unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninetyeast Ridge Graphics of the seabed terrain produced by the Royal Navy & British Geological Survey in 2005 can be found here. Elevation extremes:
- lowest point: Java Trench -7,258 m
- highest point: sea level 0 m Natural resources: oil and gas fields, fish, shrimp, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules Environment - current issues: endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea Geography - note: major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok Strait Ports and harbors: Calcutta (India), Chennai (Madras; India), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Durban (South Africa), Jakarta (Indonesia), Karachi (Pakistan), Fremantle (Australia), Mumbai (Bombay; India), Richards Bay (South Africa), Visakhapatnam (India),Kochi(India)

References


- Braun, D., The Indian Ocean (1983)
- Chandra, S., ed., The Indian Ocean (1987);
- Chaudhuri, K. N., Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean (1985);
- Cousteau, Jacques-Yves, and Diole, Philippe, Life and Death in a Coral Sea (1971);
- Cubitt, Gerald, Islands of the Indian Ocean (1975);
- Das Gupta, A., and Pearson, M.N., India and the Indian Ocean (1987);
- Dowdy, W. L., and Trood, R., eds., The Indian Ocean (1985);
- Kerr, A., ed., Resources and Development in the Indian Ocean Region (1981);
- Nairn, A. E., and Stehli, F. G., eds., The Ocean Basins and Margins, Vol. 6: The Indian Ocean (1982);
- Ostheimer, John M., ed., The Politics of the Western Indian Ocean Islands (1975);
- Toussaint, Auguste, The History of the Indian Ocean, trans. by June Guicharnaud (1966). Much of this text is based on public domain text by US Naval Oceanographer at: http://oceanographer.navy.mil/indian.html

External links


- [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations