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John Bell Hood

John Bell Hood

John Bell Hood (June 1, 1831 – August 30, 1879) was a Confederate general during the American Civil War. Hood had a reputation for bravery and aggressiveness that sometimes bordered on recklessness. Arguably one of the best brigade and division commanders in the Confederate States Army, Hood became increasingly ineffective as he was promoted to lead larger, independent commands, and his career is marred by his decisive defeats leading an army in the Atlanta Campaign and the Franklin-Nashville Campaign.

Early life

Hood was born in Owingsville, Kentucky, son of John W. Hood, a doctor, and Theodocia French Hood. He was the cousin of future Confederate general Gustavus W. Smith and the nephew of U.S. Representative Richard French. French obtained an appointment for Hood at the U.S. Military Academy, despite his father's reluctance to support a military career for his son. Hood graduated in 1853, ranked 44th in a class of 52, after a tenure marred by disciplinary problems and near-expulsion in his final year. At West Point and in later Army years he was known to friends as "Sam". His classmates included James B. McPherson and John M. Schofield; he received instruction in artillery from George H. Thomas. All three of these men would become Union Army generals who would oppose Hood in battle. Hood was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 4th U.S. Infantry, served in Missouri and California, and later transferred to the 2nd U.S. Cavalry in Texas, where he was commanded by Colonel Robert E. Lee. While commanding a reconnaissance patrol from Fort Mason, Hood sustained one of the many wounds that marked his lifetime in military service—an arrow through his left hand in action against the Comanches at Devil's River, Texas.

Civil War

Brigade and division command

Hood resigned from the U.S. Army immediately after Fort Sumter and, dissatisfied with the neutrality of his native Kentucky, decided to serve his adopted state of Texas. He joined the Confederate army as a cavalry captain, but by September 30, 1861, was promoted to be colonel in command of the 4th Texas Infantry. Hood became the brigade commander of the unit that was henceforth known as Hood's Texas Brigade on February 20, 1862, part of the Confederate Army of the Potomac, and was promoted to brigadier general on March 3, 1862. Leading the Texas brigade as part of the Army of Northern Virginia in the Peninsula Campaign, he established his reputation as an aggressive commander, eager to lead his troops personally into battle from the front. At the Battle of Gaines' Mill on June 27, he distinguished himself by leading a brigade charge that broke the Union line, the most successful Confederate performance in the Seven Days Battles. He received his second battle wound at Gaines' Mill. Due to his success on the Peninsula, Hood was given command of a division in James Longstreet's First Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia. He led the division in the Northern Virginia Campaign and continued his reputation as the premier leader of shock troops during Longstreet's massive assault on John Pope's left flank at the Second Battle of Bull Run, which nearly destroyed the Union army. In the pursuit of Union forces, Hood was involved in a dispute over captured ambulances with a fellow general. Longstreet had Hood arrested over the dispute and ordered him to leave the army, but Robert E. Lee intervened and retained him in service. During the Maryland Campaign, just before the Battle of South Mountain, Hood was in the rear, still in virtual arrest. His Texas troopers shouted to General Lee as he rode by, "Give us Hood!" Lee restored Hood to command, despite Hood's refusal to apologize for his conduct. During the Battle of Antietam, Hood's division came to the relief of Stonewall Jackson's corps on the Confederate left flank. Jackson was impressed with Hood's performance and recommended his promotion to major general, which occurred on October 10, 1862. In the Battle of Fredericksburg in December, Hood's division saw little action. And in the spring of 1863, he missed the great victory of the Battle of Chancellorsville because most of Longstreet's Corps was on detached duty in Suffolk, Virginia.

Gettysburg

At the Battle of Gettysburg, Longstreet's Corps arrived late on the first day, July 1, 1863. General Lee planned an assault for the second day that would feature Longstreet's Corps attacking northeast up the Emmitsburg Road into the Union left flank. Hood was dissatisfied with his assignment in the assault because it would face difficult terrain in the boulder-strewn area known as the Devil's Den. He requested permission from Longstreet to move around the left flank of the Union army, beyond the mountain known as [Big] Round Top, to strike the Union in their rear area. Longstreet refused permission, citing Lee's orders, despite repeated protests from Hood. Yielding to the inevitable, Hood's division stepped off around 4 p.m. on July 2, but a variety of factors caused it to veer to the east, away from its intended direction, where it would eventually meet with Union forces at Little Round Top. Just as the attack was starting, however, Hood was the victim of an artillery shell exploding over his head, severely damaging his left arm, which incapacitated him. (Although the arm was not amputated, he was unable to make use of it for the rest of his life.) His ranking brigade commander, Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law, assumed command of the division, but confusion as to orders and command status dissipated the direction and strength of the Confederate attack, significantly affecting the outcome of the battle. Hood recuperated in Richmond, Virginia, where he made a social impression on the ladies of the Confederacy. In August of 1863, famous diarist Mary Chesnut wrote of Hood: : When Hood came with his sad Quixote face, the face of an old Crusader, who believed in his cause, his cross, and his crown, we were not prepared for such a man as a beau-ideal of the wild Texans. He is tall, thin, and shy; has blue eyes and light hair; a tawny beard, and a vast amount of it, covering the lower part of his face, the whole appearance that of awkward strength. Some one said that his great reserve of manner he carried only into the society of ladies. Major [Charles S.] Venable added that he had often heard of the light of battle shining in a man's eyes. He had seen it once—when he carried to Hood orders from Lee, and found in the hottest of the fight that the man was transfigured. The fierce light of Hood's eyes I can never forget. (In the 1993 movie Gettysburg, Hood was portrayed by actor Patrick Gorman, a man considerably older looking than Hood, who was only 32 years old at the time.)

Chickamauga

Meanwhile, in the Western Theater, the Confederate army under General Braxton Bragg was faring poorly. Lee dispatched Longstreet's Corps to Tennessee and Hood was able to rejoin his men on September 18. At the Battle of Chickamauga, Hood's division broke the Federal line at the Brotherton Cabin, which led to the defeat of General William Rosecrans's Union army. However, Hood was once again wounded severely and his right leg was amputated. His condition was so grave that the surgeon sent his severed leg along with Hood in the ambulance, assuming that they would be buried together. Due to Hood's bravery at Chickamauga, Longstreet recommended that he be promoted to lieutenant general as of that date, September 20, 1863. During Hood's second recuperation in Richmond that fall, he befriended Confederate President Jefferson Davis, who would subsequently promote him to a more important role.

Commander, Army of Tennessee

In the spring of 1864, the Confederate Army of Tennessee, under Joseph E. Johnston, was engaged in a campaign of maneuver against William T. Sherman, who was driving from Chattanooga toward Atlanta. During the campaign, Hood sent the government in Richmond letters very critical of Johnston's conduct (actions that were considered highly improper for a man in his position). On July 17, 1864, just before the Battle of Peachtree Creek, Jefferson Davis lost patience with Johnston's strategy of withdrawals and relieved him. Hood, commanding a corps under Johnston, was promoted to the temporary rank of full general on July 18 and given command of the army just outside the gates of Atlanta. At 33, Hood was the youngest man on either side of the war to be given command of an army. Robert E. Lee counseled Davis against this choice, supposedly saying that Hood was "all lion, no fox". Hood conducted the remainder of the Atlanta Campaign with the strong aggressive actions for which he was famous. He launched four major offensives that summer in an attempt to break Sherman's siege of Atlanta, starting almost immediately with Peachtree Creek. All of the offensives failed, with significant Confederate casualties. Finally, on September 2, 1864, Hood evacuated the city of Atlanta, burning as many military supplies and installations as possible. As Sherman regrouped in Atlanta, preparing for his March to the Sea, Hood and Jefferson Davis attempted to devise a strategy to defeat him. Their plan was to attack Sherman's lines of communications from Chattanooga and to move north through Alabama and into central Tennessee, assuming that Sherman would be threatened and follow. Hood's hope was that he could maneuver Sherman into a decisive battle, defeat him, recruit additional forces in Tennessee and Kentucky, and pass through the Cumberland Gap to come to the aid of Robert E. Lee, who was besieged at Petersburg. Sherman did not cooperate, however. Instead, he sent Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas to take control of the Union forces in Tennessee and coordinate the defense against Hood, while the bulk of Sherman's forces prepared to march toward Savannah. Hood's Tennessee Campaign lasted from September to December, 1864, comprising seven battles and hundreds of miles of marching. After failing to defeat a large part of the Union Army of the Ohio under Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield at Spring Hill, Tennessee, on November 29, the next day at the Battle of Franklin his troops were unsuccessful in their attempt to breach the Union breastworks and they allowed the Union force to withdraw unimpeded toward Nashville. Two weeks later George Thomas defeated him again at the Battle of Nashville, in which most of his army was wiped out, one of the most significant Confederate battle losses in the Civil War. After the catastrophe of Nashville, the remnants of the Army of Tennessee retreated to Mississippi and Hood resigned his temporary commission as a full general as of January 23, 1865, reverting back to lieutenant general. Near the end of the war, Jefferson Davis ordered Hood to travel to Texas to raise another army. Before he could arrive, however, General Edmund Kirby Smith surrendered his Texas forces to the Union and Hood surrendered himself in Natchez, Mississippi, where he was paroled on May 31, 1865.

Post-bellum career

After the war, Hood moved to Louisiana and became a cotton broker and ran an insurance business. In 1868 he married New Orleans native Anna Marie Hennen, with whom he would father eleven children, including three pairs of twins, over ten years. His insurance business was ruined by a yellow fever epidemic in New Orleans during the winter of 1878–79 and he succumbed to the disease himself, dying just days after his wife and oldest child, leaving ten destitute orphans, who were adopted by families throughout the South. John Bell Hood is buried in the Army of Tennessee Memorial in Metairie Cemetery, New Orleans. He is memorialized by Hood County, Texas, and the U.S. Army installation, Fort Hood Texas. Steven Vincent Benet's poem [http://oldpoetry.com/poetry/38925 Army of Northern Virginia] included a poignant passage about Hood: : Yellow-haired Hood with his wounds and his empty sleeve, : Leading his Texans, a Viking shape of a man, : With the thrust and lack of craft of a berserk sword, : All lion, none of the fox. :              When he supersedes : Joe Johnston, he is lost, and his army with him, : But he could lead forlorn hopes with the ghost of Ney. : His bigboned Texans follow him into the mist. : Who follows them?

References


- Eicher, John H., & Eicher, David J.: Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3
- [http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ Tagg, Larry: The Generals of Gettysburg, Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9]
- [http://docsouth.unc.edu/chesnut/maryches.html Diary of Mary Chesnut, online text]
- [http://ngeorgia.com/people/hood.html Biography of General Hood]
- [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/HH/fho49.html Hood's biography in Handbook of Texas Online] at the University of Texas Hood, John Bell Hood, John Bell Hood, John Bell Hood, John Bell Hood, John Bell Hood, John Bell Hood, John Bell

1831

1831 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events


- February-March - Revolts in Modena, Parma and the Papal States are put down by Austrian troops
- February 14 - Ras Marye of Yejju marches into Tigray and defeats and kills the warlord Sabagadis in the Battle of Debre Abbay.
- February 20 - Battle of Grochow. Polish rebel forces divide a Russian army.
- March 1 - Democrat Samuel Smith becomes President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate until December 4
- March 9 – French Foreign Legion founded
- March 19 - City Bank of New York is the site of the first bank robbery in United States history ($245,000 taken).
- April 7 - Pedro I of Brazil abdicates as emperor of Brazil in favor of his son Pedro II of Brazil.
- April 21 - New York University is founded in New York City, New York.
- May 26 - Battle of Ostroleka. The Poles fight another indecisive battle.
- June 1 - James Clark Ross discovers the position of the North Magnetic Pole on the Boothia Peninsula.
- July 21 - Inauguration of Léopold I of Belgium, first king of the Belgians
- August 2 - Dutch invasion of Belgium. It is repelled by a French army
- August 21 - Outbreak of Nat Turner's slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia. Approximately 55 whites stabbed, shot and clubbed to death.
- September 6-8 - Battle of Warsaw - The Russians take the Polish capital and crush resistance.
- September 22 - UK House of Commons passes the Reform Bill - it is later defeated in the House of Lords
- October 26 – Cholera epidemic begins in Sunderland, England
- October 30 - In Southampton County, Virginia, escaped slave Nat Turner is captured and arrested for leading the bloodiest slave revolt in United States history.
- October 31 - Rioters burn down 100 houses in Bristol, UK - intervention by 14th Dragoons leads to death of hundreds
- November 11 - In Jerusalem, Virginia, Nat Turner is hanged after inciting a violent slave uprising.
- December 27 - Charles Darwin embarks on his historic journey aboard the HMS Beagle.
- The Sydney Morning Herald newspaper is first published.
- Cholera in Hamburg

Births


- January 7 - Heinrich von Stephan, German postal union organizer (d. 1897)
- January 26 - Mary Mapes Dodged, writer (d. 1907)
- March 3 - George Pullman, American inventor and industrialist (d. 1897)
- March 6 - Friedrich von Bodelschwingh, theologian (d. 1910)
- March 12 - Clement Studebaker, American automobile pioneer (d. 1901)
- March 20 - Solomon L. Spink, U.S. Congressman from Illinois (d. 1881)
- June 1 - John Bell Hood, American Confederate general (d. 1879)
- June 13 - James Clark Maxwell, Scottish physicist (d. 1879)
- June 28 - Joseph Joachim, Austrian violinist (d. 1907)
- July 22 - Emperor Komei of Japan (d. 1867)
- 12 August - Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Russian-born author and theosophist (d. 1891)
- September 18 - Siegfried Marcus, German-Austrian automobile pioneer (d. 1898)
- October 6 - Richard Dedekind, German mathematician (d. 1916)
- October 18 - Emperor Frederick III of Germany (d. 1888)
- October 31 - Romualdo Pacheco, Governor of California (d. 1899)

Deaths


- January 21 - Achim von Arnim, German poet (b. 1781)
- February 14 - Vincente Guerrero, Mexican revolutionary leader (b. 1782)
- February 17 - Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (b. 1785)
- February 25 - Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, German writer (b. 1752)
- April 20 - John Abernethy (surgeon) (b. 1764)
- April 27 - Charles Felix of Savoy, King of Sardinia (b. 1765)
- June 27 - Sophie Germain, French mathematician (b. 1776)
- July 4 - James Monroe, 5th President of the United States (b. 1758)
- July 16 - Louis Alexandre Andrault Graf Langeron, Russian general (b. 1763)
- August 24 - August von Gneisenau, Prussian field marshal (b. 1760)
- November 11 - Nat Turner, American slave rebel (b. 1800)
- November 14 - Georg Hegel, German philosopher (b. 1770)
- November 16 - Carl von Clausewitz, German military strategist (b. 1780)
- Sabagadis - Ethiopian warlord Category:1831 ko:1831년 ms:1831 ja:1831年 simple:1831

August 30

August 30 is the 242nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (243rd in leap years), with 123 days remaining.

Events


- 711 - K'inich K'an Joy Chitam, king of the Maya city of Palenque, disappears from history. He was probably taken prisoner by a rivalling city state.
- 1574 - Guru Ram Das became the Fourth Sikh Guru/Master
- 1590 - Tokugawa Ieyasu enters Edo Castle. (Traditional Japanese date: August 1, 1590)
- 1813 - Battle of Kulm: French forces defeated by Austrian-Prussian-Russian alliance
- 1813 - Creek War: Creek Red Sticks carried out the Fort Mims Massacre.
- 1850 - Honolulu, Hawaii, becomes a city
- 1862 - American Civil War: Battle of Richmond, Kentucky: Confederates under Edmund Kirby Smith rout a Union army under General Horatio Wright
- 1862 - American Civil War: Union forces are defeated in Second Battle of Bull Run
- 1873 - Austrian explorers Julius von Payer and Karl Weyprecht discover the archipelago of Franz Joseph Land in the Arctic Sea.
- 1909 - Burgess Shale fossils discovered by Charles Doolittle Walcott
- 1914 - Battle of Tannenberg
- 1918 - Fanya Kaplan, an assassin, shoots and seriously injures Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin. This, along with the assassination of Bolshevik senior official Moisei Uritsky days earlier, prompts the decree for Red Terror.
- 1922 - Battle of Dumlupinar, final battle in Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) ("Turkish War of Independence")
- 1941 - Siege of Leningrad begins.
- 1942 - World War II: Battle of Alam Halfa begins.
- 1945 - Hong Kong is liberated from Japan by British Forces.
- 1945 - Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, General Douglas MacArthur lands at Atsugi Air Force Base.
- 1962 - Japan conducts a test of the NAMC YS-11, its first aircraft since the war and its only successful commercial aircraft from before or after the war.
- 1963 - Hotline between U.S. and Soviet leaders goes into operation.
- 1965 - Casey Stengel announces his retirement from baseball
- 1965 - Rock musician Bob Dylan releases his influential album Highway 61 Revisited featuring the song "Like a Rolling Stone."
- 1967 - Thurgood Marshall is confirmed as the first African American Justice of the United States Supreme Court.
- 1974 - A Belgrade-Dortmund express train derails at the main train station in Zagreb killing 153 passengers.
- 1976 - Tom Brokaw becomes news anchor of the Today Show.
- 1984 - STS-41-D: The Space Shuttle Discovery takes off on its maiden voyage.
- 1990 - Tatarstan declares independence from the RSFSR.
- 1991 - Azerbaijan declares independence from the USSR.
- 1992 - Michael Schumacher wins his first Formula One race at the Belgian Grand Prix.
- 1993 - The Late Show with David Letterman debuts on CBS.
- 1999 - East Timorese vote for independence in a referendum.
- 2002 - The Tandy Center Subway in Fort Worth, Texas, ceases to operate.
- 2005 - The 17th Street Canal in New Orleans is breached by Hurricane Katrina, leading to massive flooding and destruction.

Births


- 1334 - King Peter I of Castile (d. 1369)
- 1377 - Shah Rukh, ruler of Persia and Transoxonia (d. 1447)
- 1705 - David Hartley, English philosopher (d. 1757)
- 1720 - Samuel Whitbread, English brewer and politician (d. 1796)
- 1748 - Jacques-Louis David, French painter (d. 1825)
- 1797 - Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, English writer (d. 1851)
- 1839 - Gulstan Ropert, French Catholic prelate (d. 1903)
- 1848)- Andrew Onderdonk, Railway Contractor.
- 1852 - Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Dutch chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1911)
- 1856 - Carle David Tolmé Runge, German physicist (d. 1927)
- 1871 - Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, New Zealand physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 1937)
- 1884 - Theodor Svedberg, Swedish chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
- 1893 - Huey Long, American politician (d. 1935)
- 1896 - Raymond Massey, Canadian actor (d. 1983)
- 1898 - Shirley Booth, American actress (d. 1992)
- 1901 - Roy Wilkins, American civil rights leader (1981)
- 1906 - Joan Blondell, American actress (d. 1979)
- 1908 - Fred MacMurray, American actor (d. 1991)
- 1912 - Edward Mills Purcell, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1997)
- 1913 - Richard Stone, British economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)
- 1918 - Ted Williams, baseball player (d. 2002)
- 1919 - Kitty Wells, American singer
- 1922 - Lionel Murphy, Australian politician and judge
- 1925 - Laurent de Brunhoff, French writer and illustrator
- 1927 - Geoffrey Beene, American fashion designer
- 1930 - Warren Buffett, American entrepreneur
- 1930 - Jerry Tarkanian, American basketball coach
- 1935 - John Phillips, American singer (The Mamas and the Papas) (d. 2001)
- 1939 - John Peel, English radio disc jockey (d. 2004)
- 1941 - Ben Jones, American actor and politician
- 1943 - R. Crumb, American cartoonist
- 1943 - Jean-Claude Killy, French skier
- 1944 - Molly Ivins, American political humorist
- 1947 - Peggy Lipton, American actress
- 1948 - Lewis Black, American comedian
- 1951 - Timothy Bottoms, American actor
- 1951 - Dana (singer), Irish singer and politician
- 1954 - Alexander Lukashenko, President of Belarus
- 1959 - Mark 'Jacko' Jackson, Australian footballer and actor
- 1963 - Paul Oakenfold, British disc jockey
- 1972 - Cameron Diaz, American actress
- 1972 - Pavel Nedved, Czech footballer
- 1974 - Aaron Barrett, American guitarist and singer (Reel Big Fish)
- 1975 - Radhi Jaidi, Tunisian footballer
- 1982 - Andy Roddick, American tennis player
- 1991 - Nick Gardner, Future American Politician

Deaths


- 1158 - King Sancho III of Castile (b. 1134)
- 1428 - Emperor Shoko of Japan (b. 1401)
- 1483 - King Louis XI of France (b. 1423)
- 1580 - Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy (b. 1528)
- 1617 - Rose of Lima, Peruvian saint (b. 1586)
- 1619 - Shimazu Yoshihiro, Japanese samurai and warlord (b. 1535)
- 1751 - Christopher Polhem, Swedish scientist and inventor (b. 1661)
- 1856 - Gilbert Abbott à Beckett, English writer (b. 1811)
- 1879 - John Bell Hood, American Confederate general (b. 1831)
- 1896 - Alexei Lobanov-Rostovsky, Russian statesman (b. 1824)
- 1907 - Richard Mansfield, American actor and manager (b. 1857)
- 1928 - Wilhelm Wien, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1864)
- 1935 - Henri Barbusse, French novelist and journalist (b. 1873)
- 1940 - J.J. Thomson, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1856)
- 1943 - Father Eustaquio van Lieshout, Dutch Catholic priest (b. 1890)
- 1949 - Arthur Fielder, English cricketer (b. 1877)
- 1961 - Charles Coburn, American actor (b. 1877)
- 1981 - Vera-Ellen, American actress (b. 1921)
- 1985 - Taylor Caldwell, English-born author (b. 1900)
- 1991 - Jean Tinguely, Swiss painter and sculptor (b. 1925)
- 1994 - Lindsay Anderson, English film director (b. 1923)
- 1995 - Sterling Morrison, American guitarist (The Velvet Underground) (b. 1942)
- 1999 - Raymond Poïvet, French comics artist, creator of Les Pionniers de l'Espérance
- 2003 - Charles Bronson, American actor (b. 1921)
- 2003 - Donald Davidson, American philosopher (b. 1917)
- 2004 - Fred Lawrence Whipple, American astronomer (b. 1906)

Holidays and observances


- Peru - Saint Rose of Lima's Day
- Turkey - Victory Day (to commemorate the Battle of Dumlupinar in 1922)
- International Day of the Disappeared

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/30 BBC: On This Day] ---- August 29 - August 31 - July 30 - September 30 -- listing of all days ko:8월 30일 ms:30 Ogos ja:8月30日 simple:August 30 th:30 สิงหาคม

1879

1879 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

January-March


- January - The current constitution of The State of California, US was ratified.
- January 2 - Fred Spofforth claims the first Hat-trick in test cricket.
- January 11 - Anglo-Zulu War begins.
- January 22 - Zulu troops massacre British troops at the Battle of Isandlwana. At Rorke's Drift, outnumbered British soldiers drive the attackers away after hours of fighting.
- February 12 - At New York City's Madison Square Garden the first artificial ice rink in North America opens.
- February 14 - At Antofagasta, Chile: Chilean troops disembark in this port, then Bolivian. This is the beginning of the War of the Pacific between Chile and the joint forces of Peru and Bolivia.
- February 15 - Women's rights: American President Rutherford B. Hayes signs a bill allowing female attorneys to argue cases before the Supreme Court of the United States.
- February 22 - In Utica, New York, Frank Woolworth opens the first of many of 5 and 10-cent Woolworth stores.
- March 3 - The United States Geological Survey is created
- March 13 - Marriage of The Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, third son of Queen Victoria, to Princess Louise Marguerite of Prussia.
- March 14 - Albert Einstein: German-born physicist who would go on to revolutionize modern Physics.
- March 29 - Anglo-Zulu War: Battle of Kambula: British forces defeat 20,000 Zulus.

May-December


- May 26 - Russia and the United Kingdom sign the Treaty of Gandamak establishing an Afghan state.
- May 30 - New York City's Gilmores Garden is renamed Madison Square Garden by William Henry Vanderbilt and is opened to the public at 26th Street and Madison Avenue.
- May 30 - A F4 tornado struck Irving, Kansas, killing 18 people and injuring 60.
- July 4 - Taughannock Giant unearthed on the shore of Cayuga Lake in Ithaca, New York (later proven to be a hoax).
- July 19 - Doc Holliday kills for the first time after a man shoots-up Holliday's New Mexico saloon.
- August 21 - Virgin Mary, along with St. Joseph and St. John the Evangelist appeared in Knock to local people.
- October 7 - Dual Alliance formed by Germany and Austria-Hungary
- October 21 - Using a filament of carbonized thread, Thomas Edison tests the first practical electric light bulb (it lasted 13 1/2 hours before burning out).
- December 28 - The central part of the Tay Rail Bridge in Dundee, Scotland collapses as a train passed over it, killing 75.
- December 30 - The Pirates of Penzance is first performed (Paignton, Devon, England).
- December 31 - Thomas Edison demonstrates incandescent lighting to the public for the first time (Menlo Park, New Jersey).

Unknown dates


- Hall effect discovered by Dr. Edwin Hall.
- Somerville College founded.
- Stefan-Boltzmann law discovered by Jožef Stefan.
- Football first played in Shepshed.
- Irish Lang League convinces tenants of Charles Boycott and neighboring townsfolk to isolate him by noncooperation - first boycott
- Ferdinand Cheval begins to build his Palais Idéal in France

Births

January-April


- January 1 - E. M. Forster, English writer (d. 1970)
- January 3 - Grace Coolidge, First Lady of the United States (d. 1957)
- January 12 - Ray Harroun, American race car driver (d. 1968)
- January 13 - Melvin Jones, American founder of Lions Clubs International (d. 1961)
- January 28 - Francis Picabia, French painter and poet (d. 1953)
- February 22 - J. N. Brønsted, Danish chemist (d. 1947)
- February 26 - Frank Bridge, English composer (d. 1941)
- March 8 - Otto Hahn, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1968)
- March 14 - Albert Einstein, German-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)
- March 26 - Othmar Ammann, Swiss-born engineer (d. 1965)
- March 30 - Coen de Koning, Dutch speed skater (d. 1954)
- April 20 - Paul Poiret, French couturier (d. 1944)
- April 26 - Owen Willans Richardson, British physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1959)
- April 29 - Sir Thomas Beecham, English conductor (d. 1961)

May-December


- May 6 - Bedřich Hrzony´, Czech orientalist and linguist (d. 1952)
- May 17 - Simon Petlyura, Ukrainian independence fighter (d. 1926)
- May 19 - Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor, American-born politician (d. 1964)
- May 19 - Viscount Waldorf Astor, British businessman and politician (d. 1952)
- May 22 - Alla Nazimova, Ukrainian-born stage and film actress (d. 1945)
- May 23 - Dezső Lauber, Hungarian sportsman (d. 1966)
- May 25 - Max Aitken, Canadian-born statesman and newspaper baron (d. 1964)
- July 1 - Léon Jouhaux, French labor leader, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1954)
- July 5 - Wanda Landowska, Polish harpsichordist (d. 1959)
- August 13 - John Ireland, English composer (d. 1962)
- August 31 - Emperor Yoshihito, 123rd Emperor of Japan (d. 1926)
- September 2 - An Jung-geun, assassin of the Japanese politician Ito Hirobumi (d. 1910)
- September 14 - Margaret Sanger, American birth control advocate (d. 1966)
- September 15 - Joseph Lyons, tenth Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1939)
- September 20 - Victor Sjöström, Swedish film actor and director (d. 1960)
- October 2 - Wallace Stevens, American poet (d. 1955)
- October 3 - Warner Oland, Swedish-born actor (d. 1938)
- October 5 - Francis Peyton Rous, American pathologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1970)
- October 9 - Max von Laue, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1960)
- October 21 - Joseph Canteloube, French composer and singer (d. 1957)
- October 29 - Leon Trotsky, Russian revolutionary (d. 1940)
- November 10 - Patrick Pearse Irish patriot (d. 1916)
- November 26 - Charles W. Goddard, playwright and screenwriter (d. 1951)
- December 3 - Nagai Kafu, Japanese writer (d. 1959)
- December 10 - Jouett Shouse, American politician.
- December 18 - Paul Klee, Swiss artist (d. 1940)
- December 28 - Billy Mitchell, U.S. general and military aviation pioneer (d. 1936)

Deaths


- February 11 - Honoré Daumier, French caricaturist and painter (b. 1808)
- February 25 - Charles Peace, British criminal (executed) (b. 1832)
- March 1 - Joachim Heer, Swiss politician (b. 1825)
- March 30 - Thomas Couture, French painter and teacher (b. 1815)
- April 30 - Sarah Josepha Hale, American author (b. 1788)
- June 1 - Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial, son of French Emperor Napoleon III (b. 1856)
- August 30 - John Bell Hood, America Confederate general (b. 1831)
- November 5 - James Clark Maxwell, Scottish physicist (b. 1831) Category:1879 ko:1879년 ms:1879 simple:1879 th:พ.ศ. 2422

Confederate States of America

:For other meanings of confederate and confederacy, see confederacy (disambiguation) The Confederate States of America—also referred to as the Confederate States, CSA, the Confederacy and Dixie (colloquially)—was a splinter nation off the United States of America that existed between 1861 and 1865. It was located in North America, occupying the south-eastern portions of the current United States. As its existence was contested by the United States for the whole of its short-lived history, there was never a definitive delineation of Confederate States' northern boundary. Its southern land boundary was with Mexico. It was otherwise bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. For most of its life the Confederacy was engaged in the Civil War against the Union forces, mostly in defense. However, the Army of Northern Virginia under General Robert E. Lee, also made limited incursions into Union territory.

History

The Confederate States were formed on February 4, 1861, by six Southern slave states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana) after confirmation of the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States. Jefferson Davis was selected as its first President the next day. Texas joined the Confederacy on March 2 and then replaced its governor, Sam Houston, when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. These seven states seceded1 from the United States and took control of military/naval installations, ports, and custom houses within their boundaries, triggering the American Civil War. A month after the Confederacy was formed, on March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President of the United States. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called the secession "legally void". He stated he had no intent to invade southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of federal property and collection of various federal taxes, duties and imposts. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union. On April 12 South Carolina troops fired upon the Federal troops stationed at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina until the troops surrendered. Following the Battle of Fort Sumter, Lincoln called for all remaining states in the Union to send troops to recapture Sumter and other forts, defend the capital, and preserve the Union. Most Northerners believed that a quick victory for the Union would crush the nascent rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days. This resulted in four more states voting to secede: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the Confederacy for a total of 11. Once Virginia seceded, the Confederate capital was moved from Montgomery, Alabama to Richmond, Virginia The government of Kentucky remained in the Union after a short-lived attempt at neutrality, but a rival faction from that state was also accepted as members of the Confederacy. A more complex situation surrounds the Missouri Secession, but in any event Missouri was also considered a member of the Confederate States. The number of Confederate states is thus sometimes considered to be 13. The five tribal governments of the Indian Territory—which became Oklahoma in 1907—also mainly supported the Confederacy. The southern part of New Mexico Territory (including parts of the Gadsden Purchase) joined with the Confederacy as Arizona Territory. These first settlers petitioned the Confederate government for annexation of their lands, prompting an expedition in which territory south of the 34th parallel was governed by the Confederacy. Arizona troops were also officially recognized within the armies of the Confederacy. Preceding his New Mexico Campaign, General Sibley issued a proclamation to the people of New Mexico his intentions of taking possession of the territory in the name of the Confederate States. Confederate troops briefly occupied the territorial capital of Santa Fe between March 13 and April 8, 1862. Not all jurisdictions where slavery was still legal joined the Confederacy. In 1861 martial law was declared in Maryland (the state which borders the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C., on three sides) to block attempts at secession. Delaware, also a slave state, never considered secession, nor did the capital of the U.S., Washington, D.C.. In 1861, during the war, a unionist rump legislature in Wheeling, Virginia seceded from Virginia, claiming 48 counties, and joined the United States in 1863 as the state of West Virginia, with a constitution that would have gradually abolished slavery[http://www.ls.net/~newriver/va/vasecesh.htm]. Similar attempts to secede from the Confederacy in parts of other states (notably in eastern Tennessee) were held in check by Confederacy declarations of martial law[http://www.aotc.net/Marxen.htm][http://web.utk.edu/~jharvey2/kville%20before%20siege.htm]. The surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by General Lee at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865 is generally taken as the end of the Confederate States. President Davis was captured at Irwinville, Georgia on May 10 and the remaining Confederate armies surrendered by June 1865. The last Confederate flag was hauled down on CSS Shenandoah on November 6, 1865.

Government and politics

Constitution

1865 The Confederate States Constitution provides much insight into the motivations for secession from the Union. Based to a certain extent on both the Articles of Confederation and on the United States Constitution, it reflected a stronger philosophy of states' rights, curtailing the power of the central authority, and also contained explicit protection of the institution of slavery, though international slave trading was prohibited. It differed from the US Constitution chiefly by addressing the grievances of the secessionist states against the federal government of the United States. For example, the Confederate government was prohibited from instituting protective tariffs, making southern ports more attractive to international traders. Prior to the declarations of secession, most southerners regarded protective tariffs as a measure that enriched the northern states at the expense of the south. The Confederate government was also prohibited from using revenues collected in one state for funding internal improvements in another state. At the same time, however, much of the Confederate constitution was a word-for-word duplicate of the US one. At the drafting of the Constitution of the Confederacy, a few radical proposals such as allowing only slave states to join and the reinstatement of the Atlantic slave trade were turned down. The Constitution specifically did not include a provision allowing states to secede, since the southerners considered this to be a right intrinsic to a sovereign state which the United States Constitution had not required them to renounce, and thus including it as such would have weakened their original argument for secession. The President of the Confederacy was to be elected to a six-year term and could not be reelected. The only president was Jefferson Davis; the Confederacy was defeated by the federal government before he completed his term. One unique power granted to the Confederate president was the ability to subject a bill to a line item veto, a power held by some state governors. The Confederate Congress could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two thirds majorities that are required in the US Congress. Printed currency in the forms of bills and stamps was authorized and put into circulation, although by the individual states in the Confederacy's name. The government considered issuing Confederate coinage. Plans, dies and 4 "proofs" were created, but a lack of bullion prevented any public coinage. Although the preamble refers to "each State acting in its sovereign and independent character", it also refers to the formation of a "permanent federal government". Also, although slavery was protected in the constitution, it also prohibited the importation of new slaves from outside the Confederacy (except from slaveholding states or territories of the United States).

Capital

US Congress The capital of the Confederacy was Montgomery, Alabama, from February 4, 1861, until May 29, 1861, when it was moved to Richmond, Virginia (named the new capital on May 6, 1861). Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond with plans to relocate further south to Atlanta, Georgia, or to Columbia, South Carolina, but little came of this before Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House and Danville, Virginia, served from April 3 to April 10, 1865, as the last capital of the Confederacy.

