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Joachim Murat

Joachim Murat

Joachim Murat, (March 25, 1767 – October 13, 1815), a marshal of France, was King of Naples from 1808 to 1815.

Life Account

He was born to Pierre Murat-Jordy (1721 - 1799) and Jeanne Loubieres (1721 - 1806). His father was an innkeeper. A brilliant and dashing cavalry leader, Murat played an important part in Napoleon Bonaparte's victories. During Napoleon's defence of the Tuileries Palace (1795), Murat was successful in stealing forty cannon from the French National Guard. Without these cannon, Tuileries would have fallen, and the Directory would not have become the official government of France. Joachim rose in the French army to the rank of a general. He married Caroline Bonaparte on January 20, 1800. Thus becoming son-in-law of Letizia Ramolino and brother-in-law to Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon I of France, Lucien Bonaparte, Elisa Bonaparte, Louis Bonaparte, Pauline Bonaparte and Jérôme Bonaparte. His brother-in-law Napoleon made him a Marshal of France on May 18, 1804. Napoleon also granted him the title of "First Horseman of Europe". He was appointed Grand Duke of Berg and Cleves on March 15, 1806 and held this title till August 1, 1808. He was named king of Naples on August 1, 1808. Naples Murat was equally useful in Napoleon's invasion of Russia (1812), and in the Battle of Leipzig (1813). After Leipzig, however, he reached (1814) an agreement with the Austrian Empire in order to save his own throne. During the Hundred Days, he realized that the European powers, holding the Congress of Vienna, had the intention to remove him, to give back the Kingdom of Naples to its pre-Napoleon rulers. Murat deserted his new allies, and, issuing a proclaim to the Italian patriots in Rimini, moved north to fight against the Austrians, and strengthen his rule on Italy with the force. He was defeated by Frederick Bianchi, a general of Francis I of Austria, at the Battle of Tolentino (May 2 - May 3, 1815). He fled to Corsica after Napoleon's fall. In an attempt to regain Naples trough an insurrection in Calabria, he was arrested by the forces of his rival Ferdinand IV of Naples and executed. :"When the fatal moment arrived, Murat walked with a firm step to the place of execution, — as calm, as unmoved, as if he had been going to an ordinary review. He would not accept a chair, nor suffer his eyes to be bound. "I have braved death (said he) too often to fear it." He stood upright, proudly and undauntedly, with his countenance towards the soldiers; and when all was ready, he kissed a cornelian on which the head of his wife was engraved, and gave the word — thus, "Save my face — aim at my heart — fire!""

Children

Ferdinand IV of Naples He and Caroline were parents to four children:
- Napoleon Achille Murat (1801 - 1847). He was married to Catherine Willis in 1826.
- Laetitia Josephine Murat (1802 - 1859). She was married to Guido-Taddeo, Marquess Pepoli in 1823.
- Prince Napoleon Lucien Charles Murat (May 16, 1803 - April 10, 1878). He was an associate of his first cousin Napoleon III of France. He married Caroline Georgina Fraser in 1831.
- Louise Julie Murat (March 22, 1805 - 1889). She married Giullio, Count Rasponi.

References


- Information about Murat's work in Tuileries found in Blundering to Glory by Owen Connelly. pg. 20-21.

See also


- Marshal Michel Ney who also gave the command to fire at his execution in 1815
- Neapolitan War

Trivia


- One of his descendants is American actor Rene Auberjonois.

External link


- [http://napoleonic-literature.com/Book_23/Chapter40-Murat.htm Napoleonic Literature] Murat, Joachim Murat, Joachim Murat, Joachim Murat, Joachim Category:Napoleonic wars French commanders ja:ジョアシャン・ミュラ

March 25

March 25 is the 84th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (85th in leap years). There are 281 days remaining.

Events


- 708 - Constantine is consecrated Pope.
- 1300 - Dante descends to the Inferno in The Divine Comedy
- 1306 - Robert the Bruce becomes King of Scotland.
- 1409 - The Council of Pisa opens.
- 1634 - The first settlers arrive in Maryland (led by Lord Baltimore).
- 1655 - Saturn's largest moon, Titan, is discovered by Christian Huygens.
- 1655 - Protestants take control of Maryland at the Battle of the Severn.
- 1802 - The Treaty of Amiens is signed as a "Definitive Treaty of Peace" between France and United Kingdom.
- 1807 - The Slave Trade Act becomes law, abolishing slavery in the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
- 1821 - Greece declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire, beginning the Greek War of Independence.
- 1865 - The "Claywater Meteorite" explodes just before reaching ground level in Vernon County, Wisconsin. Fragments having a combined mass of 1.5 kg are recovered.
- 1865 - American Civil War: In Virginia, Confederate forces capture Fort Stedman from the Union in a bloody battle.
- 1894 - Coxey's Army, the first significant American protest march, departs Massillon, Ohio for Washington D.C..
- 1901 - At the five-day "Week of Nice" race in Nice, France, Mercedes wins its first racing victory.
- 1911 - In New York City the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire kills 146 garment workers.
- 1918 - The Belarusian National Republic was established.
- 1924 - Greece proclaims itself a republic.
- 1931 - The Scottsboro Boys are arrested in Alabama and charged with rape.
- 1939 - Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli becomes Pope Pius XII.
- 1941 - Kingdom of Yugoslavia joins the Axis powers.
- 1947 - A explosion in a coalmine in Centralia, Illinois kills 111.
- 1949 - The extensive deportation campaign was conducted in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The Soviet authorities deported more than 92,000 people from Baltics to remote areas of the Soviet Union.
- 1955 - United States Customs seizes copies of Allen Ginsberg's poem "Howl" as obscene.
- 1957 - The European Economic Community is established (West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg).
- 1960 - In London, United Kingdom, Jacqueline Boyer wins the fifth Eurovision Song Contest for France singing "Tom Pillibi".
- 1965 - Civil rights activists led by Martin Luther King, Jr. complete successfully their 4-day 50-mile march from Selma to the capitol in Montgomery.
- 1969 - During their honeymoon, John Lennon and Yoko Ono hold their first Bed-In for Peace in the Amsterdam Hilton Hotel (until March 31).
- 1971 - Bangladesh Liberation War: Beginning of Operation Searchlight of Pakistan Army against East Pakistani civilians.
- 1972 - In Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom, Vicky Leandros wins the seventeenth Eurovision Song Contest for Luxembourg singing "Après toi" (After you).
- 1975 - Faisal of Saudi Arabia is shot and killed by a mentally ill nephew.
- 1979 - The first fully functional space shuttle orbiter, Columbia, is delivered to the John F. Kennedy Space Center to be prepared for its first launch.
- 1990 - In the Bronx, New York City, a fire at an illegal social club called "Happy Land" kills 87 people.
- 1992 - Cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev returns to Earth after a 10-month stay aboard the Mir space station.
- 1995 - Ward Cunningham opens the first wiki, the WikiWikiWeb.
- 1996 - An 81-day-long standoff between the antigovernment group Montana Freemen and law enforcement near Jordan, Montana, begins.
- 1996 - The Labour Party is founded in Turkey.
- 1996 - The EU's Veterinarian Committee bans the export of British beef and its by-products as a result of mad cow disease (BSE).
- 2004 - Air Holland files for bankruptcy in response to unproven allegations of marijuana abuse by their pilots.

Births


- 1252 - Conradin, Duke of Swabia (d. 1268)
- 1297 - Arnost of Pardubice, Archbishop of Prague (d. 1364)
- 1345 - Blanche of Lancaster, wife of John of Gaunt (d. 1369)
- 1347 - Catherine of Siena, Italian saint (d. 1380)
- 1404 (baptism) - John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, English military leader (d. 1444)
- 1479 - Vasili III, Grand Prince of Moscow (d. 1533)
- 1539 - Christopher Clavius, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1612)
- 1541 - Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1587)
- 1593 - Jean de Brébeuf, French Jesuit missionary (d. 1649)
- 1643 - Louis Moréri, French encylopedist (d. 1680)
- 1661 - Paul de Rapin, French historian (d. 1725)
- 1699 - Johann Adolph Hasse, German composer (d. 1783)
- 1767 - Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (d. 1815)
- 1863 - Simon Flexner, pathologist (d. 1946)
- 1867 - Arturo Toscanini, Italian conductor, (d. 1957)
- 1868 - William Lockwood, English cricketer (d. 1932)
- 1873 - Rudolf Rocker, German anarchist (d. 1958)
- 1881 - Béla Bartók, Hungarian composer (d. 1945)
- 1881 - Mary Gladys Webb, English writer (d. 1927)
- 1884 - Georges Imbert, Alsatian chemist (d. 1950)
- 1886 - Athenagoras, Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 1972)
- 1901 - Ed Begley, American actor (d. 1970)
- 1906 - A.J.P. Taylor, British historian (d. 1990)
- 1908 - Helmut Käutner, German actor and film director (d. 1980)
- 1908 - David Lean, English film director (d. 1991)
- 1911 - Jack Ruby, American killer of Lee Harvey Oswald (d. 1967)
- 1914 - Norman Borlaug, American agricultural scientist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1918 - Howard Cosell, American attorney, lecturer, and sports journalist (d. 1995)
- 1920 - Patrick Troughton, British actor (d. 1987)
- 1920 - Arthur Wint, Jamaican runner
- 1921 - Simone Signoret, French actress (d. 1985)
- 1925 - Flannery O'Connor, American author (d. 1964)
- 1926 - László Papp, Hungarian boxer (d. 2003)
- 1926 - Jaime Sabines, Mexican poet (d. 1999)
- 1926 - Gene Shalit, American film critic
- 1928 - Jim Lovell, astronaut
- 1929 - Wim van Est, Dutch cyclist (d. 2003)
- 1934 - Gloria Steinem, American author
- 1938 - Hoyt Axton, American musician and actor (d. 1999)
- 1939 - Toni Cade Bambara, American author (d. 1995)
- 1940 - Anita Bryant, American entertainer and activist
- 1942 - Aretha Franklin, American singer
- 1942 - Richard O'Brien, English actor and writer
- 1943 - Paul Michael Glaser, American actor
- 1946 - Bonnie Bedelia, American actress
- 1946 - Maurice Krafft, French vulcanologist (d. 1991)
- 1947 - Sir Elton John, English musician
- 1952 - Antanas Mockus, Colombian mathematician and politician
- 1956 - Matthew Garber, British actor (d. 1977)
- 1960 - Idy Chan Yuk-Lin, Hong Kong actress
- 1962 - Marcia Cross, American actress
- 1964 - Lisa Gay Hamilton, American actress
- 1965 - Sarah Jessica Parker, American actress
- 1965 - Stefka Kostadinova, Bulgarian high jumper and president of the Bulgarian olympic committee
- 1966 - Tom Glavine, baseball player
- 1967 - Matthew Barney, American media artist
- 1967 - Debi Thomas, American figure skater
- 1969 - Dale Davis, American basketball player
- 1971 - Cammi Granato, American hockey player
- 1974 - Lark Voorhies, American actress
- 1976 - Juvenile, American rapper
- 1976 - Wladimir Klitschko, Ukrainian boxer
- 1976 - Gigi Leung, Hong Kong singer/actress.
- 1982 - Danica Patrick, American race car driver
- 1989 - Alyson Michalka, American actress

