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John Calvin

John Calvin

John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was an important French Christian theologian during the Protestant Reformation and is the namesake of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism. He was born Jean Chauvin (or Cauvin) in Noyon, Picardie, France, to Gérard Cauvin and Jeanne Lefranc. French was his mother tongue; Calvin derives from the Latin version of his name, Calvinus. Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517, when Calvin was 8 years old.

Biography

1517 In 1523, at the age of 14, Calvin's father, an attorney, sent him to the University of Paris to study humanities and law. By 1532, he was a Doctor of Law at Orléans. His first published work was an edition of the Roman philosopher Seneca's De clementia, accompanied by a thorough commentary. In 1536, he settled in Geneva, halted in the path of an intended journey to Basel, by the personal persuasion of the reformer William Farel. He pastored in Strasbourg from 1538 until 1541, before returning to Geneva. He would live there until his death in 1564. John Calvin sought marriage to affirm his approval of marriage over celibacy. He asked friends to help him find a woman who was "modest, obliging, not haughty, not extravagant, patient, and solicitous for my health." In 1539, he married Idelette de Bure, a widow of a converted Anabaptist in Strasbourg. Idelette had a son and daughter from the previous marriage. Only the daughter moved with her to Geneva. In 1542, the Calvins had a son who died after only two weeks. Idelette Calvin died in 1549. Calvin wrote that she was a helper in ministry, never stood in his way, never troubled him about her children, and had a greatness of spirit.

Writings by Calvin

Calvin published several revisions of his Institutes of the Christian Religion — a seminal work in Christian theology that is still read today — in Latin in 1536 (at the age of 26) and then in his native French in 1541, with the definitive editions appearing in 1559 and 1560, respectively. He also produced many volumes of commentary on most of the books of the Bible. For the Old Testament (referring to the Protestant organization of books), he published commentaries for all books except the histories after Joshua (though he did publish his sermons on First Samuel) and the Wisdom literature other than the Book of Psalms. For the New Testament, he omitted only the brief 2nd and 3rd Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation. (Some have suggested that Calvin questioned the canonicity of the Book of Revelation, but his citation of it as authoritative in his other writings casts doubt on that theory.) These commentaries, too, have proved to be of lasting value to students of the Bible, and they are still in print after over 400 years. In the eighth volume of Philip Schaff's History of the Christian Church, the historian quotes Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius (after whom the anti-Calvinistic movement Arminianism was named) with regard to the value of Calvin's writings: :Next to the study of the Scriptures which I earnestly inculcate, I exhort my pupils to peruse Calvin’s Commentaries, which I extol in loftier terms than Helmich himself (a Dutch divine, 1551–1608); for I affirm that he excels beyond comparison in the interpretation of Scripture, and that his commentaries ought to be more highly valued than all that is handed down to us by the library of the fathers; so that I acknowledge him to have possessed above most others, or rather above all other men, what may be called an eminent spirit of prophecy. His Institutes ought to be studied after the (Heidelberg) Catechism, as containing a fuller explanation, but with discrimination, like the writings of all men.

The spreading of Calvinism

(Heidelberg) Catechism Although much of Calvin's practice was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a correctly reformed church to many parts of Europe. Calvinism became the theological system of the majority in Scotland, the Netherlands, and parts of Germany and was influential in France, Hungary (especially in Transylvania) and Poland. Most settlers in the American Mid-Atlantic and New England were Calvinists, including the Puritans and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (New York). Dutch Calvinist settlers were also the first successful European colonizers of South Africa, beginning in the 17th century, who became known as Boers or Afrikaners. Sierra Leone was largely colonised by Calvinist settlers from Nova Scotia, who were largely Black Loyalists, blacks who had fought for the British during the American War of Independence. John Marrant had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the Huntingdon Connection. Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th and 20th century missionaries; especially large are those in Korea and Nigeria.

Usury and Capitalism

One school of thought about Calvinism long has been that it represented a revolt against the medieval condemnation of usury, and implicitly profit, helping to set the stage for the development of capitalism in northern Europe. Such a connection was advanced in influential works by R.H. Tawney and by Max Weber. Calvin expressed himself on usury in a letter to a friend, Oecolampadius. In this letter, he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest -- he re-interpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings of Aristotle) that it is wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren. He said that the walls and the roof of a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them. In the same way, money can be made fruitful. He also said, though, that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest.

