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John A. Roebling

John A. Roebling

John Augustus Roebling (born Johann August Röbling, June 12, 1806 in Mühlhausen - July 22, 1869) was a German-born civil engineer famous for his wire rope suspension bridge designs. He was educated in public schools of Muhlhausen and at the Royal Polytechnic School in Berlin where he studied architecture and engineering, bridge construction, hydraulics, languages, and philosophy, graduating in 1826. In 1831, Roebling left Germany with his brother Karl to flee the general unrest and oppression in Europe. The two men, along with a handful of the people who accompanied them on the trans-Atlantic journey, purchased 1582 acres (6.4 km²) of land on October 28, 1831, in Butler County, Pennsylvania and established a settlement, called Saxonburg. His first engineering work in America was devoted to improving river navigation and canal building. He spent three years surveying for railway lines across the Allegheny Mountains, from Harrisburg to Pittsburgh, for the state of Pennsylvania. In 1841, at his workshop in Saxonburg, he invented wire rope, which was the basis of his commercial success, and would be used in all of his bridge designs. He had been fascinated with the idea of suspension bridges since his college days, and wrote his graduation thesis on the subject. In 1844, Roebling won a bid to replace the wooden canal aqueduct across the Allegheny River. His design encompassed seven spans of 163 feet, each consisting of a wooden trunk to hold the water supported by a continuous wire cable on each side. That the design was successful was especially satisfying since a number of professional engineers had scoffed at the notion of a suspension aqueduct. This was followed in 1845 by building a suspension bridge over the Monongahela River at Pittsburgh. In 1848, Roebling undertook the construction of four suspension aqueducts on the Delaware and Hudson Canal. During this period, he moved to Trenton, New Jersey. Roebling's next project, starting in 1851, was a railroad bridge connecting the New York Central and Great Western Railway of Canada over the Niagara River, which would take four years. The bridge, with a clear span of 825 feet, is supported by four, ten-inch wire cables, and has two levels, one for vehicles and one for rail traffic. While the Niagara bridge was being built, Roebling undertook another railway suspension bridge, across the Kentucky River on the Southern Railroad from Cincinnati to Chattanooga, which required a clear span of 1,224 feet. The anchorage and stone towers were completed, and the cable wire delivered along with the material for the superstructure, when the railway company collapsed: the bridge was left uncompleted. In 1858, Roebling started another suspension bridge at Pittsburgh, this one of 1,030 feet, divided into two spans of 344 feet each, and two side spans of 171 feet each. The outbreak of the American Civil War brought a temporary halt to Roebling's work. But during the war, in 1863, building resumed on a bridge over the Ohio River at Cincinnati which he had started in 1856 that was stopped due to financing difficulties; the bridge was finished in 1867. The Cincinnati-Covington Bridge, later named after him John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge, would be the world's longest suspension bridge until completion of the Brooklyn Bridge. In 1867, Roebling started design work on Brooklyn Bridge spanning the East River in New York. He was overseeing the initial construction when his foot was crushed by a ferry; he died sixteen days later of tetanus. His son Washington Roebling continued his work; his great-grandson, Donald Roebling was a noted philanthropist and inventor who devised the amphtrack.

Projects


- 1844 Allegheny Aqueduct Bridge Pittsburgh, Pa. 162' spans
- 1846 Smithfield Street Bridge Pittsburgh, Pa. 188' spans
- 1848 Lackawaxen Aqueduct two spans of 115 feet each, and two 7-inch cables.
- 1849 Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct 4 spans of 134 feet each, and two 8-inch cables.
- 1850 High Falls Aqueduct one span of 145 feet, and two 8 1/2-inch cables [http://www.canalmuseum.org/history.htm D & H Canal Museum]
- 1850 Neversink Aqueduct one span of 170 feet, and two 8 1/2-inch cables
- 1854 Niagara Falls Suspension Bridge New York-Canada 821' span
- 1859 Allegheny Bridge Pittsburgh, Pa. 344' spans
- 1867 John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge - spanning the Ohio River, 1,000 feet long with a deck clearance of 100 feet
- 1869 Waco Suspension Bridge 475 foot span Waco, Texas
- 1883 Brooklyn Bridge NYC-Brooklyn, N.Y. 1595' span

External links


- [http://www.inventionfactory.com/history/RHAgen/jarbio.html Invention Factory: Detailed biography]
- [http://en.structurae.de/persons/data/index.cfm?ID=d000030 Structurae: John A. Roebling]

References

Historic Saxonburg and Its Neighbors, Ralph Goldinger, ISBN 1-55856-043-2 Roebling, John Augustus Roebling, John Augustus Roebling, John Augustus

June 12

June 12 is the 163rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (164th in leap years), with 202 days remaining.

Events


- 1381 - Peasants' Revolt: In England rebels arrive at Blackheath.
- 1418 - An insurrection delivers Paris to the Burgundians.
- 1653 - First Anglo-Dutch War: Battle of the Gabbard – lasted until June 13.
- 1665 - England installs a municipal government in New York City. This was the former Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam.
- 1758 - French and Indian War: Siege of Louisbourg – James Wolfe's attack at Louisbourg, Nova Scotia commences.
- 1775 - American Revolution: British general Thomas Gage declares martial law in Massachusetts.
- 1859 - The Comstock Lode is discovered near Virginia City, Nevada.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Cold Harbor – General Ulysses S. Grant pulls his troops from their positions at Cold Harbor, Virginia and moves south.
- 1885 - At a murder trial in France, a roof collapses, killing 30 people.
- 1889 - 88 are killed in the Armagh rail disaster near Armagh in Northern Ireland.
- 1896 - J.T. Hearne sets a cricket record for the earliest date of taking 100 first-class wickets.
- 1898 - Philippine Declaration of Independence: General Emilio Aguinaldo declares the Philippines' independence from Spain.
- 1922 - St.Louis Brown pitcher Hub Pruett strikes out Babe Ruth three consecutive times.
- 1922 - In Windsor Castle, King George V receives the colours of the six Irish regiments that are to be disbanded - the Royal Irish Regiment, the Connaught Rangers, the South Irish Horse, the Prince of Wales's Leinster Regiment, the Royal Munster Fusiliers and the Royal Dublin Fusiliers.
- 1931 - Charlie Parker equals cricket record for the earliest date to reach 100 wickets. Tich Freeman reaches 100 wickets a day later.
- 1935 - Senator Huey Long of Louisiana makes the longest speech on Senate record. The speech takes 15½ hours and was filled by 150,000 words.
- 1935 - Chaco War ends: A truce is called between Bolivia and Paraguay, fighting since 1932.
- 1939 - The Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum is dedicated in Cooperstown, New York.
- 1940 - World War II: 13,000 British and French troops surrender to Field Marshal Erwin Rommel at Saint-Valery-en-Caux.
- 1942 - Holocaust: Future essayist Anne Frank receives a diary for her thirteenth birthday.
- 1963 - Cleopatra starring Elizabeth Taylor, Rex Harrison and Richard Burton premieres at the Rivoli Theatre in New York City.
- 1963 - Civil rights leader Medgar Evers is shot dead in front of his home in Jackson, Mississippi by Ku Klux Klan member Byron De La Beckwith.
- 1964 - South Africa sentences Nelson Mandela to life in prison.
- 1967 - The United States Supreme Court in Loving v. Virginia declares all U.S. state laws which prohibit interracial marriage to be unconstitutional. [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/conlaw/loving.html]
- 1967 - Venera program: Venera 4 is launched (it will become the first space probe to enter another planet's atmosphere and successfully return data).
- 1978 - David Berkowitz, the "Son of Sam" killer in New York City, is sentenced to 365 years in prison for six killings.
- 1979 - Bryan Allen flies the Gossamer Albatross, man powered, across the English Channel.
- 1981 - Major League Baseball players begin a 49 day strike over the issue of free-agent compensation.
- 1982 - in New York City's Central Park, 750,000 people rally against nuclear weapons. Jackson Browne, James Taylor, Bruce Springsteen, and Linda Ronstadt are in attendance.
- 1987 - The Central African Republic's former Emperor Jean-Bédel Bokassa is sentenced to death for crimes he had committed during his 13-year rule.
- 1987 - Cold War: U.S. President Ronald Reagan publicly challenges Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall at Brandenburg Gate.
- 1988 - Rusty Wallace wins the last Nascar Winston Cup race at the Riverside International Raceway
- 1990 - Russia Day – The parliament of the Russian Federation formally declares its sovereignty.
- 1991 - Russians elect Boris Yeltsin as the president of their republic.
- 1994 - Nicole Brown Simpson and Ronald Goldman are murdered outside her home in Los Angeles, California. O. J. Simpson is later acquitted of the killings, but is held liable in a civil suit.
- 1994 - German districts Röbel and Waren are merged to form Müritz
- 1996 - In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a panel of federal judges blocks a law against indecency on the internet.
- 1997 - Interleague play begins in baseball, ending a 126-year tradition of separating the major leagues until the World Series.
- 1997 - The United States Department of the Treasury unveils a new $50 bill meant to be more counterfeit-resistant. [http://www.ustreas.gov/press/releases/rr1746.htm]
- 1999 - Kosovo War: Operation Joint Guardian begins – NATO-led United Nations peacekeeping force KFor enters the province of Kosovo in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
- 2000 - Sandro Rosa do Nascimento takes hostages while robbing Bus #174 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the highly-publicized standoff becomes a media circus and ends with the death of do Nascimento and a hostage.
- 2004 - A 1.3 kg chondrite type meteorite strikes a house in Ellerslie, New Zealand causing serious damage but no injuries.

Births


- 1107 - Emperor Gaozong of China (d. 1187)
- 1519 - Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (d. 1574)
- 1577 - Paul Guldin, Swiss astronomer and mathematician (d. 1643)
- 1659 - Yamamoto Tsunetomo, Japanese samurai (d. 1719)
- 1775 - Karl Freiherr von Müffling, Prussian field marshal (d. 1851)
- 1827 - Johanna Spyri, Swiss author (d. 1901)
- 1861 - William Attewell, English cricketer (d. 1927)
- 1875 - Sam De Grasse, Canadian actor (d. 1953)
- 1890 - Egon Schiele, Austrian painter and graphic artist (d. 1918)
- 1892 - Djuna Barnes, American author (d. 1982)
- 1897 - Anthony Eden, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1977)
- 1899 - Fritz Albert Lipmann, American biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1986)
- 1903 - Emmett Hardy, American musician (d. 1925)
- 1905 - Ray Barbuti, American athlete (d. 1988)
- 1910 - Bill Naughton, British playwright (d. 1992)
- 1915 - Christopher Mayhew, British politician (d. 1997)
- 1915 - David Rockefeller, American banker
- 1916 - Irwin Allen, American film producer (d. 1991)
- 1918 - Samuel Z. Arkoff, American film producer (d. 2001)
- 1919 - Uta Hagen, American actress (d. 2004)
- 1920 - Dave Berg, American cartoonist (d. 2002)
- 1920 - Jim Siedow, American actor (d. 2003)
- 1921 - James Houston, Canadian artist (d. 2005)
- 1924 - George H. W. Bush, 41st President of the United States
- 1928 - Vic Damone, American singer
- 1929 - Brigid Brophy, British writer
- 1929 - Anne Frank, German-born diarist (d. 1945)
- 1930 - Jim Nabors, American actor and musician
- 1932 - Rona Jaffe, American novelist
- 1941 - Marv Albert, American sportscaster
- 1941 - Chick Corea, American musician
- 1942 - Bert Sakmann, German physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1945 - Pat Jennings, Irish footballer
- 1946 - Harry Glasper, British writer
- 1951 - Brad Delp, American singer
- 1957 - Javed Miandad, Pakistani cricketer and coach
- 1958 - Rebecca Holden, American actress and singer
- 1959 - John Linnell, American musician (They Might Be Giants)
- 1964 - Paula Marshall, American actress
- 1973 - Darryl White, Australian footballer
- 1974 - Hideki Matsui, Japanese Major League Baseball player
- 1974 - Jason Mewes, American actor
- 1976 - Thomas Sorensen, Danish footballer
- 1981 - Adriana Lima, Brazilian-born model
- 1983 - Christine Sinclair, Canadian soccer player

Deaths


- 816 - Pope Leo III
- 1020 - Lyfing, Archbishop of Canterbury
- 1418 - Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, Constable of France (b. 1360)
- 1435 - John FitzAlan, 14th Earl of Arundel, English military leader (b. 1408)
- 1565 - Adrianus Turnebus, French classical scholar (b. 1512)
- 1567 - Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1490)
- 1647 - Thomas Farnaby, English grammarian
- 1675 - Duke Charles Emmanuel II of Savoy (b. 1634)
- 1734 - James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick, French military commander (b. 1670)
- 1758 - Augustus William, Prince of Prussia (b. 1722)
- 1778 - Philip Livingston, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1716)
- 1816 - Pierre François Charles Augereau, duc de Castiglione, French marshal (b. 1757)
- 1912 - Frédéric Passy, French economist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1822)
- 1917 - Teresa Carreño, Venezuelan pianist (b. 1853)
- 1957 - Jimmy Dorsey, American musician (b. 1904)
- 1962 - John Ireland, English composer (b. 1879)
- 1963 - Medgar Evers, American civil rights activist (b. 1925)
- 1966 - Hermann Scherchen, German conductor (b. 1891)
- 1978 - Guo Moruo, Chinese writer (b. 1892)
- 1980 - Milburn Stone, American actor (b. 1904)
- 1982 - Karl von Frisch, Austrian zoologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1886)
- 1983 - Norma Shearer, Canadian actress (b. 1902)
- 1994 - Ronald Goldman, American actor and model (murdered) (b. 1969)
- 1994 - Nicole Brown Simpson, American ex-wife of O. J. Simpson (murdered) (b. 1959)
- 1995 - Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli, Italian pianist (b. 1920)
- 1997 - Bulat Okudzhava, Russian writer and musician (b. 1924)
- 2002 - Bill Blass, American fashion designer (b. 1922)
- 2003 - Gregory Peck, American actor (b. 1916)

Holidays and observances


- Roman Empire – sixth day of the Vestalia in honor of Vesta
- Philippines – Araw ng Kalayaan (Independence Day) 1898
- Russian Federation – Russia Day (Independence Day) 1990
- United Kingdom – Trooping the Colour (Military celebration of the monarch's official birthday held in London on the second Saturday of June)
- Brazil – Dia dos Namorados
- World Day Against Child Labor

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/12 BBC: On This Day] ---- June 11 - June 13 - May 12 - July 12 – listing of all days ---- ko:6월 12일 ms:12 Jun ja:6月12日 simple:June 12 th:12 มิถุนายน

Mühlhausen

Mühlhausen is a city in the federal state Thuringia, Germany. It is the capital of the Unstrut-Hainich district, and lies along the river Unstrut. Mühlhausen has 37,895 inhabitants (2003). Mühlhausen in Thuringia is first mentioned in 967 as an Ottonian Pfalz village. It had its period of glory during the 13th through the 15th century. In St. Marien church the radical Reformer Thomas Müntzer was preaching in 1525. Johann Sebastian Bach was an organist in the Divi Blasi church between 1708 and 1709. From 1944 into March 1945 the Buchenwald administration opened a women's subcamp directly outside Muhlhausen. The women in the small camp worked under brutal conditions for little food. The women were evacuated in April 1945 to Bergen Belsen. Notable Natives:
- Günter Fromm (14 November 1926 - 20 July 1994), author
- Adolph Methfessel (7 March 1807 - 17 November 1878), composer
- Ernst Methfessel (20 May 1811 - 20 January 1886), composer
- John (Johann) August Röebling (12 June 1806 - 22 June 1860), civil engineer, designer of Brooklyn Bridge, New York City
- Friedrich August Stüler, architect The city of Mühlhausen consists of five districts:
- Mühlhausen (33,660 inhabitants)
- Felchta (990 inhabitants)
- Görmar (1,109 inhabitants)
- Saalfeld (211 inhabitants)
- Windeberg (260 inhabitants) Tourist attractions:
- Historic city wall
- City archives
- 11 churches
- National Park Hainich Twin/sister cities:
- Tourcoing, France
- Eschwege, Hesse, Germany
- Münster, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
- Kronstadt, Russia

See also


- Mühlhausen (disambiguation)

External links


- [http://www.muehlhausen.de Official Site]
- [http://www.landkreis-unstrut-hainich.de district site]
- [http://www.nationalpark-hainich National Park Hainich]
- [http://www.thueringen-tourismus.de Thuringia Tourism] Category:Towns in Thuringia