Deaths


- 752 - Pope Stephen II
- 1005 - King Kenneth III of Scotland (in battle)
- 1223 - King Afonso II of Portugal (b. 1185)
- 1345 - Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster, English politician (b. 1281)
- 1458 - Marqués de Santillana, Spanish poet (b. 1398)
- 1558 - Marcos de Niza, French Franciscan explorer
- 1603 - Ikoma Chikamasa, Japanese warlord (b. 1526)
- 1609 - Olaus Martini, Swedish Archbishop of Uppsala (b. 1557)
- 1620 - Johannes Nucius, German composer
- 1625 - Giambattista Marini, Italian poet (b. 1569)
- 1712 - Nehemiah Grew, English naturalist (b. 1641)
- 1736 - Nicholas Hawksmoor, British architect
- 1738 - Turlough O'Carolan, Irish harper and composer (b. 1670)
- 1751 - King Frederick I of Sweden (b. 1676)
- 1801 - Novalis, German poet (b. 1772)
- 1860 - James Braid, Scottish surgeon (b. 1795)
- 1914 - Frédéric Mistral, French poet, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1830)
- 1918 - Claude Debussy, French composer (b. 1862)
- 1951 - Eddie Collins, baseball player (b. 1887)
- 1957 - Max Ophüls, German-born director and writer (b. 1902)
- 1958 - Tom Brown, American musician (b. 1888)
- 1969 - Max Eastman, American writer (b. 1883)
- 1975 - King Faisal of Saudi Arabia (b. 1906)
- 1980 - Roland Barthes, French literary critic and writer (b. 1915)
- 1980 - Milton H. Erickson, American psychiatrist (b. 1901)
- 1980 - Walter Susskind, Czech conductor (b. 1913)
- 1988 - Robert Joffrey, dancer, teacher, and choreographer (b. 1930)
- 1991 - Marcel Lefebvre, French Catholic leader (b. 1905)
- 1992 - Nancy Walker, American actress (b. 1922)
- 1995 - James Coleman, American sociologist (b. 1926)
- 1995 - Krešimir Ćosić, Croatian basketball player (b. 1948)
- 1999 - Cal Ripken, Sr., baseball manager (b. 1936)
- 2000 - Helen Martin, American actress (b. 1909)
- 2002 - Kenneth Wolstenholme, British football commentator (b. 1920)

Holidays and observances


- The Annunciation - this date is nine months before Christmas Day.
- One of the four Irish Quarter days in the Irish calendar.
- Traditional date of the start of the new year in England and Wales, until the Calendar Act of 1752 (called Lady Day - see above).
- Maryland Day
- Greek Independence Day.
- Good Friday in 2005, 2016

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/march/25 BBC: On This Day]
- [http://www.tnl.net/when/3/25 Today in History: March 25] ---- March 24 - March 26 - February 25 - April 25 -- listing of all days ko:3월 25일 ms:25 Mac ja:3月25日 simple:March 25 th:25 มีนาคม

1767

1767 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events


- The Burmese army captures the Thai capital of Ayutthaya, and destroys the city.
- North Carolina woodsman Daniel Boone goes through the Cumberland Gap and reaches Kentucky - in defiance of a decree from King George III. He discovers a rich hunting ground, contested by several Native American tribes.
- American Whalers venture into the Antarctic for the first time, and begin to commercially exploit it.
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau settles in England.
- The first known competition of the winter sport biathlon takes place, in Norway
- The final volume of The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy by Laurence Sterne is published.
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart completes his first true opera, Apollo et Hyacinthus.
- June - Jean Chastel kills the infamous Beast of Gévaudan by firing 2 silver bullets at it because he thought it was a werewolf. The Beasts Reign of Terror began in 1764.
- June 29 - The Townshend Acts are passed by British Parliament, placing a tax on common products, such as lead, paper, paint, glass, and tea.
- First use of the term 'Fine art'

Births


- January 1 - Maria Edgeworth, Irish novelist (d. 1849)
- March 15 - Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the United States (d. 1845)
- March 25 - Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (d. 1815)
- April 25 - Nicolas Oudinot, French marshal (d. 1847)
- May 12 - Manuel de Godoy, Spanish statesman (d. 1851)
- July 11 - John Quincy Adams, 6th President of the United States (d. 1848)
- October 25 - Benjamin Constant, Swiss writer (d. 1830)
- November 22 - Andreas Hofer, Austrian national hero (d. 1810)

Deaths


- January 7 - Thomas Clap, first president of Yale University (b. 1703)
- January 22 - Johann Gottlob Lehmann, German minerologist and geologist (b. 1719)
- March 7 - Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, French colonizer and Governor of Louisiana (b. 1680)
- April 7 - Franz Sparry, composer (b. 1715)
- June 25 - Georg Philipp Telemann, German composer (b. 1681)
- September 4 - Charles Townshend, English politician (b. 1725)
- December 1 - Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan, British Freemason (b. 1710)
- December 22 - John Newbery, English publisher (b. 1713)
- Firmin Abauzit, French scientist (b. 1679) Category:1767 ko:1767년 ms:1767 simple:1767 th:พ.ศ. 2310

