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Joe Cain

Joe Cain

Joseph Stillwell Cain (Joe Cain) is largely credited for the rebirth of Mardi Gras in Mobile, Alabama. In 1866, following the Civil War and while Mobile was still under Union occupation, Joe cain led a group of revelers in a parade through the city, using a "borrowed" coal wagon and dressed in improvised costumes depicting a legendary Chickasaw chief named Slacabamorinico. The choice was a backhanded insult to the Union forces as that the Chickasaw had never surrendered. Joe Cain is currently buried at Church Street Cemetery in Mobile, Alabama. The Sunday before Fat Tuesday, Joe Cain Day is celebrated as part of the scheduled Mardi Gras celebrations in Mobile, with its center being the Joe Cain Parade. This has been called "The People's Parade" due to the fact that it is performed by citizens without being run by a specific Krewe. Originally, anybody who showed up at the parade start Sunday morning could join in with whatever makeshift float they could cobble together. Eventually, the sheer size and disorder force the organizers to limit the participants to a preset limit. The parade culminates with the visit of the Merry Widows of Joe Cain to the gravesite of their 'departed husband.' The impression that the celebration had on a couple of visitors from California resulted in Joe Cain Days being officially recognized as a sister celebration in Nevada City, California each Mardi Gras.

Mardi Gras

::For other carnival season celebrations see the article on Carnival. For the 1972 album, see Mardi Gras (album). For the British extortionist known as the "Mardi Gra bomber" see Edgar Pearce. Mardi Gras (French for "Fat Tuesday") is the day before Ash Wednesday, and is also called "Shrove Tuesday". It is the final day of Carnival (pronounced "CAR-nuh-vul" in English; "car-nee-VAHL" in most Romance languages). It is a celebration that is held just before the beginning of the Christian liturgical season of Lent. The feast should not be confused with the Polish Fat Thursday. Fat Thursday
Dates
The date can vary from February 3 to March 9 in non-leap years or February 4 to March 9 in leap years. Like Lent, the date is dependent on that of Easter. Mardi Gras falls on the following dates in the following years:
- 2006 - February 28
- 2007 - February 20
- 2008 - February 5
- 2009 - February 24
- 2010 - February 16
- 2011 - March 8
- 2012 - February 21
- 2013 - February 12
- 2014 - March 4
Locations
Perhaps the cities most famous for their Mardi Gras celebrations include New Orleans (whose gay][Carnival]] has become legendary), Rio de Janeiro (known for having the most ostentatious and licentious Carnival), Venice (whose Carnival traditions have their roots in paganism, and were shaped into what they are today during the Renaissance), and Cologne. Many other places have important Mardi Gras celebrations as well. Carnival is an important celebration in most of Europe (Especially Southern Europe), and in many parts of Latin America and the Caribbean. Las Vegas and San Diego are cities with a growing celebration for this event as well. Image:Making next years float.jpg
Quebec
In Quebec the Carnival period traditionally coincided with the coldest days of the year when temperatures dropped to forty degrees below zero, linking it to snow and ice sports. As a result the biggest festival there, the Quebec City Winter Carnival was eventually moved from a lunar calendar, set with Easter in mind, to a solar calendar, and other winter carnivals in Quebec followed suit, abandoning the traditional Christian dates and placing the midwinter celebration at the end of January and the beginning of February, in order to avoid the danger of a late February or early March meltdown of carnival ice sculptures, ice castles and snow trails snow ball fight.
Newfoundland
In Newfoundland Mardi Gras is celebrated the weekend before Halloween in the capital city of St. John's. Unlike more traditional Mardi Gras celebrations, the Newfoundland celebration is largely a commercial event centered around St. John's famous George Street pub district. Each year the street is closed off for a weekend of celebrations, with participants generally dressed in Halloween attire.
Brazil
In Brazil, the Carnival celebrations in Recife, Olinda, Salvador are well-known, among others. See: Brazilian Carnival
Caribbean
In the Caribbean, Carnival is celebrated on a number of islands. The most famous and largest-scale of these is in Trinidad and Tobago. Other Carnivals are held on Aruba, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the French West Indies.
United States
Within the United States, it was originally celebrated by French settlers along the Mississippi coast of the Gulf of Mexico as a series of house parties. Recently Mardi Gras has taken root in several major cities in the USA as the event contributes to help local economies bring revenues.
Mobile
Mobile, Alabama has perhaps the longest tradition of observed Mardi Gras celebration in the United States, and still celebrates it each year. Only New Orleans holds a larger Mardi Gras celebration. Celebration of Mardi Gras in Mobile dates back to French colonial times. Celebrations were halted with the American Civil War, but were revived with a parade by Joe Cain in 1866, whose memory is still honored each Carnival. The Mobile Mardi Gras season is always concluded by the Order of Myths parade, produced by the society of the same name. This is a special honor, because the 'double-O M's' are the oldest continuous Mardi Gras society in America. Throughout each parade, mystic maskers throw trinkets, beads, candy, coins and Moon Pies, a sweet baked good that combines a graham cracker like crust with marshmallow, and is then covered in a flavored frosting.
Pensacola
Pensacola, Florida is home to the third largest Mardi Gras Celebration in the United States. This is probably due to it being geographically near Mobile, Alabama, although other possibilities exist. The Pensacola celebrations also use Moon Pies in combination with beads, coins, and small candies.
Galveston
Galveston, Texas is home to a notable Mardi Gras festival, which is held in the historic Strand District on Galveston Island on the Texas Gulf Coast. It is considerably smaller than New Orleans Mardi Gras, but still brings in many tourists to Galveston.
New Orleans
Main article: New Orleans Mardi Gras New Orleans Mardi Gras New Orleans Mardi Gras is particularly well-known, often called "the greatest free show on earth". The celebrations draw many tourists to the city in addition to the celebrating locals for the parties and parades. Mardi Gras came to New Orleans with the earliest French settlers. New Orleans developed new traditions, as have other places ever since. New Orleans traditions include Krewes such as the Krewe du Vieux, the Zulu Social Aid & Pleasure Club, and the famous Rex parade, in addition to Mardi Gras Indians and king cake parties. There are as many as 60 Krewes that have parades in the greater New Orleans area. Officially, Mardi Gras, more properly called Carnivale, starts at the end of the twelfth day of Christmas. Most parades, balls and other festivities occur on weeknights and weekends in the 2-week period before Mardi Gras Day. Though each parade is unique, there are certain common ingredients: 1) either a King or Queen who reigns over the parade, picked from the Krewe membership; 2) gaily colored floats, ridden by Krewe members, who throw various items, including beads, doubloons with the Krewe emblem and often, that year's parade's theme, and assorted other fun items; 3) marching bands, usually from high schools and universities, but often other invited guest bands. Particularly since the inception of the larger parade organizations (sometimes called "super krewes") such as Bacchus and Endymion, it has become fashionable to invite Hollywood and other celebrities to act as Grand Marshals for parades.
Elsewhere in Louisiana
Mardi Gras is a legal holiday in Louisiana. Other places in the Greater New Orleans Metro Area also have celebrations; notably the suburb of Metairie, Louisiana has large parades. Without the restrictions on commercial ties to parades of Orleans Parish, there is much advertising and trademark placements on the parades there. Metairie parades also tend to be more family-oriented, and include even a Children's parade. In parts of the Cajun country of southwestern Louisiana, the traditional Courir du Mardi Gras (French - Running of the Mardi Gras) is still run, sometimes by maskers on horseback who gather ingredients for making the communal meal. The townspeople will gather in costume and move from home to home requesting ingredients for the night's meal. The requested homeowner may comply with their wishes, usually by giving some form of vegetable or live animal, such as a chicken or pig, to the members of the run. The homeowner will often release the animal and make the runners catch it. In many cases, if the homeowner refuses to give an ingredient, the runners will steal one. These Courir can be witnessed in Church Point, Louisiana, Eunice, Louisiana, Mamou, Louisiana, Ville Platte, Louisiana, and Elton, Louisiana. The costumes used in these events are often homemade, emloying sheets, paints, and frequently masks of wire mesh with conical hats. Many small towns and cities throughout southern Louisiana have Mardi Gras parades in the weeks leading up to Mardi Gras day, and particularly on that day. There are also Mardi Gras parades in Northern Louisiana in Shreveport, Louisiana by the Krewe of Centaur and the Krewe of Gemini and in Monroe, Louisiana and West Monroe, Louisiana by the Krewe of Janus. Mardi Gras is one of only three exceptions to [http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=78402 the Louisiana law] against wearing hoods and masks in public, the other two being Halloween and religious beliefs.
Saint Louis
The largest Mardi Gras celebration in the United States outside of New Orleans and Mobile is in the Soulard area of St. Louis, Missouri.
San Diego
As of 2005, there is a corporate sponsored party in the Gaslamp Quarter of downtown San Diego.
Mexico
In Mexico, there are big Carnival celebrations every year in Mazatlan and Veracruz that include the election of a queen and street parades.
Belgium
In Binche the "Mardi Gras" is the most important day of the year and the summit of the [http://www.carnavaldebinche.be Carnival of Binche]. Around 1000 [http://www.carnavaldebinche.be/img/galeries/mardipm/mardipm04_8.jpg Gilles] are dancing through the city from 4.00 AM to late hours on traditional carnival songs. In 2003, the Carnival of Binche was proclaimed one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.
Sydney
Also see Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras.
External links

- [http://www.mardigrasdigest.com Mardi Gras Digest News, Researched Articles and information on Mardi Gras]
- [http://www.thisisthelife.com/en/carnivals-festivals/mardi-gras.htm Article on Mardi Gras at ThisIsTheLife.com]
- [http://www.mardigrasneworleans.com/ Mardi Gras in New Orleans]
- Category:Religious festivals Category:Music festivals Category:Parades Category:Carnival als:Fastnachtsdienstag ja:マルディグラ

1866

1866 is a common year starting on Monday.

Events

January – June

- January 6 – Ottoman troops clash with men of a Maronite leader Karam in St. Doumit in Lebanon - Turks are defeated
- January 12 - Royal Aeronautical Society is formed (London)
- January 28 - 800 Maronite troops clash with Ottoman troops in Karem Saddah, modern-day Lebanon - more battles between nationalist Maronites and Ottoman army follow
- February 13 - The first daylight robbery in United States history during peacetime takes place in Liberty, Missouri. This is considered to be the first robbery committed by Jesse James and his gang, although James's role is disputed.
- February 26 - The Calaveras Skull is discovered. Purported to be evidence of humans during the Pliocene Age, it turns out to be a hoax.
- April 4 - Alexander II of Russia narrowly escapes an assassination attempt in the city of Kiev. A design for a city gate to commemorate his escape was the inspiration for Mussorgsky's The Great Gate of Kiev from Pictures at an Exhibition.
- April 10 - The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) is founded in New York City by Henry Bergh.
- May - Student Choen Blind fails to assassinate Otto von Bismarck in Unter den Linden in Berlin
- May 2 - Peruvian defenders fight off Spanish fleet at the Battle of Callao.
- May 16 - The U.S. Congress eliminates the half dime coin and replaces it with the five cent piece, or nickel.
- May 16 - Charles Elmer Hires invents root beer.
- May 24 - Battle of Tuyuti - 32.000 soldiers of the Triple Alliance defeat 24.000 Paraguayan soldiers few miles north of the Parana - 18.000 dead
- June 2 - Fenian forces skirmish with Canadian militia at Ridgeway and Fort Erie
- June 5 - Calculations indicate Pluto reached its most recent aphelion (furthest point from Sun) on this day. The next aphelion will occur in August 2113.
- June 8 - The Canadian Parliament meets for the first time in Ottawa.
- June 11 - Agra High Court established (later shifted to Allahabad High Court.
- June 14 - Beginning of the Austro-Prussian War, when the Austrians and most of the medium German states declare war on Prussia.
- June 20 - The Kingdom of Italy declares war on Austria.
- June 24 - At the Second Battle of Custozza, the Austrian army under Archduke Albert defeats the main Italian army, commander by King Victor Emmanuel.
- June 27-29 - The Prussians defeat the Hanoverian army at the Battle of Langensalza.

July – December

- July 3 - At the Battle of Königgratz, the Prussian army under King Wilhelm and Helmuth von Moltke defeats the Austrian army of Ludwig von Benedek, leading to a decisive Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War.
- July 5 - Marriage of Princess Helena of the United Kingdom, third daughter of Queen Victoria to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg
- July 20 - At the Naval Battle of Lissa, the Austrian fleet under Wilhelm von Tegetthoff defeats the Italian fleet of Carlo di Persano.
- July 24 - Reconstruction: Tennessee becomes the first U.S. state to be readmitted to the Union following the American Civil War.
- July 25 - The U.S. Congress passes legislation authorizing the rank of General of the Army (now called "5-star general") Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant becomes the first to have this rank.
- July 27 - The Atlantic Cable is successfully completed, allowing transatlantic telegraph communication for the first time.
- July 28 - The Metric Act of 1866 becomes law and legalizes the standardization of weights and measures in the United States.
- August 23 - Treaty of Prague ends the Austro-Prussian War
- September 22 - Paraguay successfully defends Curupaity against the Triple Alliance, scoring more than 5000 with just about 50 casualties.
- October 12 - The Treaty of Vienna ends the war between Austria and Italy. It formalizes the annexation of Venetia by Italy.
- December 21 - Fetterman's massacre - Sioux ambush and wipe out 79 cavalrymen under lieutenant colonel William J. Fetterman
- Federalist revolts in Argentina
- In Sweden the Riksdag of the Estates is replaced by an elected two chamber assembly, the Riksdag.
- Alfred Nobel invents dynamite.
- First historical mention of gerbils, "yellow rats" sent to Museum of Natural History (Musée d'Histoire Naturelle) in Paris, by father Armand David from northern China
- First use of the term Ecology

Births

- January 13 - Vasily Kalinnikov, Russian composer (d. 1901)
- January 15 - Nathan Söderblom, Swedish archbishop, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1931)
- January 29 - Romain Rolland, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1944)
- March 30 - George Van Haltren, baseball player (d. 1945)
- April 1 - Ferruccio Busoni, Italian pianist and composer (d. 1924)
- April 6 - Butch Cassidy, American outlaw (d. 1909)
- April 17 - Ernest Starling, British physiologist (d. 1927)
- May 17- Erik Satie, French composer (d. 1925)
- June 26 - George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, English financier of Egyptian excavations (d. 1923)
- July 28 - Beatrix Potter, English children's author (d. 1943)
- August 12 - Jacinto Benavente, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1954)
- September 1 - James J. Corbett, American boxer (d. 1933)
- September 7 - Tristan Bernard, French writer (d. 1947)
- September 10 - Jeppe Aakjaer, Danish poet and novelist

Civil war

:For other uses, see civil war (disambiguation). See list of civil wars for individual examples. A civil war is a war in which the competing parties are segments of the same country or empire. Civil war is usually a high intensity stage in an unresolved political struggle for national control of state power. As in any war, the conflict may be over other matters such as religion, ethnicity, or distribution of wealth. Some civil wars are also categorized as revolutions when major societal restructuring is a possible outcome of the conflict. An insurgency, whether successful or not, is likely to be classified as a civil war by some historians if, and only if, organised armies fight conventional battles. Other historians state the criteria for a civil war is that there must be prolonged violence between organized factions or defined regions of a country (conventionally fought or not). Ultimately the distinction between a "civil war" and a "revolution" or other name is arbitrary, and determined by usage. The successful insurgency of the 1640s in England which led to the (temporary) overthrow of the monarchy became known as the English Civil War. The successful insurgency of the 1770s in British colonies in America, with organized armies fighting battles, came to be known as the American Revolution. In the United States, the term 'the civil war' almost always means the American Civil War, with other civil wars noted or inferred from context.

Modern era

What is generally agreed upon is that factors such as nationalism, religion, and ideology, played little role in pre-modern civil wars. While it is quite common for nationalists to read past revolts, such as those of Scotland against England as early stirrings of nationalism, this is a somewhat suspect notion. Religion is more contentious, there are some civil wars that can be seen as fueled by religion in early years, such as the Jewish Revolts against Rome, but these can also be seen as revolts by a servile people against their oppressors or uprisings by local notables in an attempt to gain independence.

