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John Cabot

John Cabot

Giovanni Caboto (c. 1450 – 1499), known as John Cabot in English, was an Italian navigator and explorer who is popularly credited as the modern discoverer of Canada, or at least the region that would become that nation. He was born Giovanni Caboto, but later made the Kingdom of England his base of operations and is best known as John Cabot for his explorations made under the English flag. Most notably, in 1497, he set sail from Bristol on his ship the Matthew looking for a sea route to Asia. He ended up in the North American mainland, he and his men being the first Europeans since the Vikings verifiably known to have done so. Cabot's birthplace is uncertain; some references give Genoa, others Gaeta. The date was around 1451, but he moved to Venice in his youth, and later became a Venetian citizen. Venice It was probably on hearing of Columbus's discovery of 'the Indies' that he decided to find a route to the west for himself. He went with his plans to England, because he incorrectly thought spices were coming from northern Asia; and a degree of longitude is shorter the further one is from the equator, so the voyage from western Europe to eastern Asia would be shorter at higher latitudes. King Henry VII of England gave him a grant to go on "full and free authoritie, leave, and power, to sayle to all partes, countreys, and seas, of the East, of the West, and of the North, under our banners and ensignes, with five ships ... and as many mariners or men as they will have in saide ships, upon their own proper costes and charges, to seeke out, discover, and finde, whatsoever iles, countreyes, regions or provinces of the heathen and infidelles, whatsoever they bee, and in what part of the world soever they be, whiche before this time have beene unknowen to all Christians." Henry VII of England Cabot went to Bristol to make the preparations for his voyage. Bristol by then was the second-largest seaport in England, and during the years from 1480 onwards several expeditions had been sent out to look for Hy-Brazil, an island that would lie somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean according to Celtic legends. Some people think Newfoundland may have been found on (one of) these voyages. Newfoundland 2004]] Cabot left with only one vessel, the Matthew, a small ship (50 tons), but fast and able. The crew consisted of only 18 people. He departed on either May 2 or May 20, 1497 (he had also made a voyage in 1496, but got no further than Iceland). He sailed to Dursey Head, Ireland, from where he sailed due west to Asia - or so he thought. He landed on the coast of Newfoundland on June 24, 1497. His precise landing-place is a matter of much controversy, either Bonavista or St. John's. He went ashore to take possession of the land, and explored the coast for some time, probably departing on July 20. On the homeward voyage his sailors thought they were going too far north, so Cabot sailed a more southerly course, reaching Brittany instead of England. On August 6 he arrived back in Bristol. The exact location of Cabot's first landfall is still unknown, because of lack of evidence. Many experts think it was on Cape Bonavista, Newfoundland, but others look for it in Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Labrador or Maine. We might never know the truth. His men may have been the first Europeans on either American continent since the Vikings: Christopher Columbus did not find the mainland until his third voyage, in 1498, and letters referring to a voyage by Amerigo Vespucci in 1497 are generally believed to have been forgeries or fabrications. 1497 Back in England, Cabot was rewarded with £10, and a patent was written for a new voyage. Later, a pension of £20 a year was granted him. The next year, 1498, he departed again, with 5 ships this time. The expedition made for an Irish port, because of distress. Except for one ship, John Cabot and his expedition were never heard from again. John's son Sebastian Cabot later made a voyage to North America, looking for the Northwest Passage (1508), and one to repeat Magellan's voyage around the world, which ended up looking for silver along the River Plate (1525-8). River Plate In 1498-1500 a few Portuguese travelers, Miguel and Gaspar Corte-Real being the most famous participants, visited Greenland, Labrador and Newfoundland. In 1501-1505 an English syndicate, consisting of 3 Azoreans and 2 English traders, made voyages to Newfoundland. From 1504, if not before, Breton, Basque, Portuguese and English fishermen crossed the ocean to catch fish on the Newfoundland banks. Cabot is remembered in Bristol by the Cabot Tower, a 30m tall red sandstone tower of 1897 (the 400th anniversary of the landing) on Brandon Hill near the city centre, by a replica of the Matthew built in the city and by a statue of the explorer on the harbourside.

Gallery

Image:cabot.tower.bristol.1.arp.jpg|Cabot Tower, distant view Image:cabot.tower.bristol.3.arp.jpg|Cabot Tower, close up Image:cabot.tower.bristol.4.arp.jpg|Cabot Tower, extreme close up. Notice the CCCC on the turret (meaning 400) Image:Cabot Tower plaque.jpg|Plaque inside Cabot Tower, Newfoundland Image:Cabot tower stamp.jpg|Cabot Tower postage stamp

External links and references


- [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34223 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online]
- This article incorporates material from http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/cabot.html . Copied with permission.
- Gibbons, Henry K. 1997. The Myth and Mystery of John Cabot: The Discoverer of North America. Marten Cat Publishers, Port Aux Basques, Newfoundland.
- Derek Croxton, [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/journals/EH/EH33/croxto33.html The Cabot Dilemma: John Cabot's 1497 Voyage & the Limits of Historiography], 1990-1991
- [http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/johnday.html The John Day Letter] 1497-1498
- [http://www.matthew.co.uk/home/home.html Home page of the Matthew replica] with information about Cabot and the voyage.

Further reading


- Gibbons, Henry K. 1997. The Myth and Mystery of John Cabot: The Discoverer of North America. Marten Cat Publishers, Port Aux Basques, Newfoundland. Cabot, John Cabot, John Cabot, John Cabot, John Cabot, John Category:Age of Discovery

1499

Events


- January 8 - Louis XII of France marries Anne of Brittany due to law set by his predecessor, Louis VIII
- July 22 - Battle of Dornach - The Swiss decisively defeat the Imperial army of Emperor Maximilian I.
- July 28 - First Battle of Lepanto - The Turkish navy wins a decisive victory over the Venetians.
- September 22 - Treaty of Basel. Maximilian is forced to grant the Swiss de facto independence.
- November 23 - Pretender to the throne Perkin Warbeck is hanged for reportedly attempting to escape from the Tower of London. In 1497 he invaded England claiming to be the lost son of King Edward IV of England.
- November 28 - Edward, Earl of Warwick is executed for reportedly attempting to escape from the Tower of London. He was the last male member of the House of York.
- The French under Louis XII seize Milan, driving out Duke Ludovico Sforza.