Reformed Geneva

Aristotle John Calvin had been exiled from Geneva because he and his followers were suspected of wanting to create a "new papacy" and that's why he went to Strasbourg during the time of the Ottoman wars and passed through the cantons of Switzerland. While in Geneva William Farel asked Calvin to help him with the cause of the church. Calvin wrote of Farel's request "I felt as if God from heaven had laid his mighty hand upon me to stop me in my course". Together with Farel, Calvin attempted to institute a number of changes to the city's governance and religious life. They drew up a catechism and a confession of faith, which they insisted all citizens must affirm. The city council refused to adopt Calvin and Farel's creed, and in January 1538 denied them the power to excommunicate, a power they saw as critical to their work. The pair responded with a blanket denial of the Lord's Supper to all Genevans at Easter services. For this the city council expelled them from the city. Farel travelled to Neuchâtel, Calvin to Strasbourg. For three years Calvin served as a lecturer and pastor to a church of French Huguenots in Strasbourg. It was during his exile that Calvin married Idelette de Bure. He also came under the influence of Martin Bucer, who advocated a system of political and ecclesiastical structure along New Testament lines. He continued to follow developments in Geneva, and when Jacopo Sadoleto, a Catholic cardinal, penned an open letter to the city council inviting Geneva to return to the mother church, Calvin's response on behalf of embattled Genevan Protestants helped him to regain the respect he had lost. A number of Calvin's supporters having won election to the Geneva city council, he was invited back to the city in 1541. Upon his return, armed with the authority to craft the institutional form of the church, Calvin began his program of reform. He established four categories of ministry, with distinct hierarchy:
- Doctors held an office of theological scholarship and teaching for the edification of the people and the training of other ministers.
- Pastors were to preach, to administer the sacraments, and to exercise pastoral discipline, teaching and admonishing the people.
- Deacons oversaw institutional charity, including hospitals and anti-poverty programs.
- Elders were 12 laymen whose task was to serve as a kind of moral police force, mostly issuing warnings, but referring offenders to the Consistory when necessary. Critics often look to the Consistory as the emblem of Calvin's theocratic rule. The Consistory was an ecclesiastical court consisting of the elders and pastors, charged with maintaining order in the church cast and among its members. Offenses ranged from propounding false doctrine to moral infractions, such as wild dancing and bawdy singing. Typical punishments were mild--an offender might be required to attend boring public sermons or catechism classes. It is important to bear in mind the broader geopolitical context of this institution before passing judgment. Protestants in the 16th century were often subjected to the Catholic charge that they were innovators in doctrine, and that such innovation did lead inevitably to moral decay and, ultimately, the dissolution of society itself. Calvin claimed his wish was to establish the moral legitimacy of the church reformed according to his program, but also to promote the health and well-being of individuals, families, and communities. Recently discovered documentation of Consistory proceedings shows at least some concern for domestic life, and women in particular. For the first time men's infidelity was punished as harshly as that of women, and the Consistory showed absolutely no tolerance for spousal abuse. The role of the Consistory was complex. It helped to transform Geneva into the city described by Scottish reformer John Knox as "the most perfect school of Christ that ever was on the earth since the days of the Apostles." Jude 4:1 Nevertheless, it appears that Calvin was not above using the Consistory to further his own political aims and maintain his absolute control over civil and religious life in Geneva. Calvin moved quickly to respond harshly to any question of his actions. The most notable episodes are the cases of Pierre Ameaux and Jacques Gruet. Calvin was reluctant to ordain Genevans, preferring to choose pastors from the stream of French immigrants pouring into the city for the express purpose of supporting Calvin's program of reform. When Pierre Ameaux complained about this practice, Calvin took it as an attack on his absolute authority as a minister, and he persuaded the city council to require Ameaux to walk through the town dressed in a hair shirt and begging for mercy in the public squares. Jacques Gruet sided with some of the old Genevan families, who resented the power and methods of the Consistory. He was implicated in an incident in which someone had placed a placard in one of the city's churches, reading: "When too much has been endured revenge is taken." Calvin consented to the murder torture of Gruet, who was accused of colluding in a French plot to invade the city. In 1553, Calvin approved of the execution murder by burning of Michael Servetus (viewed by many Unitarians as one of the founders of their religion), for heresy, an act which he remained unrepented till his death. In 1559 Calvin founded a school for training children as well as a hospital for the indigent. Calvin's health began to fail when he suffered migraines, lung hemorrhages, gout and kidney stones. At times, he was carried to the pulpit. Calvin also had his detractors. Calvin would spend his private moments on Lake Geneva and read scripture while drinking large amounts of red wine. Towards the end Calvin said to his friends who were worried about his daily regimen of work, "What! Would you have the Lord find me idle when He comes?" John Calvin died in Geneva on May 27, 1564. He was buried in the Cimetière des Rois under a [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=pis&GRid=9979&PIgrid=9979&PIcrid=639472&PIpi=89752&pt=John+Calvin& tombstone] marked simply with the initials "J.C", partially honoring his request that he be buried in an unknown place, without witnesses or ceremony.