July 22

22 July is the 203rd day (204th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 162 days remaining.

Events


- 1298 - Battle of Falkirk - Edward I (Longshanks) of England and his longbowmen defeat William Wallace and his scottish schiltrons outside the town.
- 1499 - Battle of Dornach - The Swiss decisively defeat the Imperial army of Emperor Maximilian I.
- 1587 - Colony of Roanoke: A second group of English settlers arrive on Roanoke Island off of North Carolina to re-establish the deserted colony.
- 1793 - Alexander Mackenzie reaches the Pacific Ocean becoming the first Euro-American to complete a transcontinental crossing north of Mexico.
- 1796 - Surveyors of the Connecticut Land Company name an area in Ohio "Cleveland" after Gen. Moses Cleaveland, the superintendent of the surveying party.
- 1805 - Napoleonic Wars: War of the Third Coalition - inconclusive battle of Cape Finisterre fought between a combined French and Spanish fleets under Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve of Spain and a British fleet under Admiral Robert Calder.
- 1812 - Napoleonic Wars: Peninsular War - Battle of Salamanca - British forces led by Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington) defeat French troops near Salamanca, Spain.
- 1864 - American Civil War: Battle of Atlanta - Outside of Atlanta, Georgia, Confederate General John Bell Hood leads an unsuccessful attack on Union troops under General William T. Sherman on Bald Hill.
- 1908 - Albert Fisher establishes the Fisher Body Company to manufacture carriage and automobile bodies.
- 1916 - In San Francisco, California, a bomb explodes on Market Street during a Preparedness Day parade killing 10 and injuring 40.
- 1933 - Wiley Post becomes first person to fly solo around the world traveling 15,596 miles in 7 days, 18 hours and 45 minutes.
- 1934 - Outside Chicago's Biograph Theatre, "Public Enemy No. 1" John Dillinger is mortally wounded by FBI agents.
- 1937 - New Deal: The United States Senate votes down President Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposal to add more justices to the Supreme Court of the United States.
- 1942 - The United States government begins compulsory civilian gasoline rationing due to the wartime demands.
- 1942 - Holocaust: The systematic deportation of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto begins.
- 1943 - Allied forces capture the Italian city of Palermo.
- 1944 - The Polish Committee of National Liberation publishes its manifesto, starting the period of Communist rule in Poland
- 1946 - King David Hotel bombing: Irgun bombs King David Hotel in Jerusalem, headquarters of the British civil and military administration, killing 90.
- 1962 - Mariner program: Mariner 1 spacecraft flies erratically several minutes after launch and has to be destroyed.
- 1977 - Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping is restored to power.
- 1991 - Serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer is arrested after the remains of 11 men and boys are found in his Milwaukee apartment.
- 1992 - Near Medellín, Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar escapes from his luxury prison fearing extradition to the United States.
- 1997 - The second Blue Water Bridge opens between Port Huron, Michigan and Sarnia, Ontario.
- 2002 - Israel assasinates Salah Shahade, the Commander-in-Chief of Hamas's military arm, Ezzedeen-al-qassam Brigades, along with 14 civilians.
- 2003 - Members of 101st Airborne of the United States, aided by Special Forces, attack a compound in Iraq, killing Saddam Hussein's sons Uday and Qusay, along with Mustapha Hussein, Qusay's 14-year old son, and a bodyguard.
- 2005 - A man is shot dead by police as the hunt begins for the London Bombers. See 7 July 2005 London bombings and 21 July 2005 London bombings
- 2005 - Microsoft releases the final name for its next-gen operating system, Longhorn. The name will be "Windows Vista".

Births


- 1210 - Joan of England, queen of Alexander II of Scotland (d. 1238)
- 1478 - King Philip I of Castile (d. 1506)
- 1510 - Alessandro de' Medici, Duke of Florence (d. 1537)
- 1519 - Pope Innocent IX (d. 1591)
- 1535 - Katarina Stenbock, queen of Gustav I of Sweden (d. 1621)
- 1559 - Lawrence of Brindisi, Italian monk (d. 1619)
- 1621 - Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, English politician (d. 1683)
- 1711 - Georg Wilhelm Richmann, Russian physicist (d. 1753)
- 1713 - Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect (d. 1780)
- 1733 - Mikhail Shcherbatov, Russian philosopher and writer (d. 1790)
- 1784 - Friedrich Bessel, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1846)
- 1822 - Gregor Mendel, Austrian geneticist (d. 1884)
- 1844 - William Archibald Spooner, English priest and scholar (d. 1930)
- 1859 - Emma Lazarus, American poet (d. 1887)
- 1882 - Edward Hopper, American painter (d. 1967)
- 1887 - Gustav Ludwig Hertz, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1975)
- 1888 - Selman Waksman, Ukrainian-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1973)
- 1893 - James Whale, English film director (d. 1957)
- 1898 - Stephen Vincent Benét, American author (d. 1943)
- 1898 - Alexander Calder, American artist (d. 1976)
- 1905 - Doc Cramer, baseball player (d. 1990)
- 1908 - Amy Vanderbilt, American author on etiquette (d. 1974)
- 1913 - Gorni Kramer, Italian bandleader and songwriter
- 1916 - Marcel Cerdan, French boxer (d. 1949)
- 1921 - William Roth, U.S. Senator (d. 2003)
- 1923 - Bob Dole, U.S. Senator from Kansas and Presidential candidate
- 1923 - Mukesh, Indian singer (d. 1976)
- 1924 - Margaret Whiting, singer
- 1928 - Orson Bean, American film actor
- 1932 - Oscar De la Renta, Dominican-born fashion designer
- 1934 - Louise Fletcher, American actress
- 1936 - Tom Robbins, American author
- 1939 - Terence Stamp, English actor
- 1940 - Alex Trebek, Canadian-born game show host
- 1941 - George Clinton, American musician
- 1941 - Ron Turcotte, Canadian jockey
- 1943 - Kay Bailey Hutchison, U.S. Senator from Texas
- 1944 - Estelle Bennett, American singer (Ronettes)
- 1944 - Rick Davies, British musician (Supertramp)
- 1944 - Sparky Lyle, baseball player
- 1946 - Mireille Mathieu, French singer
- 1946 - Stephen M. Wolownik, Russian musician (d. 2000)
- 1947 - Albert Brooks, American comedian
- 1947 - Danny Glover, American actor
- 1947 - Don Henley, American drummer, singer, and songwriter (Eagles)
- 1948 - S.E. Hinton, American author
- 1948 - Otto Waalkes, German comedian
- 1949 - Alan Menken, American composer
- 1949 - Lasse Virén, Finnish athlete
- 1954 - Lonette McKee, American actress
- 1954 - Al Di Meola, American guitarist
- 1955 - Willem Dafoe, American actor
- 1961 - Keith Sweat, American singer
- 1964 - Patrick Labyorteaux, American actor
- 1964 - John Leguizamo, Colombian actor
- 1964 - David Spade, American actor, comedian, and producer
- 1965 - Shawn Michaels, American professional wrestler
- 1966 - Tim Brown, American football player
- 1971 - Kristine Lilly, American soccer player
- 1972 - Keyshawn Johnson, American football player
- 1973 - Mike Sweeney, baseball player
- 1973 - Rufus Wainwright, American singer and songwriter
- 1974 - Daddy Kev, American record producer and engineer
- 1974 - Franka Potente, German actress
- 1978 - Dennis Rommedahl, Danish footballer
- 1980 - Scott Dixon, New Zealand race car driver
- 1980 - Dirk Kuyt, Dutch football striker
- 1983 - Shelby Belle, Canadian actress