Religious conflicts

Civil wars fought over religion have tended to occur more frequently in monotheistic societies than in polytheistic societies; this has been explained as being due to the fact that the latter tend to be more "flexible" in terms of dogma, to allow for some latitude in belief. In Europe through the Middle Ages, the Christianity of the great bulk of the population was influenced by pagan tradition. With the great majority of the population illiterate, access to the Bible was limited and led to a significant amount of syncretism between Christian and pagan elements. With religion so loosely applied, it was rare for people to feel particularly oppressed by it. There were periodic appearances of heresies, such as that of the Albigensians, which led to violence, but historians tend to view these to be the product of peasant revolts rather than themselves motivators of a civil war. As religions tended to become more rigidly defined and understood by their followers, inter-religious tensions generally increased. The rise of Islam witnessed a rash of uprisings against non-Islamic rulers soon after its appearance. Subsequent Islamic history has been marked by repeated civil conflicts, mostly stemming out of the Shi'ite-Sunni divide. In Europe the Protestant Reformation had a similar effect, sparking years of both civil and international wars of religion. Civil wars between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism consumed France in the Wars of Religion, the Netherlands during the Eighty Years' War, Germany during the Thirty Years' War, and more recently, The Troubles of Northern Ireland. Religious disputes among Protestant sects also played an important role in the English Civil Wars, while official persecution of Catholics during the French Revolution spurred the Revolt in the Vendée.

Revolutions

A revolution is generally seen as a civil war fought over issues of ideology, over how power should be organized and distributed, not merely over which individuals hold it. The classic example of a revolution, and by some arguments the first is the French Revolution, which is seen to have pitted the middle class and urban poor of France against the aristocracy and monarchy. Some argue that revolutions are a modern continuation of the peasant revolts of the past. Unlike peasant revolts, however, revolutions are almost always lead by members of the educated, but disaffected, middle class who then rally the large mass of the population to their cause. Others see ideology as merely replacing religion as a justification and motivation for violence that is fundamentally caused by socioeconomic factors. To be successful revolutions almost always require armed force to be employed, sometimes escalating to a civil war, such as in the Chinese Civil War. In some cases, such as the French and Russian Revolutions the revolutionaries succeed in gaining power through a quick coup or localized uprising, but a civil war results from counterrevolutionary forces organizing to crush the revolution.

Separatist revolts

One of the most common causes of civil wars, especially in the post-Cold War world has been separatist violence. Nationalism can be seen as similar to both a religion and an ideology as a justification for war rather than a root cause of conflict. All modern states attempt to hold a monopoly on internal military force. For separatist civil wars to break out thus either the national army must fracture along ethnic, religious, or national lines as happened in Yugoslavia; or more commonly a modern separatist conflict takes the form of asymmetrical warfare with separatists lightly armed and disorganized, but with the support of the local population such groups can be hard to defeat. This is the route taken by most liberation groups in colonies, as well as forces in areas such as Eritrea and Sri Lanka. Regional differences may be enhanced by differing economies, as in the American Civil War. National minorities are also often religious minorities and wars of religion may link closely into separatist conflicts.

Coups

Coups d'état are by definition quick blows to the top of a government that do not result in the widespread violence of a civil war. On occasion a failed coup, or one that is only half successful, can precipitate a civil war between factions. These wars often quickly try to pull in larger themes of ideology, nationalism, or religion to try to win supporters among the general population for a conflict that in essence is an intraelite competition for power.

Why war?

Almost every nation has minority groups, religious plurality, and ideological divisions, but few plunge into civil war. Sociologists have long searched for what variables trigger civil wars. In the modern world most civil wars occur in nations that are poor, autocratic, and regionally divided. However, the United States was one of the wealthiest and most democratic countries in the world at the time of its bloody civil war. Some models to explain the occurrence of civil wars stress the importance of change and transition. According to one such line of reasoning, the American Civil War was caused by the growing economic power of the North relative to the South; the Lebanese Civil War by the upsetting of the delicate demographic balance by the increase in the Shi'ite population; the English Civil War by the growing power of the middle class and merchants at the expense of the aristocracy. Competition for resources and wealth within a society is seen as a frequent cause for civil wars, however economic gain is rarely the justification espoused by the participants. Marxist historians stress economic and class factors arguing that civil wars are caused by imperialist rulers battling each other for greater power, and using tools such as nationalism and religion to delude people into joining them. Not only are the causes of civil wars widely studied and debated, but their persistence is also seen as an important issue. Many civil wars have proved especially intractable, dragging on for many decades. One contributing factor is that civil wars often become proxy wars for outside powers that fund their partisans and thus encourage further violence. Research related to the democratic peace theory have studied civil wars and democracy. Research shows that the most democratic and the most authoritarian states have few civil wars, and intermediate regimes the most. The probability for a civil war is also increased by political change, regardless whether toward greater democracy or greater autocracy. Intermediate regimes continue to be the most prone to civil war, regardless of the time since the political change. In the long run, since intermediate regimes are less stable than autocracies, which in turn are less stable than democracies, durable democracy is the most probable end-point of the process of democratization [http://www.worldbank.org/research/conflict/papers/peace.htm]. The fall of Communism and the increase in the number of democratic states were accompanied by a sudden and dramatic decline in total warfare, interstate wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, and the number of refugees and displaced persons [http://members.aol.com/CSPmgm/conflict.htm].