Trivia

The character Calvin in Bill Watterson's Calvin and Hobbes was named after John Calvin. It is thought that this reflects the young male character's belief in predestination (as justification for his behavior), while his stuffed tiger Hobbes shares Thomas Hobbes's dim view of human nature. The 1979 movie Hardcore has discussions of Calvin's teachings on predestination and the TULIP theories, which George C. Scott's Jake VanDorn explained to prostitute Niki while tracking down his runaway daughter in California.

References


- [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.html Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion]
- [http://www.ccel.org/c/calvin/comment3/comm_index.htm Calvin's Commentaries on the Bible]
- Jude 4:1
- [http://www.ccel.org/c/calvin/ Other writings of Calvin] at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library; includes sermons in Latin and French, "On the Christian Life," and "On Prayer."
- [http://www.johanescalvin.org/ John Calvin's Works Answering Today's Questions]
- [http://www.johncalvin.com/ The Works of John Calvin] for purchase on CD
- [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc8.htm History of the Christian Church, Volume VIII: Modern Christianity. The Swiss Reformation.] by Philip Schaff
- Bainton, Roland (1974). Women of the Reformation in England and France. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. ISBN 0807056499.
- Robert M. Kingdon, "The Geneva Consistory in the Time of Calvin," in Calvinism in Europe 1540-1620, Andrew Pettegree et al., eds. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994.
- Bonnet, Jules, Letters of John Calvin, Carlisle, Penn: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980. Isbn:0851513239. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0851513239/103-5689832-9700662?v=glance&n=283155] Calvin, Johnand your moma Calvin, John Calvin, John Calvin, John Calvin, John Calvin, John ko:장 칼뱅 ja:ジャン・カルヴァン

July 10

July 10 is the 191st day (192nd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 174 days remaining.