Births


- February 10 - Thomas Platter, Swiss humanist (died 1582)
- March 31 - Pope Pius IV (died 1565)
- September 3 - Diane de Poitiers, mistress of Henry II of France (died 1566)
- October 14 - Claude of France, queen of Louis XII of France (died 1524)
- Hans Asper, Swiss painter (died 1571)
- Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, Portuguese explorer (died 1543)
- Michael Coxcie, Flemish painter (died 1592)
- Cesare Hercolani, Italian military leader (died 1534)
- Jan Laski, Polish protestant reformer (died 1560)
- Laurentius Petri, Archbishop of Uppsala (died 1573)
- Giulio Romano, Italian painter (died 1546)
- Bernardino de Sahagún, Franciscan missionary (died 1590)
- Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia, Italian mathematician (died 1557)

Deaths


- October 1 - Marsilio Ficino, Italian philosopher (born 1433)
- November 23 - Perkin Warbeck, Flemish imposter
- November 28 - Edward, Earl of Warwick, last male member of the English House of York (born 1475)
- Alessio Baldovinetti, Florentine painter (born 1427)
- John Cabot, Italian explorer (born c. 1450)
- Johann Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (born 1455)
- Rennyo, leader of the Ikko sect of Buddhism (born 1415) Category:1499 als:1499 ko:1499년 simple:1499



Navigator

A navigator is the person onboard a ship responsible for the navigation of the vessel. On aircraft, the position may also be referred to as a flight officer. The navigator's responsibilities include planning the journey, advising the captain (or pilot) while en route, and ensuring that hazards or obstacles are avoided. In the United States Air Force, the Navigator Badge is earned by officers so qualified. Depending on the aircraft and job responsibilities, navigators in the Air Force may also be referred to as Weapon System Officers (WSO) or Electronic Warfare Officers (EWO). In the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, the equivalent position is known as a Naval Flight Officer (NFO). Shipborne Navigators in the U.S. Navy must be Surface Warfare qualified. In the Royal Air Force, the term navigator is always used for the holder of this position in aircraft, including the backseat crew member in two-seater aircraft. Like pilots, navigators are always commissioned officers. They wear the single-wing aircrew brevet, with a capital 'N' in the centre.

See also


- For navigator in the sense of a laborer on canals, railways or other public works, see Navvy.
- For the web browser of the same name, see Netscape Navigator.
- For Ford's SUV of the same name, see Lincoln Navigator.
- For mobile phone or cell phone based GPS navigation application of the same name see Gizmogrid. Category:Navigation

Exploration

Exploration is the act of searching or traveling for the purpose of discovery, e.g. of unknown regions, including space (space exploration), or oil, gas, coal, ores, water (also known as prospecting), or information. Exploration has existed as long as human beings, but its peak is seen as being during the Age of Exploration when European navigators travelled around the world. In scientific research, exploration is one of three purposes of research (the other two being description and explanation). Exploration is the attempt to develop an initial, rough understanding of some phenomenon.

Main Explorers Since 1 AD

Erik the Red (950 - 1003) - Viking explorer. After being cast out from Greenland, he sailed to Newfoundland and settled. Marco Polo (1254 - 1324) - Italian explorer. John Cabot (c. 1450 - 1499) - Italian explorer. Discovered Newfoundland and claimed it for the Kingdom of England. Christopher Columbus (1451 - 1506) - Italian explorer. Sailed in 1492 and discovered the "New World" of the Americas. Juan Ponce de León (c. 1460 - 1521) - Spanish explorer. He explored Florida while vainly trying to find the Fountain of Youth. Vasco da Gama (c. 1469 - 1524) - Portuguese explorer. He sailed from Portugal to India to rounding the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco Núñez de Balboa (c. 1475 - 1519) - European Explorer. The first European to cross the Isthmus of Panama view the ocean from American shores. Francisco Pizarro (c. 1475 - 1541) - Spanish explorer. Conquered the Inca Empire. Ferdinand_Magellan (1480 - 1521) - Portuguese explorer. Sailed around Cape Horn and named Pacific Ocean. He died in the Philippines which he claimed for Spain but his ship made it back. Giovanni da Verrazano (c. 1485 - 1528) - Italian explorer. Explored the northeast coast, from Newfoundland to about present day South Carolina. Hernán Cortés (1485 - 1545) - Spanish explorer. Conquered the Aztec Empire for Spain. Hernando de Soto (c. 1496 - 1542) - Spanish explorer. Explored Florida, mainly northwest Florida, and discovered the Mississippi River. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado (c. 1510 - 1554) - Spanish explorer. Searched for the Seven Cities of Gold and discovered the Grand Canyon in the process. Sir Francis Drake (c. 1540 - 1596) - English explorer. The first Englishman to sail around the world and survive. Vitus Bering (1681 - 1741) - Danish explorer. Explored the Siberian Far West and Alaska and claimed it for Russia. James Cook (1728 - 1779) - English naval captain. Explored much of the Pacific including New Zealand, Australia and Hawaii. Robert Bartlett (1875 - 1946) - Newfoundland captain. Led over 40 expeditions to the Arctic, more than anyone before or since. Was the first to sail north of 88° N lattitude. Samuel_de_Champlain

Exploration by area


- Asian exploration
- Exploration of Asia
- Exploration of the Pacific
- African exploration
- Native American exploration
- American exploration
- Exploration of the Americas
- European exploration of Asia
- European exploration of Africa
- European exploration of Australia
- European exploration of North America
- Exploration of the High Alps
- Exploration of the moon
- Exploration of Mars

See also


- List of explorers
- Desert exploration
- Space exploration
- Urban exploration
- Ocean exploration
- Cave exploration
- ja:探検

Kingdom of England

:This article is about the historical state called the Kingdom of England (927-1707). For the main article about the modern country, see England. The Kingdom of England was a state located in western Europe, in the southern part of the island of Great Britain. The capital of the Kingdom was Winchester, in Hampshire, until the Norman Conquest of 1066. William I of England (1066–1087) selected London as his capital. London served as the capital of the Kingdom until its end in 1707 (see Acts of Union 1707) and continues to remain the de facto capital of England. The city has also served as the capital of both the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801) and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (1801–1922). Today it remains the capital of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (the "United Kingdom"). The present monarch of the United Kingdom, Queen Elizabeth II, is the modern successor to the Kings and Queens of England. The title of Queen (and King) of England has however been out of use since 1707 and is incorrect when it applies to her in popular use. Elizabeth can trace her descent to the Kings of Wessex from the 1st millennium.

History

:Main article: History of England The Kingdom of England has no specific founding date. The Kingdom can trace its origins to the Heptarchy, the rule of what would later become England by seven minor Kingdoms: East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, Sussex, and Wessex. The Kings of Wessex became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during the 8th century, a process that would continue during the 9th century. Alfred the Great (reigned 871–899) was the first King of Wessex to style himself "King of England". His son Edward the Elder (reigned 899–924) exceeded the military achievements of his father by establishing his rule over the Danelaw. The death of his sister Ethelfleda in 918, resulted in him usurping the rule of Mercia from his niece Aelfwynn in 919. In 927 the last kingdom of early mediaeval England, Northumbria, fell to the King of Wessex Athelstan, a son of Edward the Elder. Athelstan was the first to reign over a united England. He was not the first de jure King of England, but certainly the first de facto one. England has remained in political unity ever since. However the Kingdom was subject to invasions by the Vikings of Denmark during the late 10th century. In response Ethelred II of England ordered the slaughter of all Danish people present in England during 1002. This only managed to attract the attention and hostility of Sweyn I of Denmark and Norway. Sweyn staged four full scale invasions of England for the remainder of his life. Sweyn was proclaimed King of England in opposition to Ethelred II in 1013. He died on February 2, 1014. His son Canute the Great continued the war. Ethelred II died on April 23, 1016. His son Edmund II of England was soon defeated by Canute. Canute agreed to co-rule with Edmund II but the latter died on November 30 1016, leaving England united under Danish rule. Danish rule continued until the death of Harthacanute on June 8, 1042. He was a son of Canute and Emma of Normandy, widow of Ethelred II. Harthacanute had no heirs of his own and was succeeded by his half-brother Edward the Confessor. The Kingdom of England was independent again. Edward the Confessor of England.]] Peace only lasted until the death of childless Edward on January 4/January 5, 1066 . His brother-in-law was crowned Harold II of England. His cousin William the Bastard , Duke of Normandy immediately claimed the throne for himself. William launched an invasion of England and landed in Sussex on September 28, 1066. Harold II and his army were in York following their victory in the Battle of Stamford Bridge (September 25, 1066). They had to march across England to reach their new opponents. The armies of Harold II and William finally faced each other in the Battle of Hastings (October 14, 1066). Harold fell and William remained the victor. William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition. He was not however planning to absorb the Kingdom to the Duchy of Normandy. As a Duke, William still owed allegiance to Philip I of France. The independent Kingdom of England would allow him to rule without interference. He was crowned King of England on December 25, 1066. The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy would remain in personal union until 1204. King John of England, a fourth-generation descendant of William I, lost the continental area of the Duchy to Philip II of France during that year. The remnants of the Duchy remained in the rule of John and his descendants. They are known as the Channel Islands. John still held both the titles and land of the Duke of Aquitaine. His grandson Edward I of England defeated Llywelyn the Last and effectively conquered Wales in 1282. He created the title Prince of Wales for his eldest son Edward II in 1301. Edward II was father to Edward III of England, whose claim to the throne of France resulted in the Hundred Years' War (1337–1453). The end of the war found England defeated and retaining only a single city of France: Calais. The Kingdom had little time to recover before entering the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487). The "Wars" was actually a civil war over possession of the throne between the House of Lancaster and the House of York. They were actually descendants of Edward III and closely related. The end of the wars found the throne held by a female line descendant of the House of Lancaster married to the eldest daughter of the House of York. Henry VII of England and his Queen consort Elizabeth of York were the founders of the Tudor dynasty which ruled the Kingdom from 1485 to 1603. 1603.]] Meanwhile, Wales retained the distinct legal and administrative system that had been established by Edward I in the late 13th century. The second Tudor monarch, Henry VIII of England, merged Wales into England under what later became known as the Acts of Union of 1536 and 1543. Wales ceased to be a personal fiefdom of the king of England but was annexed to England and was representated in the English Parliament. During the reign of Mary I of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII, Calais was captured by Francis, Duke of Guise on January 7, 1558. The House of Tudor ended with the death of its last monarch, Elizabeth I of England, on March 24, 1603. Her heir was James VI of Scotland who ascended the throne of England as James I. The two British Kingdoms remained independent states under a personal union until 1707. In 1707, the Act of Union merged both Kingdoms and created the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707–1801). Queen Anne was the last Queen of England, and the first monarch of the new kingdom. Both the English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the Parliament of Great Britain located in Westminster, London. At this point, England ceased to exist as a separate political entity and has since had no national government. Legally, however, the jurisdiction continued to operate as England and Wales (just as Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts) and this continued also after the Act of Union of 1800 which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

Commonwealth and Protectorate

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland England was a monarchy for the entirety of its political existence since its creation about 927 up to the 1707 Act of Union, except for the eleven years of English Interregnum (1649 to 1660) that followed the English Civil War. The rule of executed King Charles I of England was replaced by that of a republic known as Commonwealth of England (1649–1653). The most prominent general of the republic, Oliver Cromwell, managed to extend its rule to Ireland and Scotland. The victorious general eventually turned against the republic, and established a new form of government known as The Protectorate, with himself as Lord Protector until his death on September 3, 1659. He was succeeded by his son Richard Cromwell. However, anarchy eventually developed, as Richard proved unable to maintain his rule. He resigned his title and retired into obscurity. The Commonwealth was re-established but proved unstable. The exiled claimant Charles II of England was recalled to the throne in 1660 in the English Restoration.

See also


- List of monarchs of England
- History of England
- Royal English Navy
- Crown Jewels of England
- England and Wales
- Anglo-Norman language
Category:History of England England, Kingdom of England, Kingdom of

1497

Events


- 7 February - followers of Girolamo Savonarola burn thousands of "immoral" objects at the Bonfire of the Vanities in Florence on Shrove Tuesday.
- May 10 - Amerigo Vespucci allegedly leaves Cádiz for his first voyage to the New World.
- May 13 - Pope Alexander VI excommunicates Girolamo Savonarola.
- May 20 - John Cabot sets sail from Bristol on his ship the Mathew looking for a route to the west (other documents give a May 2 date).
- June 17 - Battle of Deptford Bridge - Forces under King Henry VII soundly defeat troops led by Michael An Gof.
- June 24 - John Cabot lands in North America, either an island or the mainland.
- July 8 - Vasco da Gama begins his expedition to India.
- December 5 - King Manuel I of Portugal proclaims an edict in which he demands that Jews convert to Christianity or leave the country
- Ivan the Great issues his law code, the Sudebnik

Births


- January 26 - Emperor Go-Nara of Japan (died 1557)
- February 16 - Philipp Melanchthon, German humanist and reformer (died 1560)
- Francesco Berni, Italian poet (died 1536)
- Jean Fernel, French physician (died 1558)
- John Heywood, English playwright (died 1580)
- Francesco da Milano, Italian composer (died 1543)
- Mori Motonari, Japanese daimyo (died 1571)
- Anne Stanhope, English noblewoman (died 1587)

Deaths


- February 6 - Johannes Ockeghem, Flemish composer
- June 14 - Giovanni Borgia, Duke of Borgia (assassinated)
- Albert Brudzewski, Polish astronomer (born 1445)
- Elijah Delmedigo, Italian philosopher (born 1460)
- Philip II, Duke of Savoy (born 1443) Category:1497 ko:1497년 simple:1497

Bristol

:This article is about the English city of Bristol. For other uses please see Bristol (disambiguation). Bristol is a unitary authority with city and ceremonial county status in South West England. Bristol is England's eighth, and the United Kingdom's eleventh, most populous city. As such, it is one of England's core cities. For half a millennium Bristol was the second largest English city after London, until the rapid rise of Liverpool, Manchester and Birmingham, in the 1780s. From its earliest days, its prosperity has been linked to that of the Port of Bristol, the commercial port, which was in the city centre but has now moved to the Bristol Channel coast at Avonmouth and Portbury.

Local Government

The Avon traditionally marks the border between Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373 Edward III of England proclaimed "that the said town of Bristol withall be a County by itself and called the county of Bristol for ever", but maps usually show it as part of Gloucestershire, and as the city spilled south of the river, it took the county with it. In 1974 Bristol became a non-metropolitan district of the newly formed non-metropolitan county of Avon. When that county was abolished on the 1st April 1996, Bristol returned to its former status of a city and county in itself. The city borders on the unitary districts of Bath and North East Somerset, North Somerset and South Gloucestershire.

History

:Main article: History of Bristol. The town of Brycgstow (Old English, "the place at the bridge") was in existence by the beginning of the 11th century, and under Norman rule acquired one of the strongest castles in southern England. The River Avon in the city centre has slowly evolved into Bristol Harbour, and since the 12th century the harbour has been an important port, handling much of England's trade with Ireland. In 1247 a new bridge was built and the town was extended to incorporate neighbouring suburbs, becoming in 1373 a county in its own right. During this period Bristol also became a centre of shipbuilding and manufacturing. By the 14th century Bristol was England's third-largest town (after London and York), with perhaps 15-20,000 inhabitants on the eve of the Black Death of 1348-49. The plague inflicted a prolonged pause in the population growth of Bristol, with numbers remaining at 10-12,000 through most of the 15th and 16th centuries. Bristol was made a city in 1542, with the former Abbey of St Augustine becoming Bristol Cathedral. During the Civil War the city suffered (1643-45) through Royalist military occupation and plague. In 1497 Bristol was the starting point for John Cabot's voyage of exploration to North America. Renewed growth came with the 17th Century rise of England's American colonies and the rapid 18th Century expansion of England's part in the Atlantic trade in Africans taken for slavery in the Americas. Bristol, along with Liverpool, became a significant centre for the slave trade although few slaves were brought to Britain. During the height of the slave trade, from 1700 to 1807, more than 2000 slaving ships were fitted out at Bristol, carrying a (conservatively) estimated half a million people from Africa to the Americas and slavery. Competition from Liverpool from c.1760, the disruption of maritime commerce through war with France (1793) and the abolition of the slave trade (1807) contributed to the city's failure to keep pace with the newer manufacturing centres of the North and Midlands. The long passage up the heavily tidal Avon Gorge, which had made the port highly secure during the middle ages, had become a liability which the construction of a new "Floating Harbour" (designed by William Jessop) in 1804-9 failed to overcome. Nevertheless, Bristol's population (66,000 in 1801) quintupled during the 19th Century, supported by new industries and growing commerce. It was particularly associated with the Victorian engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who designed the Great Western Railway between Bristol and London, two pioneering Bristol-built steamships, and the Clifton Suspension Bridge. Bristol's city centre suffered severe damage from bombing during World War II. The original central area, near the bridge and castle, is now a park, featuring two bombed out churches and some tiny fragments of the castle. A third bombed church has a new lease of life as St Nicholas' Church Museum. Slightly to the north, the Broadmead shopping centre was built over bomb-damaged areas. The removal of the docks to Avonmouth, seven miles (11 km) downstream from the city centre, relieved congestion in the central zone and allowed substantial redevelopment of the old central dock area (the "Floating Harbour") in recent decades, although at one time the continued existence of the docks was in jeopardy as it was seen merely as derelict industry rather than a potential asset. On March 4, 2005, Bristol was granted Fairtrade City status.

Aeronautics

In the 20th century, Bristol's manufacturing activities expanded to include aircraft production at Filton, six miles (10 km) north of the city centre, by the Bristol Aeroplane Company, and aero-engine manufacture by Bristol Aero Engines (later Rolls-Royce) at Patchway. The aeroplane company became famous for the WWI Bristol Fighter, and Second World War Blenheim and Beaufighter aircraft. In the 1950s it became one of the country's major manufacturers of civil aircraft, with the Bristol Freighter and Britannia and the huge Brabazon airliner. In the 1960s Filton played a key role in the Anglo-French Concorde supersonic airliner project. Concorde components were manufactured in British and French factories and shipped to the two final assembly plants by road, sea and air. The French assembly lines were in Toulouse in southern France with the British lines in Filton. Luckily the very large three-bay hangar built for the Bristol Brabazon was available for Concorde production. Bristol Brabazon 2003. The aircraft is seen a few minutes before landing on the Filton runway from which she first flew in 1969]] The French manufactured the centre fuselage and centre wing and the British the nose, rear fuselage, fin and wingtips. The largest proportion of the British share of the work was the powerplant, the Rolls-Royce/Snecma 593. The engine's manufacture was split between British Aircraft Corporation, Rolls-Royce (Filton) and SNECMA at Villaroche near Paris. The British Concorde prototype G-BSST made its 22 minute maiden flight from Filton to RAF Fairford on 9 April 1969, the French prototype F-WTSS had flown from Toulouse five weeks earlier. Most of the employees of BAC and Rolls Royce, plus a huge crowd, watched from around the airfield. Fairford was chosen as the test airfield for Concorde because the runway at Filton was rejected for test flying, its length was inadequate and there were problems with the slope, and the first 1000 feet (300 m) of the runway at its eastern (A38) end could not be used. However, from the end of 1977, all test flying on the second production aircraft G-BBDG was done from Filton, following the closure of the BAC Fairford test base. In 2003 the two airlines using Concorde (British Airways and Air France) and the company supplying spares and support (Airbus) made the decision to cease flying the aircraft and to retire them to locations (mostly museums) around the world. For the location of all the aircraft see Concorde. On 26 November 2003, Concorde 216 (G-BOAF) made the final ever Concorde flight, returning to Filton airfield to be kept there permanently as the centrepiece of a projected air museum. This museum will include the existing Bristol Aero Collection which is currently kept in a hangar at Kemble Airfield, forty miles (60 km) from Filton. This collection includes a Bristol Britannia aircraft. The major aeronautical companies in Bristol now are BAE Systems, Airbus and Rolls-Royce, both based at Filton. Another important aeronautical company in the city is Cameron Balloons, the world's largest manufacturer of hot air balloons. Annually, in August, the city is host to the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta, one of Europe's largest hot air balloon events.

Bristol Cars

The Bristol Aeroplane Company diversified into car manufacturing in the 1940s, building luxury hand-built cars at their factory in Filton. The car manufacturer became independent from the Bristol Aeroplane Company in 1960.

Arts, leisure and media

The city has two significant football clubs: Bristol City F.C. who play in Football League One and Bristol Rovers F.C. who play in Football League Two. The city is also home to a Rugby Union club known as Bristol Rugby, who have won promotion to the Guinness Premiership, and a first-class cricket side, Gloucestershire C.C.C. Gloucestershire C.C.C. In summer the grounds of Ashton Court to the west of the city play host to the Bristol International Balloon Fiesta, a major event for hot-air ballooning in Britain. The Fiesta draws a substantial crowd even for the early morning lift that typically begins at about 6.30 am. Events and a fairground entertain the crowds during the day. A second mass ascent is then made in the early evening, again taking advantage of lower wind speeds. Ashton Court also plays host to the Ashton Court festival each summer, an outdoors music festival which used to be known as the Bristol Community Festival. Ashton Court festival The city's principal theatre company, the Bristol Old Vic, was founded in 1946 as an offshoot of the Old Vic company in London. Its premises on King Street consist of the 1766 Theatre Royal (400 seats), a modern studio theatre called the New Vic (150 seats), and foyer and bar areas in the adjacent Coopers' Hall (built 1743). The Theatre Royal is a grade I listed building and the oldest continuously-operating theatre in England. The Bristol Old Vic also runs a prominent Theatre School. The Bristol Hippodrome is a larger theatre (1981 seats) which hosts national touring productions, while the 2000-seat Colston Hall, named after Edward Colston, is the city's main concert venue. The music scene is thriving and significant. From the late 1970's onwards it was home to a crop of cultish bands combining punk, funk, dub and political consciousness, the most celebrated being The Pop Group. Ten years later, Bristol was the birthplace of a type of English hip-hop music called trip hop or the Bristol Sound, epitomised in the work of artists such as Tricky, Portishead, Smith & Mighty and Massive Attack. It is also a stronghold of drum n bass with notable bands like the Mercury Prize winning Roni Size/Reprazent and Kosheen as well as the pioneering DJ Krust and More Rockers. This music is part of the wider Bristol Urban Culture scene which received international media attention in the 1990s and still thrives today. Bristol's musical pioneering spirit continues as the home to one of the largest and most diverse DIY music communities in the UK. Artists such as Gravenhurst and Chikinki have revived popular interest over the past few years. Other highly influential cult acts include Wall Planner, Pricktaster, Snakes On A Plane and November's Ashes In The Rain. A dynamic community of bands, artists, promoters and music fans has developed around the [http://www.ttyc.co.uk/viewforum.php?f=1 Choke forum], named after a popular fanzine and club night which has championed underground music from Bristol and beyond since 2001. Bristol is home to many live music venues, of which The Old Duke is perhaps the best known. Internationally recognised jazz and blues musicians active in Bristol include Eddie Martin, Jim Blomfield and Andy Sheppard. The Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery houses a collection of natural history, archaeology, local glassware, Chinese ceramics and art. The Bristol Industrial Museum, on the dockside, shows local industrial heritage and operates a steam railway, boat trips, and working dockside cranes. The City Museum also runs three preserved historic houses: the Tudor Red Lodge, the Georgian House, and Blaise Castle House. The Watershed media centre and Arnolfini gallery, both in disused dockside warehouses, exhibit contemporary art, photography and cinema. Stop frame animation films and commercials painstakingly produced by Aardman Animations and high quality television series focusing on the natural world have also brought fame and artistic credit to the city. Bristol is where the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) has its regional headquarters, and Natural History Unit. Bristol is also the birthplace of the actor Cary Grant. Bristol is the home of a regional morning newspaper, the Western Daily Press, a local evening paper, the Evening Post and a weekly free newspaper, the Bristol Observer. A Bristol edition of Metro is distributed for free on buses in the area. The local listings magazine, Venue, is now published weekly after many years as a fortnightly publication and comprehensively covers the city's music, theatre and arts scenes. The Spark magazine (Since 1993) covers the surging interest in all things green, ethical and New Age. [http://www.bristol.indymedia.org Bristol indymedia] is a resource for Bristols anarchist and activist community and is the sixth largest website associated with the city.

Education

Bristol is home to two major institutions of higher education: the University of Bristol, a "redbrick" chartered in 1909, and the University of the West of England, formerly Bristol Polytechnic, which gained university status in 1992. The city also has two dedicated further education institutions, City of Bristol College and Filton College as well as a theological college, Trinity College, Bristol. The Create centre is home to many sustainable development projects and life long learning schemes. The city has 129 primary schools and three city learning centres. There are also many independent schools of a high quality in the city, including Queen Elizabeth's Hospital, an all boys school, the only of its kind in the area.

Transport

Queen Elizabeth's Hospital There are two principal railway stations in Bristol: Bristol Parkway and Bristol Temple Meads. Bristol was never well served by suburban railways, though the Severn Beach Line to Avonmouth and Severn Beach survived the Beeching Axe and is still in operation today. The Portishead Railway was closed in the Beeching Axe but was relaid between 2000-2002 as far as the Royal Portbury Dock with a Strategic Rail Authority rail-freight grant. Plans to relay a further three miles of track to Portishead, a largely dormitory town with only one connecting road, have been discussed but there is insufficient funding to rebuild stations [http://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=2005-01-24.134.0&m=841]. Long-standing plans for a light rail system in the Bristol area have not so far succeeded, and as a consequence public transport within the city is still largely bus based. The majority of the local bus service is operated by First Group. The central part of the city also has water-based routes, operated as the Bristol Ferry Boat, which provide both leisure and commuter services on the harbour. The city is connected by road on an east-west axis from London to Wales by the M4 motorway, and on a north-southwest axis from Birmingham to Exeter by the M5 motorway. The M32 motorway is a spur from the M4 to the city centre. The city is also served by its own airport (BRS), at Lulsgate, which has seen substantial improvements to its runway, terminal and other facilities. Despite being hilly, Bristol is one of the prominent cycling cities of England, and is home to the national cycle campaigning group Sustrans. It has a number of urban cycle routes, as well as links to National Cycle Network routes to Bath and London, to Gloucester and Wales, and to the south-western peninsula of England.