Post war

Rebuilding a society in the wake of a civil war is often difficult. In an international war the two parties merely have to agree to a cease-fire and can, for the most part, go their own way. In a civil war not only must violence stop but the factions involved must also learn to coexist with each other. This can often prove difficult, much of the population will have lost friends or loved ones in the war, losses they blame on their opponents. Civil wars also tend to greatly entrench any ethnic, religious, or ideological divisions within a society and restoring unity can be very difficult. The record of United Nations peacekeeping forces in healing such war-torn societies is mixed.

Lists of civil wars

- List of civil wars
- List of fictional wars

Chickasaw

The Chickasaws are a Native American people of the United States, originally from present-day Mississippi, now mostly living in Oklahoma. They are related to the Choctaws, who speak a language very similar to the Chickasaw language. The Chickasaws were one of the "Five Civilized Tribes" forcibly removed to the Indian Territory during the era of Indian Removal.

History

The origin of the Chickasaws is uncertain. When Europeans first encountered them, the Chickasaws were living in villages in what is now Mississippi and western Tennessee, with a smaller number in South Carolina. The Chickasaws may have been immigrants to the area, and perhaps were not descendants of Indians of the pre-historic Mississippian culture. The Chickasaws had a reputation for being brave and fierce warriors; their warlike culture has been compared to that of the ancient Spartans. The first European contact with the Chickasaws was in 1540, when Spanish explorer Hernando De Soto encountered them. After various disagreements, the Chickasaws attacked the De Soto expedition, and the Spanish moved on. The Chickasaws began to trade with the British after the colony of Carolina was founded in 1670. With British-supplied guns, the Chickasaws raided their enemies the Choctaws, capturing Choctaws and selling them into slavery, a practice that stopped once the Choctaws acquired guns from the French. The Chickasaws were often at war with the French and the Choctaws in the eighteenth century, such as in the Battle of Ackia on May 26, 1736, until France gave up her claims to the region after the Seven Years' War. The majority of the tribe was deported to Indian Territory (now headquartered in Ada, Oklahoma) in the 1830s. Remnants of the South Carolina Chickasaws, known as the Chalaklowa Chickasaws have reorganized tribal government, and gained official recognition from the state in the summer of 2005, having their tribal headquarters at Indiantown, South Carolina. During the American Civil War, the Chickasaw Nation allied with the South and it was the last Confederate community to surrender in the U.S. Indiantown, South Carolina The Chickasaw Nation Capital (1855-1907) was Tishomingo, OK. The third capital building was used as the Johnston County Courthouse until recently, when it was reclaimed by the Chickasaw Nation. The present structure is built of red granite in the Victorian Gothic style. Click here to see the Capital Building.
- [http://www.catandcharlie.com/chick.html (Capital Building)] Click here to learn more about Tishomingo and the 2nd and 3rd Capital Buildings
- [http://www.civilwaralbum.com/indian/tish1.htm (Tishomingo)] Republican Representative Tom Cole of Oklahoma is an enrolled member of the Chickasaw Nation.

Culture

Pashofa, cracked white hominy boiled with pork, is a main dish which is still eaten. Hogs are not native to the Americas, but escaped and became feral from De Soto's expedition. Obion is a Chickasaw Indian name meaning "river of many forks". The suffix "mingo" or "minko" is used to identify a chieftan. For example "Tishomingo" was a famous Chickasaw chief. The town of Tishomingo, Mississippi and Tishomingo County, Mississippi were named after him. South Carolina's Black Mingo Creek was named after the colonial Chickasaw chief, who controlled the lands around it as a sort of hunting preserve.