Deaths


- 1362 - Louis of Durazzo, Italian soldier (poisoned) (b. 1324)
- 1387 - Franz Ackerman, Flemish statesman (b. 1330)
- 1461 - King Charles VII of France (b. 1403)
- 1525 - Richard Wingfield, English diplomat
- 1619 - Lawrence of Brindisi, Italian monk (b. 1559)
- 1645 - Gaspar de Guzmán y Pimentel, Count-Duke of Olivares, Spanish statesman (b. 1587)
- 1676 - Pope Clement X (b. 1590)
- 1713 - Jacques-Germain Soufflot, French architect (d. 1780)
- 1734 - Peter King, 1st Baron King, Lord Chancellor of England
- 1789 - Joseph-François Foulon, French administrator (executed) (b. 1715)
- 1802 - Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist (b. 1771)
- 1832 - Emperor Napoleon II of France (b. 1811)
- 1852 - Auguste Marmont, French marshal (b. 1774)
- 1904 - Wilson Barrett, English actor (b. 1846)
- 1908 - William Randal Cremer, English politician and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1828)
- 1916 - James Whitcomb Riley, American author and poet (b. 1849)
- 1922 - Jokichi Takamine, Japanese chemist (b. 1854)
- 1932 - Errico Malatesta, Italian anarchist (b. 1853)
- 1932 - Florenz Ziegfeld, theatrical producer (b. 1867)
- 1934 - John Dillinger, American bank robber (shot) (b. 1903)
- 1950 - William Lyon Mackenzie King, tenth Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1874)
- 1958 - Mikhail Zoshchenko, Russian writer (b. 1895)
- 1967 - Carl Sandburg, American poet (b. 1878)
- 1974 - Wayne Morse, U.S. Senator from Oregon (b. 1900)
- 1979 - Sándor Kocsis, Hungarian footballer (b. 1929)
- 1989 - Martti Talvela, Finnish bass (b. 1935)
- 1990 - Manuel Puig, Argentinian writer (b. 1932)
- 1998 - Hermann Prey, German bass-baritone (b. 1929)
- 2000 - Eric Christmas, British actor (b. 1916)
- 2003 - Qusay Hussein, son of Saddam Hussein (b. 1966)
- 2003 - Uday Hussein, son of Saddam Hussein (b. 1964)
- 2003 - Wahome Muthahi, Kenyan humourist
- 2004 - Sacha Distel, French singer (b. 1933)
- 2004 - George Kidd, Canadian diplomat (b. 1917)
- 2005 - Jean Charles de Menezes, Brazilian electrician (shot) (b. 1978)

Holidays and observances


- Saint Mary Magdalene
- Swaziland - Birthday of former King Sobhuza II
- Pi Approximation Day
- Ratcatcher's Day. See:The Pied Piper of Hamelin.

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/22 BBC: On This Day] ---- 21 July - 23 July - 22 June - 22 August -- listing of all days ko:7월 22일 ms:22 Julai ja:7月22日 simple:July 22 th:22 กรกฎาคม

Muhlhausen

Mühlhausen is a city in the federal state Thuringia, Germany. It is the capital of the Unstrut-Hainich district, and lies along the river Unstrut. Mühlhausen has 37,895 inhabitants (2003). Mühlhausen in Thuringia is first mentioned in 967 as an Ottonian Pfalz village. It had its period of glory during the 13th through the 15th century. In St. Marien church the radical Reformer Thomas Müntzer was preaching in 1525. Johann Sebastian Bach was an organist in the Divi Blasi church between 1708 and 1709. From 1944 into March 1945 the Buchenwald administration opened a women's subcamp directly outside Muhlhausen. The women in the small camp worked under brutal conditions for little food. The women were evacuated in April 1945 to Bergen Belsen. Notable Natives:
- Günter Fromm (14 November 1926 - 20 July 1994), author
- Adolph Methfessel (7 March 1807 - 17 November 1878), composer
- Ernst Methfessel (20 May 1811 - 20 January 1886), composer
- John (Johann) August Röebling (12 June 1806 - 22 June 1860), civil engineer, designer of Brooklyn Bridge, New York City
- Friedrich August Stüler, architect The city of Mühlhausen consists of five districts:
- Mühlhausen (33,660 inhabitants)
- Felchta (990 inhabitants)
- Görmar (1,109 inhabitants)
- Saalfeld (211 inhabitants)
- Windeberg (260 inhabitants) Tourist attractions:
- Historic city wall
- City archives
- 11 churches
- National Park Hainich Twin/sister cities:
- Tourcoing, France
- Eschwege, Hesse, Germany
- Münster, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany
- Kronstadt, Russia