Events


- 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia.
- 1584 - William I of Orange was assassinated in his home in Delft, Holland by Balthasar Gérard.
- 1778 - American Revolution: Louis XVI of France declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain.
- 1789 - Alexander Mackenzie reaches Mackenzie River Delta.
- 1821 - The United States takes possession of its newly-bought territory of Florida from Spain.
- 1832 - President Andrew Jackson vetoes a bill that would re-charter the Second Bank of the United States.
- 1850 - Millard Fillmore is inaugurated as the 13th President of the United States.
- 1890 - Wyoming is admitted as the 44th U.S. state.
- 1913 - Death Valley, California hits 134 °F (~56.7 °C), which is the highest temperature recorded in the United States (as of 2003).
- 1925 - The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS), the official news agency of the Soviet Union , is established.
- 1925 - Scopes Trial: In Dayton, Tennessee, the so-called "Monkey Trial" begins with John T. Scopes, a young high school science teacher, accused of teaching evolution in violation of a Tennessee state law.
- 1938 - Howard Hughes sets a new record by completing a 91 hour airplane flight around the world.
- 1940 - World War II: Vichy France government established.
- 1940 - World War II: Battle of Britain - The German Luftwaffe begin to hit British convoys in the English Channel thus starting the battle (this start date is contested, though).
- 1943 - World War II: The launching of Operation Husky begins the Italian Campaign.
- 1951 - Korean War: At Kaesong, armistice negotiations begin.
- 1951 - Randy Turpin becomes the middleweight boxing champion after defeating Sugar Ray Robinson.
- 1962 - Telstar, the world's first communications satellite, is launched into orbit.
- 1967 - Uruguay becomes a member of the Berne Convention copyright treaty.
- 1968 - Maurice Couve de Murville becomes Prime Minister of France
- 1973 - The Bahamas gain full independence within the British Commonwealth.
- 1978 - ABC News World News Tonight premieres.
- 1985 - Greenpeace vessel Rainbow Warrior is bombed and sunk in Auckland, New Zealand Harbor by French DGSE agents.
- 1985 - In response to market demand, Coca-Cola re-introduces it's old formula cola as "Coca-Cola Classic" (see New Coke).
- 1991 - Boris Yeltsin begins his 5-year term as the first elected President of Russia.
- 1992 - In Miami, Florida, former Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega is sentenced to 40 years in prison for drug and racketeering violations.
- 1997 - London, scientists report their DNA analysis findings from a Neandertal skeleton which support the out of Africa theory of human evolution placing an "African Eve" at 100,000 to 200,000 years ago.
- 1998 - The remains of United States Air Force 1st Lt. Michael Joseph Blassie are returned to his family in St. Louis, Missouri from the Tomb of the Unknowns upon identification through DNA analysis. The remains had been in the first tomb since 1984.
- 1998 - Catholic priests' sex abuse scandal: The Diocese of Dallas agrees to pay $23.4 million to nine former altar boys who claimed they were sexually abused by former priest Rudolph Kos.
- 2000 - A leaking southern Nigerian petroleum pipeline explodes, killing about 250 villagers scavenging gasoline.
- 2000 - EADS, the world's second largest aerospace group is formed by the merger of Aérospatiale-Matra, DASA, and CASA.
- 2002 - At a Sotheby's auction, Peter Paul Rubens' painting "The Massacre of the Innocents" is sold for £49.5million (US$76.2 million) to Lord Kenneth Thomson.
- 2003 - A Neoplan bus, owned by Kowloon Motor Bus, collides with a truck, falls off a bridge on Tuen Mun Road, Hong Kong, and plunges into the underlying valley, killing 21 people. This is the deadliest bus accident to date in Hong Kong.

Births


- 1419 - Emperor Go-Hanazono of Japan (d. 1471)
- 1452 - King James III of Scotland (d. 1488)
- 1509 - John Calvin, French religious reformer (d. 1564)
- 1592 - Pierre d'Hozier, French historian (d. 1660)
- 1614 - Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, English royalist statesman (d. 1686)
- 1625 - Jean Herauld Gourville, French adventurer (d. 1703)
- 1638 - David Teniers III, Flemish painter (d. 1685)
- 1666 - John Ernest Grabe, German-born Anglican theologian (d. 1711)
- 1682 - Roger Cotes, English mathematician (d. 1716)
- 1723 - William Blackstone, English jurist (d. 1780)
- 1830 - Camille Pissarro, French painter (d. 1903)
- 1832 - Alvan Graham Clark, American telescope maker and astronomer (d. 1897)
- 1834 - James McNeil Whistler, American painter (d. 1903)
- 1835 - Henryk Wieniawski, Polish composer (d. 1880)
- 1842 - Adolphus Busch, German-born brewer (d. 1913)
- 1856 - Nikola Tesla, Croatian physicist (d. 1943)
- 1871 - Marcel Proust, French writer (d. 1922)
- 1888 - Giorgio de Chirico, Italian painter (d. 1978)
- 1895 - Carl Orff, German composer (d. 1982)
- 1899 - John Gilbert, American actor (d. 1936)
- 1902 - Kurt Alder, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958)
- 1903 - John Wyndham, British author (d. 1969)
- 1914 - Joe Shuster, Canadian-born cartoonist
- 1920 - David Brinkley, American television reporter (d. 2003)
- 1920 - Owen Chamberlain, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1921 - Harvey Ball, American inventor (d. 2001)
- 1921 - Jake LaMotta, American boxer
- 1921 - Eunice Kennedy Shriver, American activist
- 1923 - Earl Hamner Jr., American author and television producer
- 1923 - Jean Kerr, American author (d. 2003)
- 1925 - Mahathir bin Mohamad, Malaysian fourth Prime Minister
- 1926 - Fred Gwynne, American actor (d. 1993)
- 1928 - Moshe Greenberg, American-Israeli Bible scholar
- 1931 - Nick Adams, American actor (d. 1968)
- 1931 - Alice Munro, Canadian writer
- 1934 - Olga Sebenik, Slovenian economist
- 1938 - Paul Andreu, French architect
- 1939 - Ahmet Taner Kışlalı, Turkish politician, journalist, and educator (d. 1999)
- 1940 - Helen Donath, American soprano
- 1942 - Ronnie James Dio, American musician
- 1942 - Pyotr Klimuk, cosmonaut
- 1943 - Arthur Ashe, American tennis player (d. 1993)
- 1945 - Virginia Wade, British tennis player
- 1946 - Sue Lyon, American actress
- 1947 - Arlo Guthrie, American musician
- 1951 - Cheryl Wheeler, American singer and songwriter
- 1954 - Neil Tennant, British musician
- 1959 - Janet Julian, American actress
- 1968 - Hassiba Boulmerka, Algerian athlete
- 1969 - Gale Harold, American actor
- 1980 - Thomas Ian Nicholas, American actor
- 1980 - Adam Petty, American race car driver (d. 2000)
- 1980 - Jessica Simpson, American singer
- 1982 - Alex Arrowsmith, American musician