Dialect

Many Bristolians speak a distinctive dialect of English (known colloquially as Brizzle or Bristle). Uniquely for an urban area of Britain, this is a rhotic dialect, in which the r in words like car is pronounced. The most unusual feature of this dialect, unique to Bristol, is the Bristol L (or Terminal L), in which an L sound is appended to words that end in a letter a. Thus "area" becomes "areal", etc. This may lead to confusions between expressions like area engineer and aerial engineer which in "Bristle" sound identical. Other examples include 'Americal' and 'Canadal', and, when unsure, the answer 'I have no ideal'. In the same way, the Swedish Ikea is known by some as 'Ikeal'. Another Bristolian linguistic feature is the addition of a superfluous “to” in questions relating to direction or orientation. For example, “Where’s that?” would be phrased as “Where’s that to?” and “Where’s the park?” would become “Where’s the park to?” For a full listing of all of Bristol's colloquialisms vist: [http://www.thatbebristle.co.uk/dictionary/ That Be Bristol - Dictionary]

Areas and towns

The following areas and towns make up the city of Bristol and its outskirts. It includes some adjoining areas of South Gloucestershire, marked SG.

Places of interest

Famous People

Many notable people have been associated with Bristol, including musicians, engineers, scientists, sailors and explorers.
- Isambard Kingdom Brunel came to Bristol to build the Clifton Suspension Bridge, and went on to be the engineer of the Great Western Railway and the designer of the SS Great Western.
- Tony Benn, veteran socialist politician and former MP for the city (1960s). The first peer to renounce his hereditary title after campaigning for a change in the British Consitution that became the Peerage Act 1963.
- Edmund Burke was Member of Parliament for the city for six years from 1774. He famously insisted that he was a Member of Parliament first, rather than a representative of his constituents' interests.
- John Cabot set sail from Bristol in 1497 in search of exotic goods from the far east, but instead discovered North America. He first sighted Newfoundland, today a province of Canada.
- Sir Humphry Davy was a scientist who worked in Hotwells and discovered laughing gas.
- Paul Dirac was born in Bishopston, and made many crucial contributions to quantum mechanics and shared the 1933 Nobel Prize for Physics 'for the discovery of new and productive forms of atomic theory'
- Francis Greenway was an architect and convict who was transported to Australia in 1814 and subsequently built many of the early iconic buildings of the city of Sydney.
- John Harvey founded the Bristol wine merchants John Harvey & Sons, and their sherry brand Harvey's Bristol Cream has taken the name of Bristol all over the world.
- Famous musicians native to Bristol include Roni Size, Tricky and Massive Attack. The group Portishead is based in the city, and the band's name and roots come from the neighbouring town.
- Samuel Plimsoll, 'the Sailor's friend' campaigned fearlessly to make the seas safer. He was shocked by the scandal of overloaded cargoes and successfully fought for a compulsory loadline on ships - the Plimsoll line during Disraeli's Conservative Government (1874-80).
- Wallace and Gromit; heroes of the animation world and stars of the Oscar-winning 'The Wrong Trousers', 'A Grand Day Out', 'A Close Shave' and 'The Curse of the Were-Rabbit' were created in Bristol by Aardman Animations.
- Svetlana Alliluyeva, Stalin's daughter, lived briefly in Bristol in the early 1990s.
- John Wesley founded the very first Methodist Chapel in Bristol in 1739, which can still be visited today.
- Matt Lucas, comedy actor and star of the highly acclaimed Little Britain television sketch show, studied Drama at Bristol University.
- Tony Robinson actor, trained with Bristol Old Vic and has lived in Bristol and also been active politically there, for nearly thirty years. He is known to television viewers for his part as 'Baldrick' in the comedy Blackadder.
- Richard Gregory, psychologist, resides in Bristol.
- Cary Grant, Hollywood actor, born in Horfield, moved to America when he was a child.
- Keith Floyd, TV chef, ran several restaurants in Bristol, and got his start in TV at BBC Bristol.
- Johnny Morris, TV celebrity, resided in Bristol, and made his television programmes at Bristol Zoo.
- James May, BBC Top Gear presenter and Daily Telegraph columnist was born in Bristol
- Paul Stephenson, race relations activist who led a boycott of the city's buses in 1963, when the Bristol Omnibus Co. refused to employ black drivers and conductors. The boycott is known to have influenced the creation of the UK's first Race Relations Act in 1965.

See also


- List of photographs of Bristol
- W.D. & H.O. Wills

External links


- [http://www.visitbristol.co.uk/ Visit Bristol] - official tourist office site
- [http://www.about-bristol.co.uk/ About Bristol] - pictorial tours of Bristol
- [http://www.bristolaero.com Bristol Aero Collection] at Kemble airfield
- [http://www.steinsky.me.uk/bristol.html Photographs of Bristol]
- [http://www.bristol-city.gov.uk/ Bristol City Council]
- [http://www.lovemytown.co.uk/CityProfiles/Bristol/index.htm LoveMyTown - City of Bristol]
- [http://www.thatbebristle.co.uk/dictionary/index.shtml Dictionary of Bristle]
- [http://www.bristol-city.gov.uk/ccm/content/Council-Democracy/Statistics-Census-Information/ward-finder/ Bristol Districts Information]; Bristol City Council's official information on the many wards that constitute the city Category:Towns on the River Severn Category:Cities in England Category:Coastal cities Category:Fairtrade settlements Category:Railway towns in England Category:Unitary authorities in England ja:ブリストル simple:Bristol

Matthew (ship)

Ship sailed by John Cabot in 1497 from Bristol to North America, presumably Newfoundland. A replica sailed the same voyage on the 500th anniversary of the landmark voyage. On June 24, 1997 the replica of the Matthew was welcomed into port at Bonavista by Queen Elizabeth.