See also


- Mühlhausen (disambiguation)

External links


- [http://www.muehlhausen.de Official Site]
- [http://www.landkreis-unstrut-hainich.de district site]
- [http://www.nationalpark-hainich National Park Hainich]
- [http://www.thueringen-tourismus.de Thuringia Tourism] Category:Towns in Thuringia

Architecture

Architecture (in Greek αρχή = start and τέχνη = craftsmanship) is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. A wider definition would include within its scope the design of the total built environment, from the macrolevel of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the microlevel of furniture. furniture, Athens, Greece]] However, the widest definition in modern use refers to the organization, articulation, and interfaces of any built (or To Be Built— TBB) entity, whether a building or a communications' network. That is, an architecture, in its broadest sense, shows how the components of a built or TBB entity fit together. An architecture may be considered a translation between a user's needs and a builder's building instructions, or requirements. The components of an architecture may be already built items, or specified items (items whose building requirements have been completed), or To Be Specified items (items whose building requirements have not yet been been completed, and for which only user or builder needs may be assigned).

Introduction

The skills of the architect are used in complex building types such as the skyscraper, hospital, stadium, airport, etc. to less complicated projects such as commercial and residential buildings and development. Many pieces of architecture can be seen as cultural and political symbols. The role of the architect, though changing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes unsuccessful) design and implementation of the built environment in which we live.

Scope and intentions

According to the very earliest surviving work on the subject, Vitruvius' De architectura, good buildings satisfy three core principles: Firmness, Commodity, and Delight; architecture can be said to be a balance and coordination among these three elements, with none overpowering the others. A modern day definition sees architecture as addressing aesthetic, structural and functional considerations. However, looked at another way, function itself is seen as encompassing all criteria, including aesthetic and psychological ones. Architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, including within its fold mathematics, science, art, technology, social sciences, politics, history, philosophy, and so on. In Vitruvius' words: "Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts". He adds that an architect should be well versed in fields such as music, astronomy, etc. Philosophy is a particular favourite; in fact the approach of an architect to their subject is often called their philosophy. Rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism, and phenomenology are some topics from philosophy that have influenced architecture. phenomenology, Italy]] # Translation of firmitatis utilitatis venustatis [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html] due to Henry Wotton, 1624 [http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3].

Theory and practice

Architecture and buildings

The difference between architecture and building is a subject matter that has engaged the attention of many. According to Nikolaus Pevsner, European historian of the early 20th century, "A bicycle shed is a building, Lincoln Cathedral is a piece of architecture". In current thinking, the division is not too clear. Bernard Rudofsky's famous Architecture Without Architects consolidated a whole range of structures designed by ordinary people into the realm of architecture. Architecture is also the art of designing the human built environment. Buildings, landscaping, and street designs may be used to impart both functional as well as aesthetic character to a project. Siding and roofing materials and colors may be used to enhance or blend buildings with the environment. Building features such as cornices, gables, entrances, window treatments and borders may be used to soften or enhance portions of a building. Landscaping may be used to create privacy and block direct views from or to a site and enhance buildings with colorful plants and trees. Street side features such as decorative lighting, benches, meandering walkways, and bicycle lanes may enhance a site for passersby, pedestrians, and cyclists.

Architectural history

Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available building materials and attendant skills). Prehistoric and primitive architecture constitute this early stage. As humans progressed and knowledge began to be formalised through oral traditions and practices, architecture evolved into a craft. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed Vernacular architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Vernacular architecture, India]] Early human settlements were essentially rural. As surplus of production began to occur, rural societies transformed into urban ones and cities began to evolve. In many ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians' architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural. However, the architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilisations such as the Greek and the Roman evolved from more civic ideas and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed and texts on architecture began to be written. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are the works of Vitruvius, the Kaogongji of ancient China and Vaastu Shastra in ancient India. In Europe in the Classical and Medieval periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individual architects who remained anonymous. Guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged. Islamic architecture has a long and complex history beginning in the 7th century CE. Examples can be found throughout the countries that are, or were, Islamic - from Morocco and Spain to Iran, and Indonesia. Other examples can be found in areas where Muslims are a minority. Islamic architecture includes mosques, madrasas, caravansarais, palaces, and mausolea of this large region. With the Renaissance and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - Michaelangelo, Brunelleschi, Leonardo da Vinci - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved were within the scope of the generalist. With the consolidation of knowledge in scientific fields such as engineering and the rise of new materials and technology, the architect began to lose ground on the technical aspects of building. He therefore cornered for himself another playing field - that of aesthetics. There was the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes. In the 19th century Ecole des Beaux Arts in France, the training was toward producing quick sketch schemes involving beautiful drawings without much emphasis on context. France, USA]] Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass consumption and aesthetics started becoming a criterion even for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Industrial Revolution, India]] The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that in architecture served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead, the Bauhaus school, founded in Germany in 1919, consciously rejected history and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology. When Modern architecture first began to be practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Truth was sought by rejecting history and turning to function as the generator of form. Architects became prominent figures and were termed masters. Later modern architecture moved into the realm of mass production due to its simplicity and economy. However, a reduction in quality of modern architecture was perceived by the general public from the 1960s. Some reasons cited for this are its lack of meaning, sterility, ugliness, uniformity, and psychological effects. The architectural profession responded to this partly by attempting a more populist architecture at the visual level, even if at the expense of sacrificing depth for shallowness, a direction called Postmodernism. Robert Venturi's contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are considered together) gives an idea of this approach. Another part of the profession, and also some non-architects, responded by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The Design Methodology Movement involving people such as Chris Jones, Christopher Alexander started searching for more people-orientated designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioural, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process. As many other concerns began to be recognised and complexity of buildings began to increase in terms of aspects such as services, architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture now required a team of professionals in its making, an architect being one among the many, sometimes the leader, sometimes not. This is the state of the profession today. However, individuality is still cherished and sought for in the design of buildings seen as cultural symbols - the museum or fine arts centre has become a showcase for new experiments in style: today Deconstructivism, tomorrow maybe something else.