Deaths


- 138 - Hadrian, Roman Emperor (b. 76)
- 1099 - El Cid, of Castile (b. 1044)
- 1103 - King Eric I of Denmark
- 1298 - King Ladislaus IV of Hungary (b. 1262)
- 1460 - Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham, English military leader (b. 1402)
- 1480 - King René I of Naples (b. 1410)
- 1559 - King Henry II of France (b. 1519)
- 1584 - William I of Orange (b. 1533)
- 1590 - Archduke Charles II of Austria (b. 1540)
- 1594 - Paolo Bellasio, Italian composer (b. 1554)
- 1621 - Karel Bonaventura Buquoy, French soldier (b. 1571)
- 1653 - Gabriel Naudé, French librarian and scholar (b. 1600)
- 1680 - Louis Moréri, French encyclopedist (b. 1643)
- 1683 - François-Eudes de Mézeray, French historian (b. 1610)
- 1686 - John Fell, English churchman (b. 1625)
- 1776 - Richard Peters, English-born clergyman (b. 1704)
- 1806 - George Stubbs, British painter (b. 1724)
- 1884 - Paul Morphy, American chess player (b. 1837)
- 1908 - Phoebe Knapp, American hymn writer (b. 1839)
- 1920 - Jackie Fisher, British admiral (b. 1841)
- 1941 - Jelly Roll Morton, American musician (b. 1890)
- 1978 - John D Rockefeller III, American businessman (b. 1906)
- 1978 - Joe Davis, English snooker player (b. 1901)
- 1979 - Arthur Fiedler, American conductor (b. 1894)
- 1987 - John Hammond, American record producer (b. 1910)
- 1989 - Mel Blanc, American voice actor (b. 1908)
- 2003 - Winston Graham, English writer (b. 1908)
- 2003 - Hartley Shawcross, British prosecutor at the Nuremberg Trials (b. 1902)
- 2005 - A.J. Quinnell, English writer (b. 1940)
- 2005 - Freda Wright-Sorce, American radio performer (b. 1955)
- 2005 - Freddy Soto, American comedian and actor (b. 1970)

Holidays and observances


- Bahamas - Independence Day
- Silence Day - celebrated by followers of Meher Baba
- Mauritania - Armed Forces Day
- Ancient Latvia - Septinu Bralu Diena observed
- New Zealand - Rainbow Warrior Commemmoration

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/10 BBC: On This Day] ---- July 9 - July 11 - June 10 - August 10 -- listing of all days ko:7월 10일 ms:10 Julai ja:7月10日 simple:July 10 th:10 กรกฎาคม

1509

Events


- February 2 - Battle of Diu took place near Diu, India.
- April 22 - Henry VIII becomes King of England on the death of his father, Henry VII.
- April 27 - Pope Julius II places Venice under interdict and excommunication for refusing to cede part of Romagna under Papal control
- May 14 - Battle of Agnadello - French forces defeat the Venetians.
- June 11 - Henry VIII of England marries Catherine of Aragon
- June 24 - King Henry VIII of England's and Queen consort's Catherine of Aragon coronation ceremony.