1815

1815 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 2 - Lord Byron marries Anna Isabella Milbanke, Seaham, County Durham.
- January 3 - Austria, Britain, and France form a secret defensive alliance treaty against Prussia and Russia.
- January 8 - War of 1812: Battle of New Orleans
- February 3 - The first commercial cheese factory is founded in Switzerland
- February 4 - Netherlands, Foundation of the first dutch student association, the Groninger Studenten Corps, Vindicat atque Polit. The first rector of the senate was B.J. Winters.
- February 6 - New Jersey grants the first American railroad charter to a John Stevens.
- February 26 - Napoleon Bonaparte escapes from Elba
- March 1 - Napoleon returns to France from his banishment on Elba.
- March 16 - Willem I becomes King of the Netherlands
- March 20 - Napoleon enters Paris after escaping from Elba with a regular army of 140,000 and a volunteer force of around 200,000 beginning his "Hundred Days" rule.
- April 5-April 12 - Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies blows its top during an eruption event. 92,000 are killed during this eruption. The event is the cause of 1816 becoming known as the Year Without a Summer.
- April 23- Second Serbian Uprising against Ottoman rule takes place in Takovo, Serbia. By the end of the year Serbia had been acknowledged as a semi-independent state. Ideals of the First Serbian Uprising have thus been temporarily achieved.
- June 9 - End of the Congress of Vienna: new European political situation is set.
- June 18 - Battle of Waterloo ends the Napoleonic wars.
- June 22 - Napoleon abdicates again, restoration of Louis XVIII as King of France
- July 8 - Louis XVIII returns to Paris
- July 17 - In France, Napoleon surrenders at Rochefort to British forces.
- October 15 - Napoleon I of France begins his exile on St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean.
- October 21 - Humphry Davy patents the miner's safety lamp for use in coal mining
- Austria, Prussia and Russia sign a Holy Alliance to uphold the European status quo.
- British missionaries arrive in New Zealand
- In Britain, use of pillory is limited to punishment for perjury
- Second wave of Amish immigration to North America
- First-class cricket begins.

Ongoing events


- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)-Seventh Coalition/Hundred Days
- War of 1812 (1812-1815)
- Congress of Vienna (1814 - 1815)

Births


- January 10 - John A. Macdonald, first Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1891)
- February 15 - Constantin von Tischendorf, German Biblical scholar (d. 1874)
- April 1 - Otto von Bismarck, German statesman (d. 1898)
- April 1 - Edward Clark, Governor of Texas (d. 1880)
- April 6 - Robert Volkmann, German composer (d. 1883)
- April 24 - Anthony Trollope, British author (d. 1882)
- August 5 - Edward John Eyre, explorer
- October 16 - Francis Lubbock, Governor of Texas (d. 1905)
- October 31 - Karl Weierstrass, German mathematician (d. 1897)
- November 2 - George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1864)
- December 10 - Augusta Ada King (neé Byron), Countess of Lovelace, early English computer pioneer (d. 1852)
- November 12 - Elizabeth Cady Stanton, American women's rights activist (d. 1902)
- December 21 - Thomas Couture, French painter (d. 1879)

Deaths


- January 8 - Edward Pakenham, British general (killed in battle) (b. 1778)
- January 16 - Emma, Lady Hamilton, English mistress of Horatio Nelson (b. 1765)
- February 24 - Robert Fulton, American inventor (b. 1765)
- February 26 - Prince Josias of Coburg, Austrian general (b. 1737)
- March 4 - Frances Abington, English actress (b. 1737)
- March 5 - Franz Mesmer, German developer of hypnotism (b. 1734)
- April 21 - Joseph Winston, American patriot and Congressman from North Carolina (b. 1746)
- June 1 - Louis Alexandre Berthier, French marshal (b. 1753)
- June 16 - Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick, German noble and general (killed in battle) (b. 1771)
- June 18 - Thomas Picton, British general (killed in battle) (b. 1758)
- June 18 - Claude-Etienne Michel, French general (killed in battle) (b. 1772
- June 18 - Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (killed in battle) (b. 1766)
- August 2 - Guillaume Marie Anne Brune, French marshal (murdered) (b. 1763)
- September 9 - John Singleton Copley, American painter (b. 1738)
- September 20 - Nicolas Desmarest, French geologist (b. 1725)
- October 15 - Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (executed) (b. 1767)
- December 3 - John Carroll, first American Roman Catholic Archbishop (b. 1735)
- December 7 - Michel Ney, French marshal (executed) (b. 1769) Category:1815 ko:1815년 ms:1815 simple:1815 th:พ.ศ. 2358

Marshal

Marshal (also spelled Marshall) is a word used in several official titles of various branches of society. The word derives from Old Germanic marah "horse" and scalc "servant", and originally meant "stable keeper". As marshals became betrusted members of the courts of Middle Ages Europe, the title grew in reputation. During the last few centuries, it has been used for the most elevated offices. The spelling of the name ("Marshall") is often confused with the spelling of the title ("Marshal").

Military

In many countries, the rank of Marshal is the highest Army rank, outranking a General. Marshals are very sparsely appointed, and typically only in war-time (although this need not be the case). The rank of Marshal may also be expanded into the similar title of Field Marshal. The special symbol of a Marshal is a baton, and so their insignia often incorporate batons. In some countries, the word Marshal is also used instead of General in the higher Air Force ranks. The four highest Royal Air Force ranks are Marshal of the Royal Air Force, Air Chief Marshal, Air Marshal and Air Vice Marshal (although the first has generally been suspended as a peacetime rank). Most air forces, however, use the ranks of General, Lieutenant General and Major General instead. Some historical rulers have used special Marshal titles to reward certain subjects. Though not strictly military ranks, these honorary titles have been exclusively bestowed upon successful military leaders. Most famous are the Marshals of France (Marécheaux de France), not least under Napoleon I. Another such title was that of Reich Marshal (Reichsmarschall), that was bestowed upon Hermann Göring by Adolf Hitler.