International diplomacy and legal status

The legal status of the Confederate Government was a subject of extensive debate throughout its existence and for many years after the war. During its existence, the Confederate government conducted negotiations with several European powers (including France and the United Kingdom). The Confederacy received formal diplomatic recognition only from Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, the ruler of a minor German principality. The UK came close to recognizing the Confederacy during the Trent Affair and began preparations to offer mediation along with France (due to Emperor Napoleon III's project, the Mexican Empire), but both nations backed away after the Battle of Antietam and Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation. Throughout the war most European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. In its place, they applied international law principles that recognized the Northern and Southern sides of the war as belligerents. Canada allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders and some state governments in northern Mexico negotiated regional agreements to cover trade on the Texas border. For the four years of its existence, the Confederacy asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. The Northern government, by contrast, asserted that the southern states were provinces in rebellion and refused any formal recognition of their status. Telling of this dispute, the Confederate Government responded to the hostilities by formally declaring war on the United States while the Union Government conducted its war efforts under a proclamation of blockade and rebellion by President Lincoln. Mid-war negotiations between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the laws of war governed military relationships. Four years after the war the United States Supreme Court ruled in Texas v. White that secession was unconstitutional and legally null. The court's opinion was rendered by Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase, the former Treasury Secretary under Lincoln. Chase's opinion was immediately attacked and remains controversial to this day. Critics such as Jefferson Davis and Alexander Stephens penned subsequent legal arguments in favor of secession's legality, most notably Davis' Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government.

Confederate flags

Image:Starsnbars.png|1st National
"Stars and Bars" Image:Stainlessbanner.png|2nd National
"Stainless Banner" Image:navaljack.png|Naval Jack Image:battleflag.png|Battle Flag
"Southern Cross"
The official flag of the Confederacy, and the one actually called the "Stars and Bars", has seven stars, for the seven states that initially formed the Confederacy. This flag was sometimes hard to distinguish from the Union flag under battle conditions, so the Confederate battle flag, the "Southern Cross", became the one more commonly used in military operations. The Southern Cross has 13 stars, adding the four states that joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter, and the two states of Kentucky and Missouri (See Missouri Secession) with competing unionist and secessionist governments that were admitted to the Confederacy. As a result of its depiction in 20th century popular media, the "Southern Cross" is a flag commonly associated with the Confederacy today. The actual "Southern Cross" is a square-shaped flag, but the more commonly seen rectangular flag is actually the flag of the First Tennessee Army, also known as the Naval Jack because it was first used by the Confederate Navy.

Political leaders of the Confederacy

Executive


Legislative


- Confederate Congress
  - Provisional Confederate Congress
  - First Confederate Congress
  - Second Confederate Congress

Judicial

A judicial branch of the government was outlined in the C.S. Constitution but the would-be Supreme Court of the Confederate States was never created or seated because of the ongoing war.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223] Some lower district courts were, however, established within some of the individual states of the Confederacy; namely, AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, TN, TX & VA (and possibly others). At the end of the war, U.S. district courts resumed jurisdiction.[http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/021.html] The state and local courts generally continued to operate as they had been, simply recognizing the CSA rather than the USA as the national government.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223]

Geography

Supreme Court of the Confederate States The Confederate States had a total of 2,919 miles (4,698 kilometers) of coastline. A large portion of its territory lay on the sea coast, and with level and sandy ground. The interior portions were hilly and mountainous and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the Mississippi River bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the Trans-Mississippi. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was Guadalupe Peak in Texas at 8,750 feet (2,667 meters). Most of the area of the Confederate States had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate varied to semiarid steppe and arid desert west of longitude 96 degrees west. The Confederate States was less urbanized than the northern states, with only New Orleans showing up in the list of top 10 U.S. cities in the 1860 census. Only 15 cities (excluding those in Kentucky and Missouri) ranked among the top 100 US cities in 1860. The population of Richmond swelled after it became the national capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864.

Economy

The Confederate States had an agrarian-based economy that relied heavily on slavery plantations. The main products of the CSA were cotton, rice, tobacco and sugar cane, with some cattle and much grain. The states that formed the CSA (excluding Missouri and Kentucky) produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860; their main products were flour and meal, lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and turpentine. The CSA adopted a free trade policy, but this was undermined by the Union blockade. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which in turn led to high inflation.

Armed Forces

The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised the following three branches:
- Confederate States Army
- Confederate States Navy
- Confederate States Marine Corps The Confederate military leadership was almost entirely composed of veterans from the United States Army and U.S. Navy who had resigned their federal commissions and had been appointed to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces. The Confederate officer corps was composed mostly of southern gentry, and the Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the south (such as the Virginia Military Institute) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a breeding ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established in 1863 onboard CSS Patrick Henry in the James River, but no midshipmen had graduated by the time the Confederacy collapsed. The rank and file of the Confederate armed forces consisted of white males with an average age between 16 and 28. Towards the end of the Civil War, boys as young as 12 were fighting in combat roles and the Confederate Armed Forces had even sponsored an all-black regiment with measures underway to offer freedom to slaves who voluntarily served in the Confederate military.

Military leaders of the Confederacy

James River
- Robert E. Lee (Virginia) - General and Military Commander-in-Chief
- Albert Sidney Johnston (Kentucky) - General
- Joseph E. Johnston (Virginia) - General
- Braxton Bragg (North Carolina) - General
- P.G.T. Beauregard (Louisiana) - General
- Samuel Cooper (New Jersey) - General (Adjutant General and highest ranking general in the Army)
- James Longstreet (South Carolina) - Lt. General
- Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson (Virginia) - Lt. General
- A.P. Hill (Virginia) - Lt. General
- John Bell Hood (Texas) - Lt. General
- Wade Hampton (South Carolina) Lt. General
- Nathan Bedford Forrest (Tennessee) - Lt. General
- J.E.B. Stuart (Virginia) - Maj. General
- Edward Porter Alexander (Georgia) - Brig. General
- Franklin Buchanan (Maryland) - Admiral
- Raphael Semmes (Maryland) - Rear Admiral
- French Forrest (Maryland) - Acting Assistant Secretary of the Confederate Navy
- Josiah Tattnall (Georgia) - Commodore
- Stand Watie (Indian Territory, now Oklahoma) - Brigadier General (last to surrender)
- Leonidas Polk (Tennessee & Louisiana) - Bishop & General
- Jubal Anderson Early (Virginia)- Lt. General

Significant dates

NOTE: According to the New York Public Library Desk Reference, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina and South Carolina were all readmitted June 25, 1868, and Georgia was readmitted a second time on July 15, 1870.