References

- Calloway, Colin G. The American Revolution in Indian Country. Cambridge University Press, 1995.

External links

- [http://www.chickasaw.net The Chickasaw Nation of Oklahoma (official site)]
- [http://mshistory.k12.ms.us/features/feature40/chickasaw.html "Chickasaws: The Unconquerable People", a brief history by Greg O’Brien, Ph.D.]
- [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_006900_chickasaw.htm Encyclopedia of North American Indians]
- [http://www.tolatsga.org/chick.html "Chickasaw History" by Lee Sultzman] Category:Native American tribes Category:Chickasaw tribe

Fat Tuesday

In the Christian calendar, Shrove Tuesday is the English name for the Tuesday before Ash Wednesday, which in turn marks the beginning of Lent. In many solidly Roman Catholic countries in Europe and the Americas, this is the last day of Carnival. In some historically Francophone places it is Mardi Gras, French for "Fat Tuesday"; the most famous celebration under this name is New Orleans Mardi Gras. The origin of the name Shrove lies in the archaic English verb "to shrive" which means to absolve people of their sins. It was common in the Middle Ages for "shriveners" (priests) to hear people's confessions at this time, to prepare them for Lent.

Food traditions

In Ireland and Australia Shrove Tuesday is known as "Pancake Tuesday", while in Britain it is popularly known as "Pancake Day". In both regions the traditional pancake is a very thin one (like a French crêpe) which is served immediately sprinkled with caster sugar (superfine sugar in the United States) and a dash of fresh lemon juice or alternativly drizzled with Golden syrup. In the Canadian province of Newfoundland, household objects are baked into the pancakes and served to family members. Rings, thimbles, thread, coins, and other objects all have meanings associated with them. The lucky one to find coins in their pancake will be rich, the finder of the ring will be the first married, and the finder of the thimble will be a seamstress or tailor. Children have great fun with the tradition, and often eat more than their fill of pancakes in search of a desired object. Pancakes are eaten to use up milk and eggs, which are not eaten during Lent, and would otherwise spoil during this period. In Sweden Shrove Tuesday is known, just as in France, as "Fat Tuesday", or Fettisdagen in Swedish. The day is marked by eating traditional Swedish pastry, called Semla. Supposedly, the pastry is only to be eaten on this day but it is seasonally available from New Year until the beginning of Lent. In Poland, and also in areas of the United States with large Polish populations, pączki are a common find. In Estonia it is called Vastlapäev, this day has to do with hopes for the coming year. On this day, families go sledding and eat split pea and ham soup. A toy is made from the ham bone by tying the bone to a string and spinning it around to make a whistling noise. There is a tale told that if you cut your hair on this day, it will grow fast and thick for the next year!

Shrove Tuesday in England

A famous pancake race at Olney in Buckinghamshire has been held since 1445. Many towns throughout England held traditional Shrove Tuesday football ('mob football') games dating as far back as the 12th century. The practice mostly died out with the passing of the 1835 Highways Act, which banned the playing of football on public highways, but a number of towns have managed to maintain the tradition to the present day including Alnwick in Northumberland, Ashbourne in Derbyshire (called the Royal Shrovetide Football Match), Atherstone in Warwickshire,Sedgefield in County Durham, and St Columb Major (called Hurling the Silver Ball) in Cornwall.

Dates

The date can vary from as early as February 3 to as late as March 9. Like Lent, the date is dependent on that of Easter. Shrove Tuesday (and Mardi Gras) will occur on the following dates in the following years:
- 2006 - February 28
- 2007 - February 20
- 2008 - February 5
- 2009 - February 24
- 2010 - February 16
- 2011 - March 8
- 2012 - February 21
- 2013 - February 12
- 2014 - March 4

External links

- [http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/pancake.html Wilson's Almanac:] Sources and quotes concerning Shrove Tuesday customs als:Fastnachtsdienstag Category:Christian festivals Category:Mardi Gras Category:Tuesday

Nevada City, California

Nevada City is the county seat of Nevada County, California, 166 miles (267 km) northeast of San Francisco. In 1900, 3,250 people lived in Nevada City, California; in 1910, 2,689 lived here. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 3,001. The name comes from the Spanish word meaning "snow-covered", referring to the snow-topped mountains in the area. It was first settled in 1849. In 1850-51, it was the most important mining town in the State, Nevada County being the leading gold-mining county in the State. Nevada City was incorporated in 1875 and chartered in 1885.