Births


- January 25 - Giovanni Morone, Italian cardinal (d. 1580)
- July 10 - John Calvin, French religious reformer (died 1564)
- August 3 - Étienne Dolet, French scholar and printer (died 1546)
- Nicholas Bacon, English politician (died 1579)
- Tommaso Campanella, Italian theologian, philosopher and poet (died 1639)
- John Erskine of Dun, Scottish religious reformer (died 1591)
- John of Leiden, Dutch Anabaptist leader (died 1536)
- Stanislaw Odrowaz, Polish noble (died 1545)
- Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, lawyer (died 1579)
- Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, Lord Protector of England (died 1552)
- Bernardino Telesio, Italian philosopher and natural scientist (died 1588)

Deaths


- April 21 - King Henry VII of England (born 1457)
- May 10 - Caterina Sforza, countess of Forli (born 1463)
- June 29 - Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII of England (born 1443) Category:1509 ko:1509년 simple:1509

May 27

May 27 is the 147th day (148th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 218 days remaining.

Events


- 1328 - Philip VI is crowned King of France.
- 1703 - Tsar Peter the Great founds the city of Saint Petersburg.
- 1813 - War of 1812: In Canada, American forces capture Fort George.
- 1849 - The Great Hall of Euston station, London opened.
- 1860 - Giuseppe Garibaldi begins his attack on Palermo, Sicily, as part of the Italian Unification.
- 1883 - Alexander III is crowned Tsar of Russia.
- 1895 - Oscar Wilde is sent to prison for sodomy.
- 1896 - The F4-strength St. Louis-East St. Louis Tornado hits in St. Louis, Missouri and East Saint Louis, Illinois, killing at least 255 people and incurring $2.9 billion in damages (1997USD).
- 1901 - In New Jersey, the Edison Storage Battery Company is founded.
- 1905 - Russo-Japanese War: The Battle of Tsushima begins.
- 1907 - A Bubonic plague outbreak begins in San Francisco, California.
- 1919 - The NC-4 aircraft arrives in Lisbon after completing the first transatlantic flight.
- 1923 - The first 24 hours of Le Mans race ends.
- 1924 - The Music Corporation of America (MCA) is founded.
- 1927 - The Ford Motor Company ceases manufacturing the Ford Model T and begins to retool plants to make Ford Model As.
- 1930 - The 1,046 feet (319 meters) tall Chrysler Building in New York (tallest man-made structure at the time) opens to the public.
- 1932 - The Sydney Harbour Bridge opens.
- 1933 - New Deal: The U.S. Federal Securities Act is signed into law requiring the registration of securities with the Federal Trade Commission.
- 1933 - The Walt Disney Company releases the cartoon The Three Little Pigs, with its hit song "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf?"
- 1933 - The Century of Progress World's Fair opens in Chicago, Illinois.
- 1935 - New Deal: The Supreme Court of the United States declares the National Industrial Recovery Act to be unconstitutional in the case A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, (295 U.S. 495).
- 1936 - The RMS Queen Mary begins her maiden voyage.
- 1937 - In California, the Golden Gate Bridge opens to pedestrian traffic, creating a vital link between San Francisco and Marin County.
- 1939 - DC Comics publishes its second superhero in Detective Comics #27; he is Batman, one of the most topical comic book superheroes of all time.
- 1940 - World War II: 97 out of 99 members of a Royal Norfolk Regiment unit are massacred while trying to surrender at Dunkirk. The German commander, Captain Fritz Knochlein, is eventually hanged for war crimes.
- 1941 - World War II: U.S. President Roosevelt proclaims an "unlimited national emergency".
- 1941 - World War II: The German battleship Bismarck is sunk in the North Atlantic killing 2,300 men.
- 1942 - World War II: Operation Anthropoid - assassination of Reinhard Heydrich in Prague.
- 1960 - In Turkey, General Cemal Gürsel leads a military coup d'état removing President Celal Bayar and the rest of the democratic government.
- 1963 - Folk music singer Bob Dylan releases The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan album, which features "Blowin' in the Wind" and several other of his best-known songs.
- 1964 - Prime Minister of India Jawaharlal Nehru dies in office.
- 1965 - Vietnam War: United States warships begin bombardments of National Liberation Front targets within South Vietnam for the first time.
- 1968 - Future U.S. president George W. Bush enlists in the Texas Air National Guard.
- 1974 - Jacques Chirac becomes Prime Minister of France.
- 1980 - The Gwangju Massacre: airborne and army troops of South Korea retake the city of Gwangju from civil militias, killing at least 207 and possibly many more.
- 1995 - In Charlottesville, Virginia, actor Christopher Reeve is paralyzed from the neck down after falling from his horse in a riding competition.
- 1996 - First Chechnya War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin meets with Chechnyan rebels for the first time and negotiates a cease-fire in the war.
- 1997 - The F5-strength Jarrell Tornado slams into the small town of Jarrell, Texas, killing 27 people.
- 1998 - Oklahoma City bombing: Michael Fortier is sentenced to 12 years in prison and fined $200,000 for failing to warn authorities about the terrorist plot.
- 1999 - The International War Crimes Tribunal in The Hague, Netherlands indicts Slobodan Milošević and four others for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in Kosovo.