Marshal ranks by country

The following articles deal with the rank of Marshal as used by specific countries
- Marshal of France (France)
- Marshal of Poland (Poland)
- Marshal of the Russian Federation (Russian Federation)
- Marshal of the Soviet Union (Soviet Union)
- Marshal of Yugoslavia (Yugoslavia)
- Marshal of Finland (Finland) The following non-European ranks are considered the equivalent to a Marshal
- Mushir (Middle East)
- Wonsu (North and South Korea)
- Maresal (Turkey)

Ceremonial & Competition


- In feudal times, at many courts one or more of the major dignitaries were styled marshal or a compound such as court marshall or grand marshall; their functions varied, also in time, but frequently included formally announcing guests at audiences, balls, diners etcetera. Such prestigious office was often made hereditary in the high nobility, e.g. the English Earl Marshal.
- Still in modern pageantry, e.g. Grand marshal of an annual parade
- In some organized competions, such as the endurance sport Tough guy, officials, seeing to the observance of the rules, are styled marshalls

Law enforcement

Particularly in the United States, marshal is used for various kinds of law enforcement officers with specialist status. They mainly protect the security of the courts and justice system.
- At the federal level, the federal court system is served by the United States Marshal.
  - The US Supreme Court maintains a Marshal of the Supreme Court who also controls the US Supreme Court Police, a security police service.
- At the state, local or municipal court level, marshals are petty court officers similar to constables. Often their job is civil rather than criminal law enforcement.
  - In the American Old West, marshals, also called the "Town Marshal", were appointed or elected police officers of small communities, with similar powers and duties to that of a sheriff, while federal marshals would work in a larger, possibly overlapping area, especially in pioneering country. The word is still used in this sense, especially in the Southwest United States. (See List of Western lawmen). Still the name for some police forces.
  - In California, several counties maintained separate county marshal's Offices which served as court officers similar to US Marshals. Most have been merged into or taken over by the local County Sheriff's Office.
  - In Connecticut, marshals serve as court officers. They are separated into two classes: State Marshals are charged with service of process, and Judicial Marshals perform court security and transport detainees to and from court.
  - In Georgia, the Marshal is a civil law enforcement officer in some counties.
  - In Indiana, Marshals are responsible for law enforcement in a town.
  - In Ohio the term village marshal has been used for the same, often without any colleague, directly under the Mayor.
- Sky Marshals are armed security police officers employed to protect commercial airliners from the threat of Skyjacking. (Though sometimes called Air Marshals, they are completely unrelated to the military rank mentioned above, and are not to be confused with it.)

Science Fiction

The rank of Marshal has made frequent appearances in science fiction works, both live action productions and literature. In the universe of Star Wars, the rank of Marshal is conjectured to be connected to the TIE fighter forces, being ranks held by senior TIE fighter commanders, equivalent to Imperial Navy Admirals. Several sources of the Star Wars Expanded Universe have conjectured the following Marshal ranks of the starfighter service.
- Grand Marshal
- High Marshal
- Force Marshal
- Chief Marshal
- Marshal
- Vice Marshal In addition to Star Wars, the rank of Marshal may also be found in the novel Starship Troopers where the rank of Sky Marshal is held by the Commander-in-Chief of the military. Marshal is also a military rank frequently found in the universe of Doctor Who where, more often that not, it is held by various villains who seek galactic domination through military force. In the Riddick universe, the leader of the diabolic Necromonger army is called the Lord Marshal. In the Starcraft computer game, Jim Raynor, nominally the main character, holds the rank of Marshal at the story's outset. In the World of Warcraft computer game, Grand Marshal is the highest rank achievable (rank 14) by Alliance characters in the Player vs. Player Honor System (Field Marshal is rank 13, and Marshal is rank 12).

See also


- Earl Marshal
- General of the Army Category:Military ranks Category:Titles

King of Naples

The Kingdom of Naples was born out of the division of the Kingdom of Sicily after the Sicilian Vespers rebellion of 1282. King Charles I of Sicily (Charles of Anjou) was forced to leave the island of Sicily by Peter III of Aragon's troops. Charles, however, maintained his possessions on the mainland, customarily known as the "Kingdom of Naples." Charles and his Angevin successors maintained a claim to Sicily, warring against the Aragonese until in 1373, Queen Joan I of Naples formally renounced the claim. Queen Joan I also played a part in the ultimate demise of the first Kingdom of Naples. As she was childless, she adopted Louis I of Naples as her heir, effectively setting up a junior Angevin line in competion with the senior line. After Joan I's death in 1382, the two competing Angevin lines contested each other for the possession of the Kingdom of Naples over the following decades. Joan II of Naples adopted Alfons V of Aragon (whom she later repudiated) and Louis III of Anjou as heirs alternately, finally settling succession on Louis' son René of Anjou (later René I of Naples) of the junior Angevin line. René of Anjou temporarily united the claims of junior and senior Angevin lines. In 1442, however, King Alfons V of Aragon conquered the Kingdom of Naples and unified Sicily and Naples once again as dependencies of Aragon. At his death in 1458, the kingdom was again separated and Naples was inherited by Ferdinand I of Naples, Alfons' illegitimate son. When Ferdinand I died in 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, using the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples as a pretext, thus beginning the Italian Wars. Charles VIII expelled Alphonso II of Naples from Naples in 1495, but his cousin, Ferdinand II of Aragon had resumed control of the kingdom by 1504. After the War of the Spanish Succession, possession of the kingdom again changed hands. Under the terms of the treaty of Rastatt in 1714, Naples was given to Charles VI, the Holy Roman Emperor. Sicily was later informally annexed to the Empire, but Sicily was not legally reunited with Naples until the 1815 Congress of Vienna, forming The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In 1806, Napoléon Bonaparte installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, and then his brother-in-law Joachim Murat as kings of Naples, the latter reigning until 1815.