Geography

1885Nevada City is located at 39°15'41" North, 121°1'7" West (39.261435, -121.018602). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 5.5 km² (2.1 mi²). 5.5 km² (2.1 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water. Nevada City is the namesake of Nevada, Missouri.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 3,001 people, 1,313 households, and 740 families residing in the city. The population density is 549.1/km² (1,425.0/mi²). There are 1,415 housing units at an average density of 258.9/km² (671.9/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 94.27% White, 0.43% African American, 1.37% Native American, 0.73% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.73% from other races, and 2.43% from two or more races. 3.47% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 1,313 households out of which 25.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.1% are married couples living together, 13.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 43.6% are non-families. 35.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.14 and the average family size is 2.71. In the city the population is spread out with 19.7% under the age of 18, 7.4% from 18 to 24, 25.9% from 25 to 44, 32.2% from 45 to 64, and 14.9% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 44 years. For every 100 females there are 97.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95.4 males. The median income for a household in the city is $36,667, and the median income for a family is $46,149. Males have a median income of $32,070 versus $29,183 for females. The per capita income for the city is $22,399. 7.9% of the population and 1.7% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 2.5% of those under the age of 18 and 3.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

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Category:Cities in California Category:Nevada County, California

Chondromalacia

Chondromalacia Patellae (also known as CMP, Patello-femoral Pain Syndrome, or Runner's Knee) is a degenerative condition of the cartilage surface of the back of the knee cap, or patella. It produces discomfort or dull pain around or behind the patella. It is common in young adults, especially soccer players, cyclists, rowers,tennis players and runners. The condition may result from acute injury to the patella or from chronic friction between the patella and the groove in the femur through which it passes during motion of the knee. CMP specifically refers to a knee that has been structurally damaged, while the more generic term Patello-femoral Syndrome refers to the earlier stages of the condition, where symptoms might still be fully reversible.

Causes

CMP can be caused by discrete trauma or by chronic trauma, such as by applying excessive force to the patella via exercises such as squats, leg presses, or plyometrics. Biomechanical abnormalities such as over pronation of the feet can also result in incongruity between the direction the patella is pulled by the quadriceps muscle and the shape of the patellofemoral groove through which it travels. In its early stages, subtle changes of CMP may be completely reversible. Eventually, changes wrought by inflammatory reactions within the cartilage produce structural damage which is much more difficult to treat.

Treatment

- Strengthening the quadriceps muscles with light cycling, swimming, or low-impact low-intensity exercise. Especially important is strengthening the inner quadriceps (vastus medialis) to balance the forces on the knee cap.
- Not overtraining.
- When lying, not allowing bodyweight to put pressure on or to shift the knee cap., and using a pillow to keep the knees slightly bent and knee-caps in place.
- Ensuring enough leg room in the car and when sitting at a desk.
- Maintaining good posture, and avoiding crossing the legs for long periods.
- Avoiding twisting the knee joint, as when changing direction while walking.
- Avoid applying excessive weight on the affected joint, by losing weight if necessary.
- Stretching quadricepss, iliotibial band, hamstrings, back, and calves regularly.
- Wearing comfortable shoes.
- Taping the patellae in place may aid recovery.
- Icing the knee(s) after workouts

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SIG-550
Le SIG-550 est le fusil d'assaut officiel de l'armée suisse (Fusil d'ASSaut 90, fass90). Conçu dans les années 80, il fut introduit progressivement dès 1988 dans l'armée suisse, remplaçant ainsi le Stgw 57/Fass 57 (également construit par SIG).Le SIG 550 réglementaire en Suisse utilise le 5,6 mm Suisse conçu pour une portée normale de 300 mètres [http://www.biggerhammer.net/sigamt/550/550techinspection/]. Les versions "E

Joe Cain

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Nevada City, California

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