Births


- 1332 - Ibn Khaldun, Tunisian historian (d. 1406)
- 1519 - Girolamo Mei, Italian humanist historian (d. 1594)
- 1576 - Caspar Schoppe, German scholar (d. 1649)
- 1623 - William Petty, English scientist and philosopher (d. 1687)
- 1626 - William II, Prince of Orange (d. 1650)
- 1651 - Louis-Antoine, Cardinal de Noailles, French cardinal (d. 1729)
- 1652 - Liselotte von der Pfalz, Duchess of Orléans (d. 1722)
- 1738 - Nathaniel Gorham, American politician (d. 1796)
- 1756 - King Maximilian I of Bavaria (d. 1825)
- 1794 - Cornelius Vanderbilt, American entrepreneur (d. 1877)
- 1819 - Julia Ward Howe, American composer (d. 1910)
- 1836 - Jay Gould, American financier (d. 1892)
- 1837 - Wild Bill Hickok, American gunfighter (d. 1876)
- 1864 - Ante Trumbić, Croatian politician (d. 1938)
- 1867 - Arnold Bennett, British novelist (d. 1931)
- 1871 - Georges Rouault, French painter and graphic artist (d. 1958)
- 1877 - Isadora Duncan, American dancer (d. 1927)
- 1884 - Max Brod, Austrian author (d. 1968)
- 1888 - Louis Durey, French composer (d. 1979)
- 1894 - Louis-Ferdinand Céline, French writer (d. 1961)
- 1894 - Dashiell Hammett, American author (d. 1961)
- 1897 - John Cockcroft, British physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)
- 1904 - Chuhei Nambu, Japanese athlete (b. 1997)
- 1907 - Rachel Carson, American ecologist (d. 1964)
- 1911 - Hubert H. Humphrey, Vice President of the United States (d. 1978)
- 1911 - Teddy Kollek, Mayor of Jerusalem
- 1911 - Vincent Price, American actor (d. 1993)
- 1912 - John Cheever, American author (d. 1982)
- 1912 - Sam Snead, American golfer (d. 2002)
- 1913 - Wols, German painter
- 1915 - Herman Wouk, American writer
- 1917 - Yasuhiro Nakasone, Prime Minister of Japan
- 1922 - Christopher Lee, English actor
- 1923 - Henry Kissinger, United States Secretary of State, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize
- 1923 - Sumner Redstone, American entrepreneur
- 1925 - Tony Hillerman, American writer
- 1930 - John Barth, American novelist
- 1933 - Ted Rogers, Canadian entrepreneur
- 1934 - Harlan Ellison, American author
- 1935 - Lee Meriwether, American beauty queen and actress
- 1936 - Louis Gossett Jr., American actor
- 1937 - Allan Carr, American film producer and writer (d. 1999)
- 1943 - Cilla Black, English singer
- 1943 - Bruce Weitz, American actor
- 1945 - Bruce Cockburn, Canadian musician
- 1946 - Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen, Danish musician (d. 2005)
- 1947 - Branko Oblak, Slovenian football player
- 1955 - Eric Bischoff, American professional wrestling personality
- 1957 - Siouxsie Sioux, English musician (Siouxsie and the Banshees )
- 1958 - Neil Finn, New Zealand singer and songwriter
- 1958 - Linnea Quigley, American actress
- 1961 - Peri Gilpin, American actress
- 1964 - Adam Carolla, American comedian and radio/television personality
- 1968 - Jeff Bagwell, baseball player
- 1968 - Frank Thomas, baseball player
- 1970 - Tim Farron, British politician
- 1970 - Joseph Fiennes, English actor
- 1971 - Paul Bettany, English actor
- 1971 - Lisa 'Left Eye' Lopes, American singer (d. 2002)
- 1974 - Derek Webb, American singer and songwriter (Caedmon's Call)
- 1974 - Danny Wuerffel, American football player
- 1975 - Andre 3000, American musician (OutKast)
- 1975 - Jamie Oliver, British chef and television personality