See also


- List of monarchs of Naples and Sicily Category:Naples

1808

1808 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar).

Events


- January 1 - Importation of slaves into the United States is banned
- February - Russia issues an ultimatum to Sweden, to join France, Denmark and Russia and attacks Finland.
- 26 January - Rum Rebellion: On the twentieth anniversary of the foundation of the colony of New South Wales, disgruntled military officers of the New South Wales Corps (the "Rum Corps") overthrow and imprison Governor William Bligh and seize control of the colony.
- February 2 - French troops occupy Papal States (Vatican)
- February 11 - Anthracite coal first burned as fuel, experimentally.
- February 21 - Russian troops cross border to Finland without declaration of war - the Finnish War begins
- March 2 - Russian troops occupy Helsinki and threaten Sveaborg
- March 11 - Russian troops occupy Tampere
- March 22 - Russian troops occupy Turku
- March 26 - Charles IV of Spain abdicates in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII
- April 6 - John Jacob Astor incorporates the American Fur Company.
- April 16 - Troops under colonel Carl von Döbeln clash with Russian troops in Pyhäjoki, Finland
- May 2 - Peninsular War: The people of Madrid uprise against the French troops.
- May 3:
  - The fortress of Sveaborg is lost by Sweden to Russia, during the Finnish War.
  - Peninsular War: The Madrid rebels who uprose on May 2 are fired near Príncipe Pío hill.
- June 12 - Landing of Swedish troops to Ala-Lemu fails
- June 19 - Second landing of Swedish troops fails in Ala-Lemu
- July 5 - Battle of Buenos Aires - locals repel the British troops
- July 14 - Troops under colonel Adlercreutz force Russians to withdraw in Lapua
- August 10 - Troops under Carl von Döbeln defeat Russian attack in Kauhajoki
- August 21 - Battle of Vimiero - British troops under Duke of Wellington defeat French under general Junot
- September 29-October 19 - Truce between Swedish and Russian troops in Finland
- November 19 - New truce ends fighting in Finland
- November - Swedish troops evacuate Finland. Tsar Alexander I of Russia proclaims Finland a part of Russia.
- November - James Madison defeats Charles C. Pinckney in U.S. presidential election
- December - Napoleon invades Spain
- December 9 - At 20:34 UTC Mercury occults Saturn. There are no observation records.
- Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mustafa IV (1807-1808) to Mahmud II (1808-1839)
- Academy of Fine Arts, Munich founded

Ongoing events


- Napoleonic Wars

Births


- January 19 - Lysander Spooner, American philosopher (d. 1887)
- January 27 - David Strauss, German theologian (d. 1874)
- February 5 - Carl Spitzweg, German painter (d. 1885)
- February 26 - Honoré Daumier, French painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. 1879)
- May 22 - Gérard de Nerval, French writer (d. 1855)
- June 3 - Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States (d. 1889)
- June 17 - Henrik Wergeland, Norwegian author (d. 1845)
- June 20 - Samson Raphael Hirsch, German rabbi (d. 1888)
- July 9 - Alexander William Doniphan, American lawyer and military leader (d. 1887)
- September 13 - Saverio Bettinelli, Italian writer (b. 1718)
- October 6 - King Frederick VII of Denmark (d. 1863)
- October 20 - Karl Andree, German geographer (d. 1875)
- November 1 - John Taylor, American religious leader (d. 1887)
- November 2 - Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly, French writer (d. 1889)
- December 29 - Andrew Johnson, 17th President of the United States (d. 1875)

Deaths


- February 14 - John Dickinson, American lawyer and delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (b. 1732)
- March 13 - King Christian VII of Denmark (b. 1749)
- May 18 - Elijah Craig, American minister and inventor
- May 28 - Richard Hurd, English bishop and writer (b. 1720)
- September 3 - John Montgomery, American delegate to the Continental Congress (b. 1722)
- September 5 - John Home, Scottish writer (b. 1722)
- September 6 - Louis-Pierre Anquetil, French historian (b. 1723)
- September 17 - Benjamin Bourne, American politician (b. 1755)
- November 10 - Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, British soldier and Governor of Quebec (b. 1724)
- November 17 - David Zeisberger, Moravian missionary (b. 1721) Category:1808 ko:1808년 ms:1808 simple:1808

1721

Events


- Pope Innocent XIII becomes pope
- Johann Sebastian Bach composes the Brandenburg Concertos
- April 4 - Robert Walpole becomes the first prime minister of Britain
- September 10 - Treaty of Nystad is signed, bringing an end to the Great Northern War
- November 2 - Peter I is proclaimed Emperor of All the Russias

Ongoing Events


- Great Northern War (1700-1721)

Births


- January 10 - Johann Philipp Baratier, German scholar (d. 1740)
- February 3 - Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz, Prussian general (d. 1773)
- February 21 - John McKinly, American physician and President of Delaware (d. 1796)
- March 19 - Tobias Smollett, Scottish physician and author (d. 1771)
- April 3 - Roger Sherman, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. 1793)
- April 11 - David Zeisberger, Moravian missionary (d. 1808)
- April 15 - Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, English military leader (d. 1765)
- April 19 - Roger Sherman, signer of the American Declaration of Independence (d. 1803)
- July 9 - Johann Nikolaus Götz, German poet (d. 1781)
- July 14 - John Douglas, Scottish Anglican bishop and man of letters (d. 1807)
- August 4 - Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, English politician (d. 1803)
- August 31 - George Hervey, 2nd Earl of Bristol, British statesman (d. 1775)
- September 14 - Eliphalet Dyer, American statesman and judge (d. 1807)
- October 19 - Joseph de Guignes, French orientalist (d. 1800)
- November 9 - Mark Akenside, English poet and physician (d. 1770)
- November 22 - Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres, Swiss-born cartographer and Canadian statesman (d. 1824)
- December 6 - James Elphinston, Scottish philologist (d. 1809)
- December 6 - Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, French statesman (d. 1794)
- December 27 - François Hemsterhuis, Dutch philosopher (d. 1790)
- December 29 - Marquise de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV of France (d. 1764)