See also

ship replica (including a list of replicas)

External links


- [http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/cabot1497.html Cabot's Voyage of 1497]
- [http://www.matthew.co.uk/ The Matthew of Bristol]

North America

North America is a continent in the northern hemisphere bordered on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the North Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Caribbean Sea, and on the west by the North Pacific Ocean. It covers an area of 24,497,994 km² (9,458,728 sq mi), or about 4.8% of the Earth's surface. As of July 2002, its population was estimated at more than 514,600,000. It is the third largest continent in area, after Asia and Africa, and is fourth in population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. Both North and South America are named after Amerigo Vespucci, who was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a previously undiscovered (by Europeans) New World. North America occupies the northern portion of the landmass generally referred to as the New World, the Western Hemisphere, the Americas, or simply America. North America's only land connection is to South America at the narrow Isthmus of Panama. (For geopolitical reasons, all of Panama – including the segment east of the Panama Canal in the isthmus – is often considered a part of North America alone.) According to some authorities, North America begins not at the Isthmus of Panama but at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, with the intervening region called Central America and resting on the Caribbean Plate. Most, however, tend to see Central America as a region of North America, considering it too small to be a continent on its own. Greenland, although a part of North America geographically, is not considered to be part of the continent politically.

Physical features

Greenland, plutonic, metamorphic rock types of North America. ]] Plate tectonics recognizes the vast majority of North America as being the surface of the North American Plate. Parts of California and western Mexico are known for being the edge of the Pacific Plate, with the two plates meeting along the San Andreas fault. The continent can be divided into four great regions (each of which contains many sub-regions): the Great Plains stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian Arctic; the geologically young, mountainous west, including the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, California and Alaska; the raised but relatively flat plateau of the Canadian Shield in the northeast; and the varied eastern region, which includes the Appalachian Mountains, the coastal plain along the Atlantic seaboard, and the Florida peninsula. Mexico, with its long plateaus and cordilleras, falls largely in the western region, although the eastern coastal plain does extend south along the Gulf. The western mountains are split in the middle, into the main range of the Rockies and the coast ranges in California, Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia with the Great Basin – a lower area containing smaller ranges and low-lying deserts – in between. The highest peak is Denali in Alaska. Since 1931, Rugby, North Dakota, has officially been recognized as being at the geographic center of North America. The location is marked by a 4.5 metre (15 foot) field stone obelisk. Image:North america terrain 2003 map.jpg|North America bedrock and terrain. Image:North america basement rocks.png|North American cratons and basement rocks. Image:North America Tectonic Elements.jpg|Tectonic elements of North America Image:North america craton nps.gif|North American craton.

Territories and regions

craton On the main continent landmass, there are three large and relatively populous countries:
- Canada - many large islands off the shore of North America belong to Canada, including Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Islands on the west, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Cape Breton Island on the east, and the Canadian Arctic islands (including Ellesmere Island, Baffin Island, and Victoria Island) in the north
- Mexico - the Revillagigedo archipelago and numerous smaller islands off its coast belong to Mexico
- The United States - the 48 contiguous states and Alaska are part of North America, while the state of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean is not; the Aleutian Islands south of Alaska also belong to the U.S. At the southern end of the continent, in a relatively small area known as Central America, are the countries of:
- Belize
- Costa Rica
- El Salvador
- Guatemala
- Honduras
- Nicaragua
- Panama 1 At the southeastern end of the continent lies a chain of islands territories called the Antilles, the Caribbean or the West Indies, which include the countries:
- Antigua and Barbuda
- Bahamas
- Barbados
- Cuba
- Dominica
- Dominican Republic
- Grenada
- Haiti
- Jamaica
- Saint Kitts and Nevis
- Saint Lucia
- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
- Trinidad and Tobago 1 And the dependencies:
- Anguilla (British overseas territory)
- Aruba 2 (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Cayman Islands (British overseas territory)
- Guadeloupe (French région d'outre-mer)
- Martinique (French région d'outre-mer)
- Montserrat (British overseas territory)
- Navassa Island (U.S. territory)
- Netherlands Antilles 1 (part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
- Puerto Rico (U.S. commonwealth)
- Turks and Caicos Islands (British overseas territory)
- British Virgin Islands (British overseas territory)
- U.S. Virgin Islands (territory of the USA) Lying in the Atlantic Ocean but considered part of the continent are the dependencies:
- Bermuda, a British overseas territory found about 1,072 km (670 mi.) southeast of New York City
- Greenland, the largest island in the world and a self-governing dependency of Denmark, which is located in the far north of the continent to the east of Nunavut.
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon, a French collectivité d'outre-mer off the south coast of Newfoundland, is the last of France's once vast possessions in America north of the Caribbean. 1 These states and dependencies have territory both in North and South America.
2 These dependencies lie in South America, but are considered North American because of cultural and historical reasons.
See here for details.

Usage

The United States, Canada, and the other English-speaking nations of the Americas (Belize, Guyana, and the Anglophone Caribbean) are sometimes grouped under the term Anglo-America, while the remaining nations of North and South America are grouped under the term Latin America. Alternatively, Northern America is used to refer to Canada and the U.S. together (plus Greenland and Bermuda), while Central America is mainland North America south of the United States. The West Indies generally include all islands in the Caribbean Sea. In this respect, Latin America generally includes Central America and South America and, sometimes, the West Indies. The term Middle America is sometimes used to refer to Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean collectively. The term "North America" may mean different things to different people. The term in common usage is often taken to mean "the United States and Canada, only" by some people of the United States and Canada, excluding Mexico and the countries of Central America, unless the context makes it clear that they are to be included (such as with specific reference to Mexico, when talking about NAFTA). For example, guides to wild flora and fauna published by the National Audubon Society for "North America" frequently include only species found in Canada and the U.S. This may be attributed to the fact that culturally and economically, the U.S. and Canada are more alike to each other than they are to the rest of North America. Mexicans, however, are acutely aware that Mexico is a part of North America and object to this usage. Central Americans, however, are generally content to be called Central Americans – largely because of their shared history, which includes several attempts at supranational integration in the region and in which Mexico, their much larger northern neighbor, was never involved.

Political divisions and regions

Notes:
1 Continental regions as per UN categorisations/map.
2 Depending on definitions, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Panama, and Trinidad and Tobago have territory in one or both of North and South America.
3 Due to ongoing activity of the Soufriere Hills volcano beginning 1995, much of Plymouth, Montserrat's de jure capital, was destroyed and government offices relocated to Brades.