See also


- Nullification Crisis of 1832
- Flags of the Confederate States of America
- Seal of the Confederate States of America
- Military history of the Confederate States
- Stamps and postal history of the Confederate States
- Origins of the American Civil War
- Border states
- Robert E. Lee
- Federalism

Further reading


-

External links


- Civil War Research & Discussion Group - [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FieldsOfConflict/ Fields Of Conflict] - Containing 1000+ Links And 350+ Articles.
- [http://www.americascaesar.com/ America's Caesar: The Decline and Fall of Republican Government in the United States of America], 2005, an online book detailing the events which led up to and followed the War Between the States
- [http://www.confederatereprint.com/ The Confederate Reprint Company], offers the largest internet selection of paperback reprints of rare and out-of-print Confederate literature
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK9708x1864/ An Act to Prohibit the Importation of Luxuries, or of Articles not Necessary or of Common Use], 1864, a Confederate Congress document
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/canu/ Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms], 1861
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/AP2xC84/ The Countryman, 1862-1866], published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ccsus/ The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared]
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/F206xS727xv9/ The Making of the Confederate Constitution], by A. L. Hull, 1905.
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK4725x1861xA25/ Official Journal of the House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana], November, 1861
- [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/E468x7xM647/ Photographic History of the Civil War, 10 vols., 1912.]
- [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cw/17609.htm Preventing Diplomatic Recognition of the Confederacy]
- [http://docsouth.unc.edu/index.html DocSouth: Documenting the American South] - numerous online text, image, and audio collections.
- [http://www.archontology.org/nations/csa/ Confederate States of America: Heads of State: 1861-1865]
- [http://www.dixienet.org/ The League of the South] Category:American Civil War ja:アメリカ連合国

American Civil War

The American Civil War (1861–1865) was fought in North America within the United States of America, between twenty-four mostly northern states of the Union and the Confederate States of America, a coalition of eleven southern states that declared their independence and claimed the right of secession from the Union in 1860–1861. The war produced over 970,000 casualties (3.09% of population), including approximately 560,300 deaths (1.78%), a loss of more American lives than any other conflict in history. The causes of the war, and even the name of the war itself, are still debated (see the article Naming the American Civil War).

The division of the country

Naming the American Civil War

The Deep South

Seven states seceded shortly after the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 – even before he was inaugurated:
- South Carolina (December 21, 1860),
- Mississippi (January 9, 1861),
- Florida (January 10, 1861),
- Alabama (January 11, 1861),
- Georgia (January 19, 1861),
- Louisiana (January 26, 1861), and
- Texas (February 1, 1861). These States of the Deep South, where slavery and cotton plantation agriculture were most dominant, formed the Confederate States of America (February 4, 1861), with Jefferson Davis as President, and a governmental structure closely modeled on the U.S. Constitution (see also: Confederate States Constitution). After the Battle of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, Lincoln called for troops from all remaining states to recover the forts, resulting in the secession of four more states: Virginia (April 17, 1861), Arkansas (May 6, 1861), North Carolina (May 20, 1861), and Tennessee (June 8, 1861).

Border States

Main article: Border states (Civil War) Along with the northwestern counties of Virginia (whose residents did not wish to secede and eventually entered the Union in 1863 as West Virginia), four of the five northernmost "slave states," (Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky) did not secede, and became known as the Border States. Delaware, which in the 1860 election had voted for Southern Democrat John C. Breckinridge, had few slaves and never considered secession. Maryland also voted for Breckinridge, and after rioting in Baltimore and other events had prompted a Federal declaration of martial law, its legislature rejected secession (April 27, 1861). Both Missouri and Kentucky remained in the Union, but factions within each state organized "secessions" that were recognized by the CSA. In Missouri, the State government under Governor Claiborne F. Jackson, a southern sympathizer, evacuated the state capital of Jefferson City and met in-exile at the town of Neosho, Missouri, adopting a secession ordinance that was recognized by the Confederacy on October 30, 1861, while the Union organized a competing State government by calling a constitutional convention that had originally been convened to vote on secession. (See also: Missouri secession). Missouri secession Although Kentucky did not secede, for a time it declared itself neutral. During a brief occupation by the Confederate Army, Southern sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a Confederate Governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. Residents of the northwestern counties of Virginia organized a secession from Virginia, with a plan for gradual emancipation, and entered the Union in 1863 as West Virginia. Similar secessions were supported in some other areas of the Confederacy (such as eastern Tennessee), but were suppressed by declarations of martial law by the Confederacy. Conversely, the southern half of the Federal Territory of New Mexico voted to secede, and was accepted into the Confederacy as the Territory of Arizona (see map below), with its capital in Mesilla (now part of New Mexico). Although the northern half of New Mexico never voted to secede, the Confederacy did lay claim to this territory and briefly occupied the territorial capital of Santa Fe between March 13 and April 8, 1862, but never organized a territorial government.

Origins of the conflict

:Main articles: Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events Timeline of events. In their agitation against the South, abolitionists cited the slave codes as an example of the barbarism of Southern society. Above, a woodcut from the abolitionist Anti-Slavery Almanac (1839) depicts the capture of a fugitive slave by a slave patrol.]] There had been a continuing contest between the states and the national government over the power of the latter, and over the loyalty of the citizenry, almost since the founding of the republic. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798, for example, had defied the Alien and Sedition Acts, and at the Hartford Convention, New England voiced its opposition to President Madison and the War of 1812. In 1828 and 1832 the Congress passed protective tariffs to benefit trade in the northern states. It was deemed a "Tariff of Abominations" and its provisions would have imposed a significant economic penalty on South Carolina and other southern states if left in force. South Carolina dealt with the tariffs by adopting the Ordinance of Nullification, which declared both the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void within state borders. The legislature also passed laws to enforce the ordinance, including authorization for raising a military force and appropriations for arms. In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "Force Bill" and President Andrew Jackson sent seven small naval vessels and a man-