Deaths


- February 16 - James Craggs the Younger, English politician (b. 1686)
- February 24 - John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby, English statesman and poet (b. 1648)
- March 16 - James Craggs the Elder, English politician (b. 1657)
- March 19 - Pope Clement XI (b. 1649)
- April 14 - Michel Chamillart, French statesman (b. 1652)
- July 8 - Elihu Yale, American benefactor of Yale University (b. 1649)
- July 18 - Antoine Watteau, French painter (b. 1684)
- August 3 - Grinling Gibbons, Dutch-born woodcarver (b. 1648)
- August 13 - Jacques Lelong, French bibliographer (b. 1665)
- September 8 - Michael Brokoff, Czech sculptor (b. 1686)
- September 11 - Rudolf Jakob Camerarius, German botanist and physician (b. 1665)
- September 18 - Matthew Prior, British poet and diplomat (b. 1664)
- September 20 - Thomas Doggett, Irish actor
- October 11 - Edward Colston, English merchant and philanthropist (b. 1636)
- December 13 - Alexander Selkirk, Scottish sailor (b. 1676)
- December 17 - Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough, English statesman (b. 1650)
- Henri Arnaud, French pastor and leader of the Waldenses (b. 1641)
- Thomas Doggett, Irish actor Category:1721 ko:1721년 ms:1721

1799

1799 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar).

Events


- March 1 - Federalist James Ross becomes President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate.
- March 7 - Napoleon captures Jaffa in Palestine and his troops proceed to kill more than 2,000 Albanian captives.
- March 29 - New York passes a law aimed at gradually abolishing slavery in the state.
- July 7 - Ranjit Singh's men had taken their positions outside Lahore.
- July 15 - In the Egyptian port city of Rosetta, French Captain Pierre Bouchard finds the Rosetta Stone.
- July 25 - At Aboukir in Egypt, Napoleon I of France defeats 10,000 Ottoman Mamluk troops under Mustafa Pasha.
- November 9 - Napoleon overthrows the French Directory.
- December - Napoleon becomes First Consul.
- The Dutch East India Company is dissolved.
- The Place Royale in Paris is renamed Place des Vosges when the Department of Vosges becomes the first to pay new Revolutionary taxes.
- The American System of manufacturing is invented.

Ongoing events


- French Revolution (1789-1799)
- French Revolutionary Wars (1792-1802)-Second Coalition/Egyptian Campaign
- Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)-Second Coalition/Egyptian Campaign

Births


- January 6 - Jedediah Smith, American fur trapper and explorer (d. 1831)
- January 31 - Rodolphe Töpffer, Swiss teacher, author, and artist (d. 1846)
- April 12 - Henri Druey, Swiss Federal Councilor (d. 1855)
- May 13 - Catherine Gore, English author (d. 1861)
- May 20- Honoré de Balzac, French author (d. 1850)
- May 21 - Mary Anning, British paleontologist (d. 1847)
- June 6 - Aleksandr Pushkin, Russian author (d. 1837)
- July 4 - King Oscar I of Sweden and Norway (d. 1859)
- June 18 - Prosper Ménière, French physician (d. 1862)
- September 8 - James Bowman Lindsay, Scottish inventor (d. 1862)
- November 1 - Thomas Baldwin Marsh, American religious leader (d. 1866)
- December 30 - David Douglas, Scottish botanist (d. 1834)
- James Townsend Saward, English barrister and forger
- Alexei Fyodorovich Lvov, Russian composer

Deaths


- January 9 - Maria Gaetana Agnesi, Italian mathematician (b. 1718)
- January 26 - Gabriel Christie, British general (b. 1722)
- February 6 - Étienne-Louis Boullée, French architect (b. 1728)
- February 7 - Qianlong Emperor of China (b. 1711)
- February 19 - Jean-Charles de Borda, French mathematician, physicist, political scientist, and sailor (b. 1733)
- May 4 - Tipu Sultan, Indian ruler (b. 1750)
- May 18 - Pierre Beaumarchais, French writer (b. 1732)
- May 26 - James Burnett, Lord Monboddo, Scottish judge (b. 1714)
- May 31 - Pierre Charles Le Monnier, French astronomer (b. 1715)
- June 6 - Patrick Henry, American revolutionary politician (b. 1736)
- August 2 - Jacques Étienne Montgolfier, French inventor (b. 1745)
- August 4 - John Bacon, British sculptor (b. 1740)
- August 5 - Richard Howe, British admiral (b. 1726)
- August 29 - Pope Pius VI (b. 1717)
- August 31 - Nicolas-Henri Jardin, French architect (b. 1720)
- September 7 - Louis Guillaume Lemonnier, French botanist (b. 1717)
- October 6 - William Withering, British physician (b. 1741)
- October 24 - Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, Austrian composer (b. 1739)
- December 14 - George Washington, first President of the United States (b. 1732)
- December 18 - Jean-Étienne Montucla, French mathematician (b. 1725)
- December 31 - Jean-François Marmontel, French historian and writer (b. 1723) Category:1799 ko:1799년 ms:1799 th:พ.ศ. 2342

Cavalry

:This article is about cavalry, mounted soldiers. Cavalry is also a common misspelling of the Biblical hill Calvary. Calvary An army unit consisting of mounted soldiers is commonly known as cavalry. Cavalry fight from the backs of their mounts, which most often are horses or camels. Infantry travelling by horse and fighting on foot are instead known as mounted infantry or dragoons. Historically cavalry improved mobility, an "instrument which multiplied the fighting value of even the smallest forces, allowing them to outflank and avoid, to surprise and overpower, to retreat and escape according to the requirements of the moment." In some modern militaries (especially the United States Army), the term Cavalry is often used for units that fill the traditional horse-borne light cavalry roles of scouting, screening, skirmishing and raiding. The shock role, traditionally filled by heavy cavalry, is generally filled by units with the "Armoured" designation.