See also


- Discoverer of the Americas
- Economy of North America
- European colonization of the Americas
- History of North America
- Birds of North America

External links


- http://www.america-norte.com/america-norte-mapa.htm Category:Continents Category:North America zh-min-nan:Pak Bí-chiu ko:북아메리카 ja:北アメリカ simple:North America th:ทวีปอเมริกาเหนือ

Gaeta

Gaeta (ancient Latin name Caieta) is a city in Province of Latina, in Lazio, Italy. The town has played a conspicuous part in military history . Its fortifications date back to Roman times, and has several traces of the period, including the first-century mausoleum of the Roman general Lucius Munatius Plancus at the top of the Montagna Spaccata («Split Mountain»). These fortifications were extended and strengthened in the 15th century, and indeed throughout the history of the Kingdom of Naples (later the Two Sicilies). Nowadays Gaeta is a fishing and oil seaport, and a renowned tourist resort. NATO maintains a base of operations at Gaeta.

History

According to the legend told by Virgil, Caieta was the name of Aeneas’ wet-nurse, who would have been buried here. According to Strabo the name stemmed from the Greek term kaiétas, which means «cave», probably referring to the several harbours. In the classical age Caieta was a tourist resort and host house of many important and rich characters of Rome, as well as the neighbouring Formia and Sperlonga, all linked to capital of the Empire by Via Appia and its end trunk Via Flacca (or Valeria), through an apposite diverticulum. At the beginning of Middle Ages, after the Lombards invasion, Gaeta remained under Byzantine Empire suzerainty. In the following years, like Amalfi, Sorrento and Naples, it would seem to have established itself as a practically independent port and to have carried on a thriving trade with the Levant. Its history, however, is rather obscure until, around 830, it become a lordship ruled by hereditary Hypati, or consuls: the first one was Constantine (839-866), who was followed by Marino I and then Docibile I (867-906). Greatest of Hypati was John I (906-933), who crushed the Saracens at Garigliano in 915 and gained the title of patricius from Byzantium’s Emperor Constantine VII. In the 11th century the duchy fell into the hands of the Norman counts of Aversa, afterwards princes of Capua, and in 1135 it was definitively annexed to his kingdom by Roger of Sicily. The town, however, maintained its own coinage as late as 1229. In 1227 Frederick II was in the city and strengthened the castle. However, in the struggle between the Emperor and the Papacy Gaeta fell to the latter, and the Papal forces destroyed the imperial castle in the fray. In 1233, Frederick regained control of the important port and fortress. In 1279 Charles I of Anjou rebuilt the castle and enhanced the fortifications. In 1289 James of Aragon besieged the city in vain. From 1378 Gaeta hosted for some years antipope Clement VII. Future King of Naples Ladislas lived in Gaeta from 1387. Here, on 21 September, he married Costanza Chiaramonte, whom he repudiated three years later. Alfons I of Naples made Gaeta his beachhead for the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples in 1435. He enlarged the castle, which became his royal palace, and created a mint. In 1495 French king Charles VIII conquered the city and sacked it. The following year, however, Frederick I of Aragon regained it with a tremendous siege which lasted from September 8 to November 18. In 1528 Andrea Doria, admiral of Charles V, defeated a French fleet in the waters facing Gaeta and gave the city to its emperor. Gaeta was thenceforth protected with a new and more extensive wall, which also encompassed Monte Orlando. Charles V On September 30, 1707 Gaeta was stormed and taken after a three months siege by the Austrians under Daun. On 6 August, 1734 it was taken, after a siege of four months, by French, Spanish and Sardinian troops under the future King Charles of Naples. The fortifications were again strengthened; and in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On July 18, 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the French under Masséna. On July 18, 1815 it capitulated, after a three months siege, to the Austrians. In November 1848 Pope Pius IX, after his flight in disguise from Rome, found a refuge at Gaeta, where he remained until September 4, 1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the scene of the last stand of Francis II of the Two Sicilies against the forces of United Italy. Shut up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi's occupation of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till February 13, 1861 that he was forced to capitulate after the withdrawal of the French fleet made bombardment from the sea possible,. After the Risorgimento and until World War II, Gaeta grew in importance and wealth as a seaport. The nearby town of Elena, separated after the Risorgimento and named after the queen of Italy, was reunited to Gaeta following World War I. Mussolini transferred Gaeta from the southern region known today as Campania (formerly Terra di Lavoro, to which it is historically and culturally attached) to the central region of Lazio. During World War II, the city retained its strategic importance for Mussolini and later for his Nazi allies. After the king dismissed Mussolini, the latter was initially taken via Gaeta to the island prison of Ponza (where Mussolini had previously locked up many of his political enemies). To keep the population ignorant of the massive convoy, a false air-raid siren sounded. Mussolini would later be transferred to Gran Sasso, from where the Germans rescued him. Germans After Italy surrendered to the Allies, however, the town's fortunes began to decline. Recognizing the city's strategic importance, and fearful of an Allied landing in the area, German troops occupied the city and expelled most of the population. The zone of exclusion began with a five-kilometre border from the historical city centre. Soon after, however, the population was expelled even beyond this point. The Gaetani were finally ordered to leave the area completely. Those who could not were placed in a concentration camp, and a few were taken to Germany. Following the Allied advance across the Garigliano and the Allied occupation of Rome, the Gaetani were allowed to return to their city and begin the process of rebuilding. In subsequent decades the city has boomed as a beach resort, and has seen some success at marketing its agricultural products, primarily its tomatoes and olives. Many of its families count seamen among their number. However, the decades since World War II have been as difficult for Gaeta as they have been for most of Italy's southern regions (the so-called Mezzogiorno). In particular, its importance as a seaport has nearly vanished, and ferries to Ponza and elsewhere now leave from the nearby town of Formia. All attempts to build a permanent industry as a source of employment and economic well-being for the town have failed. Notable losses include the Littorina rail line (now used as a parking lot and a marketplace), the AGIP refinery (nowadays a simple depot), and the once-thriving glass factory, which has become an unused industrial relic.

Main sights

AGIP AGIP Main monuments of the city include:
- The massive Castle.
- The Mausoleum of Lucius Munatius Plancus (22 BC) is a cylindrical travertine monument at the top of Monte Orlando (168 m). It stands at 13.20m and has a diameter of 29.50 m. Another important Roman public man, Lucius Sempronius Atratinus, Marc Antony's fleet commander, has a mausoleum, site in the more recent district of Gaeta: of similar diamater, it is however less well preserved.
- The Sanctuary of SS. Trinità, mentioned as early as the 11th century and visited, among the others, by St. Francis and Saint Philip Neri. The Curcifix Chapel was built in 1434 over a rock which had falled from the nearby cliffs. From the sanctuary the Grotta del Turco can be visited: it is a grotto which ends directly in the sea and where the waves create suggestive light phenomena.
- The Church of Annunziata (1320), it was rebuilt at the beginning of in Baroque sty