See also

Deconstructivism, including the egg-shaped Swiss Re tower. In 2004 this building won the Stirling Prize for its architects Foster and Partners ]] Foster and Partners]
- Architect
- Architectural history
- Architectural style
  - Classical architecture
  - Ideological architecture
    - Nazi architecture
    - Stalinist architecture
  - Byzantine architecture
  - Persian (Iranian) architecture
  - List of house styles
  - Modern architecture
  - Religious architecture
    - Cathedral architecture
    - Synagogue architecture
  - Vastu
  - Vernacular architecture
- Architectural theory
  - Mathematics and architecture
  - Pattern language
  - Proportion (architecture)
  - Space syntax
- Architecture timeline
- Building code
- Building construction
- Building material
- Environmental design
- Energy efficient building (Green building)
- Forms in architecture
- Interior design
- Landscape architecture
- List of architects
- List of architecture firms
- List of architecture prizes
  - Pritzker Prize
  - Stirling Prize
- List of buildings
  - Skyscraper
- Russian architecture
- Structural engineering
- Sustainable design
- Sustainable architecture
- Urban planning
- World Heritage Sites

External links


- [http://www.pygmies.info/camps.html African Pygmies Architecture]
- [http://www.aia.org/ American Institute of Architects]
- [http://www.architectsindex.com/ ArchitectsIndex - Directory of UK Architects along with work examples]
- [http://www.architypes.net/ Architypes - Wiki of architecture design principles and patterns]
- [http://www.architecture.com/ Architecture.com - Courtesy of the Royal Institute of British Architects]
- [http://www.archpedia.com/ Archpedia - architecture encyclopedia]
- [http://www.vernarch.com/ Center for vernacular Architecture-Bangalore-India]
- [http://st-takla.org/Gallery/Gallery-Coptic-Orthodox-Architecture-01.html Christian Coptic Orthodox Architecture] at http://St-Takla.org
- [http://www.cupola.com/bldgstr1.htm Cupola - Building and Structure Photo Galleries]
- [http://www.danda.be/ Danda - News and reviews on architecture]
- [http://www.iab.org.br/ Instituto de Arquitetos do Brasil]
- [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org Islamic Architecture]
- [http://www.archinform.net/ Archinform - International Architecture Database]
- [http://architect.architecture.sk Famous architects]
- [http://www.galinsky.com/ Galinsky - People enjoying buildings worldwide]
- [http://www.glasssteelandstone.com/ Global Architecture Encyclopedia - Glass Steel and Stone]
- [http://www.thehopkinscompany.com/glossary/glossary.html Glossary of Architectural Terms]
- [http://www.greatbuildings.com/ Great Buildings Collection]
- [http://www.nyc-architecture.com/ New York architecture images]
- [http://www.riba.org Royal Institute of British Architects]
- [http://www.sah.org/ Society of Architectural Historians]
- [http://www.vitruvio.ch/ Vitruvio]
- [http://worldheritage-forum.net/de/ Worldheritage-Forum: Weblog and Information on UNESCO World Heritage topics] Category:Applied sciences Category:Arts ko:건축 ms:Seni bina ja:建築学 simple:Architecture th:สถาปัตยกรรมศาสตร์





Butler County, Pennsylvania

Butler County is a county located in the state of Pennsylvania. As of 2000, the population is 174,083. Butler County was created on March 12, 1800 from part of Allegheny County and named in honor of General Richard Butler. Its county seat is Butler6. it is part of the Pittsburgh Metropolitan Statistical Area.

Geography

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 2,058 km² (795 mi²). 2,042 km² (789 mi²) of it is land and 16 km² (6 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 0.79% water.

Demographics

As of the census2 of 2000, there are 174,083 people, 65,862 households, and 46,827 families residing in the county. The population density is 85/km² (221/mi²). There are 69,868 housing units at an average density of 34/km² (89/mi²). The racial makeup of the county is 97.83% White, 0.79% Black or African American, 0.09% Native American, 0.56% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 0.17% from other races, and 0.54% from two or more races. 0.58% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 65,862 households out of which 32.90% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.80% are married couples living together, 8.10% have a female householder with no husband present, and 28.90% are non-families. 24.20% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.40% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.55 and the average family size is 3.04. In the county, the population is spread out with 24.60% under the age of 18, 8.80% from 18 to 24, 29.40% from 25 to 44, 23.00% from 45 to 64, and 14.30% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 95.40 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.80 males.

Highlights and History

Butler County is named after Richard Butler (general), a hero of the American Revolution. It is the location of Moraine State Park, with the 3,000 acre glacial lake, Lake Arthur. Lake Arthur is used for fishing and sailing, and the surrounding park is used for hiking and hunting. Some famous inventions and discoveries were made in Butler County. It was in Saxonburg, Butler County, that the designer of the Brooklyn Bridge, John Roebling, invented his revolutionary "wire rope." At what is now known as Oil Creek, Butler County resident William Smith and Edwin Drake first proved that oil counld be tapped from underground for consistent supply. Butler County has also been lived in and traveled through by famous politicians. George Washington passed through during the French and Indian Wars. Butler's only U.S. Senator ever, Walter Lowrie, built a home in 1828 that still stands today behind the Butler County Courthouse. Butler's highest ranked federal official ever is William J. Perry, Secretary of Defense under President Bill Clinton from 1994-1997. He graduated from Butler High in 1945.