Origins

Armoured]] Before the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor. The chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians. The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status by the Pharaohs of the New Kingdom of Egypt as well as Assyrian and Babylonian royalty. Cavalry techniques were, again, an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Eurasian steppe. Use of chariots in battle was obsolete by the Persian defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great, but chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes, for instance carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph. The first cavalry consisted of pairs of men, one using a bow while the other guided both of their horses. In the armies of the Ancient Greeks and the Roman Republic, cavalry played a relatively minor role—in both civilizations conflicts were decided by massed armored infantry. The cavalry in the Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy landed class known as the Equites; later on, as the class became more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans turned to Gauls and Iberians to fill the ranks of their auxiliary cavalry. Numidians were also highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts. Julius Caesar himself was known for his escort of Germanic cavalry, and the early Emperors maintained an ala of Batavian cavalry as their bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by Galba. In the army of the late Roman Empire, cavalry played an increasingly important role. Sarmatians were hired as cavalrymen. The Spatha, the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium, originated as a Roman cavalry sword. The Eastern Roman Empire itself came to rely increasingly on Visigothic heavy cavalry as the primary shock force of their armies. As a result of selective breeding, the size and weight of war horses approximately doubled throughout the Middle Ages; while during the Migration period, a horse might bear an unarmoured horse archer, by the 11th century, it could bear the weight of a warrior in full chainmail armour, and by the 1400s, the Friesian could bear a weight of a knight in full plate armour, as well as additional armour protecting the horse itself. Due to this development, cavalry tactics also changed from the ancient "Parthian shot" and skirmishing techniques to the medieval massed cavalry charges relying on the horsemen's mere impact force. Among the first to use such cavalry charges were the Companion Cavalry of Macedon, although its power in this role was not fully used after Alexander the Great's death.

Light and heavy cavalry

Historically, cavalry was divided into light and heavy cavalry. The difference was mainly how much armor was worn by the soldiers, and thus how powerful their mounts had to be in order to sustain the burden. Early light cavalry (like the auxiliaries of the Roman army) were typically used to scout and skirmish and to cut down retreating infantry. Heavy cavalry like the Byzantine Cataphract were used as shock troops - they would charge the main body of the enemy and in many cases, their actions decided the outcome of the battle. During the Gunpowder Age, armored cavalry became obsolete and the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was their training—either for harassment and reconnaissance or for close-order charges. Since the development of armored warfare the distinction between light and heavy armor has persisted basically along the same lines. Armored cars and light tanks have adopted the reconnaissance role while medium and heavy tanks are regarded as the decisive shock troops.

Dominance and decline

The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the second and third centuries cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the insubstantial Roman saddle by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was significant too. New armored Cataphracts were deployed in eastern Europe and the near East, notably in Persian forces as the main striking force of the armies, whereas earlier cavalry had to be consigned to the flanks. The introduction of the stirrup allowed for even heavier cavalry. As a greater weight of man and armor could be supported in the saddle, the almost-certainty of being dismounted in combat was reduced. In the initial charge a lance could be 'set' rather than held over-head—leading to an enormous increase in the impact of a charge. In western Europe there emerged the heaviest of the heavy cavalry, the knight— exchanging much of the mobility advantage for a massive, irresistible first charge. Knights quickly became an important military force in western Europe, although it is worth noting that Medieval military doctrine actually employed them as part of a combined-arms force along with various kinds of foot troops. Still, Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the rank and file, and this has led early students of military history to suppose that knights were the only things that mattered on Medieval European battlefields--a view with hardly any grounding in reality. Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt, while at Gisors (1188), Bannockburn (1314), and Laupen (1339), foot-soldiers proved their invulnerability to cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. However, the rise of infantry as the principal arm had to wait for the Swiss to develop their pike-squares into an offensive arm instead of a defensive one; this new aggressive doctrine brought the Swiss to victory over a range of adversaries, although eventually numbers would tell (Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs). The introduction of less effective but simpler missile weapons, like the crossbow, was additionally decisive. A top-quality 15th century army could be 50 percent cavalry, but by the 1520s this proportion had fallen below 25 percent. Knighthood quickly became associated with land ownership and senior positions in the feudal social structure. From the 1550s, the use of gunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield, and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain, and it took years to replace a skilled horseman or a trained horse, while arquebusiers and later musketeers could be trained at maintained at a much lower expense, in addition to being much easier to replace. The Spanish tercio and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. The pistol was specifically developed to try and bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the caracole. These innovations were not particularly successful, however, and soon the charge was revived as the primary mode of employment for European cavalry. In any case, cavalry still had a role to play. First and foremost they remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on was usually unsuccessful, but the extended linear formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at Blenheim (1704), Rossbach (1757), and Friedland (1807), remaining a significant factor throughout the Napoleonic Wars. And while massed infantry was deadly to cavalry, it was an excellent target for artillery—once formations were broken, cavalry was essential and deadly in the harry and rout of the scattered infantry. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even th