Municipalities

Cities


- Butler

Boroughs


- Bruin
- Callery
- Cherry Valley
- Chicora
- Connoquenessing
- East Butler
- Eau Claire
- Evans City
- Fairview
- Harmony
- Harrisville
- Karns City
- Mars
- Petrolia
- Portersville
- Prospect
- Saxonburg
- Seven Fields
- Slippery Rock
- Valencia
- West Liberty
- West Sunbury
- Zelienople

Townships


- Adams Township
- Allegheny Township
- Brady Township
- Buffalo Township
- Butler Township
- Center Township
- Cherry Township
- Clay Township
- Clearfield Township
- Clinton Township
- Concord Township
- Connoquenessing Township
- Cranberry Township
- Donegal Township
- Fairview Township
- Forward Township
- Franklin Township
- Jackson Township
- Jefferson Township
- Lancaster Township
- Marion Township
- Mercer Township
- Middlesex Township
- Muddy Creek Township
- Oakland Township
- Parker Township
- Penn Township
- Slippery Rock Township
- Summit Township
- Venango Township
- Washington Township
- Winfield Township
- Worth Township

Census-designated places


- Fernway
- Fox Run
- Homeacre-Lyndora
- Meadowood
- Meridian
- Nixon
- Oak Hills
- Shanor-Northvue

Education

Colleges and Universities


- Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania at [http://www.sru.edu/ sru.edu]
- Butler County Community College (Pennsylvania) at [http://www.bc3.edu/ bc3.edu]

Technical Schools


- Butler County Vo-Tech at [http://www.bcvt.tec.pa.us/ bcvt.tec.pa.us]

Butler School District


- Butler High School at [http://www.butler.k12.pa.us/ butler.k12.pa.us]

Moniteau School District


- Moniteau High School at [http://www.moniteau.k12.pa.us/ moniteau.k12.pa.us]

News


- Butler Eagle daily newspaper Category:Pennsylvania counties

Canal

, France]] France] Canals are man-made waterways, usually connecting existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. Irrigation canals are man-made waterways for the delivery of water and preceded the use of transportation canals used by barges or narrowboats on smaller canals, and by ships on ship canals that connect to the ocean. The oldest-known canals were built in Mesopotamia, c. 4000 BC. Ancient canals in the West were dwarfed by the Grand Canal of China, the longest canal built in ancient times. In Europe and then in the young United States, inland canals preceded the development of railroads during the earliest phase of the Industrial Revolution; some canals were later drained and used as railroad rights-of-way. Navigable canals reached into previously isolated areas and brought them in touch with the world economy. The Erie Canal, for instance, opened up a connection from the populated Northeast to the fertile Great Plains. Erie Canal] The pace of draining of fenland and polder in the Low Countries quickened in the 14th century and canalization made the village of Amsterdam a port. Canals are so deeply identified with Venice that many cities that have canals used as waterways have been called "the Venice of..." Some rivers have also been 'canalised' to make them navigable. Competition from the railroad network made many canals obsolete for commercial transportation, and many fell into decay. A movement that began in Britain and France to use the picturesque early industrial canals for pleasure boats has spurred rehabilitation of stretches of historic canals. Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as wayleaves for fibre optic telecommunications networks.

Miscellaneous

For a time in the early 20th century, it was believed that there were canals on Mars. canals on Mars

Famous canals and lists


- List of waterways
- Canals of Ireland
- List of canals in the United States
- Canals of the United Kingdom
- Suez Canal
- Panama Canal
- Corinth Canal
- Venice
- Amsterdam
- Welland Canal - Central Canada
- Saint Lawrence Seaway - Quebec, Ontario, Canada
- Rideau Canal - Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Shubie Canal - Nova Scotia, Canada

See also

Canada]
- Water transportation
- Aqueduct
- Canal lock
- Horse-drawn boat
- Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project
- Sluice
- Trade route
- Waterway restoration Category:Canals Category:Water transport Category:Coastal construction Category:Water transport infrastructure ko:운하 ja:運河 simple:Canal th:คลอง

Harrisburg

Harrisburg is the name of many places in the United States of America:
- Harrisburg, Arkansas
- Harrisburg, Illinois
- Harrisburg, Missouri
- Harrisburg, Nebraska
- Harrisburg, New York
  - Town in Lewis County
  - Hamlet in Cattaraugus County
  - Hamlet in Warren County
- Harrisburg, North Carolina
- Harrisburg, Ohio
- Harrisburg, Oregon
- Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (Pennsylvania state capital and near the location of the Three Mile Island incident)
- Harrisburg, South Dakota
- Harrisburg, Texas Similarly named places include Harris and Harrisville.

Pittsburgh

:This article is about the city. For the song, see Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (song). For other places, see Pittsburg. Pittsburg Pittsburgh is a city in Western Pennsylvania, United States, and the county seat of Allegheny County. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 334,563 (metropolitan area 2,358,695), making it the second-largest city in the state. Pittsburgh, nicknamed The Steel City, was traditionally considered the center of the American steel industry. In recent years the city has turned to technology, especially biotechnology and robotics, leading the Wall Street Journal to dub the city "Roboburgh." The Carnegie Mellon University Robotics Institute and numerous private companies have made Pittsburgh perhaps the top robotics city outside of Japan, while the University of Pittsburgh boasts one of the top [http://www.medschool.pitt.edu/ medical schools] and one of the best [http://sti.upmc.com/ organ transplant institutes] in the world. The city is also one of the nation's major nonprofit centers, home to major funders such as the Heinz Foundations and thousands of other nonprofit organizations. Pittsburgh also has a booming art scene and a long history of supporting culture and the arts.

History

France was the first European country to send settlers to the forks of the Ohio River. They did so after capturing a small British garrison founded by William Trent. The Virginia colony sent Major George Washington with a scout named Christopher Gist to deliver a message to the French, demanding their withdrawal, and to reconnoiter their positions. The French refused. Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia then sent Washington back in command of a small troop of colonial soldiers, but the French forced him to surrender at a makeshift fort, Fort Necessity. During the French and Indian War (<