Deaths


- 366 - Procopius, Roman usurper (executed)
- 866 - Ordoño I, King of Asturias
- 927 - Tsar Simeon I of Bulgaria
- 1444 - John Beaufort, 1st Duke of Somerset, English military leader (b. 1404)
- 1508 - Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan (b. 1452)
- 1525 - Thomas Muentzer, German rebel leader
- 1541 - Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury (executed) (b. 1473)
- 1564 - John Calvin, French religious reformer (b. 1509)
- 1610 - François Ravaillac, French assassin of Henry IV of France (b. 1578)
- 1661 - Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll, Scottish religious dissident (executed) (b. 1607)
- 1675 - Gaspard Dughet, French painter (b. 1613)
- 1690 - Giovanni Legrenzi, Italian composer (b. 1626)
- 1702 - Dominique Bouhours, French critic (b. 1628)
- 1707 - Marquise de Montespan, French mistress of Louis XIV of France (b. 1641)
- 1781 - Giovanni Battista Beccaria, Italian physicist (b. 1716)
- 1797 - François-Noël Babeuf, French revolutionary and early socialist (b. 1760)
- 1831 - Jedediah Smith, American explorer (b. 1799)
- 1840 - Nicolò Paganini, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1782)
- 1910 - Robert Koch, German physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1843)
- 1926 - Srečko Kosovel, Slovenian poet (b. 1904)
- 1960 - James Montgomery Flagg, American illustrator (b. 1877)
- 1964 - Jawaharlal Nehru, Indian politician (b. 1889)
- 1986 - Isma'il Raji' al-Faruqi, Palestinian-born philosopher and comparative religion scholar (b. 1921)
- 1987 - John Howard Northrop, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1891)
- 1989 - Arseny Tarkovsky, Russian poet (b. 1907)
- 1991 - Leopold Nowak, Austrian musicologist (b. 1904)
- 1992 - Uncle Charlie Osborne, fiddler (b. 1890)
- 1993 - Mary Philbin, American actress (b. 1903
- 1993 - Werner Stocker, German actor (b. 1955)
- 2000 - Crawford Murray MacLehose of Beoch, British Governor of Hong Kong (b. 1917)
- 2000 - Maurice Richard, Canadian hockey player (b. 1921)
- 2001 - Ramon Bieri, American actor (b. 1929)
- 2003 - Luciano Berio, Italian composer (b. 1925)

Holidays and observances


- Lag Ba'omer in Judaism (2005)
- Feast day of the following saints in the Roman Catholic Church:
  - Venerable Bede
  - Julius
  - Pope John I
  - Hildebert
  - Bruno, Bishop of Würzburg
  - Eutropius

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/27 BBC: On This Day] ---- May 26 - May 28 - April 27 - June 27 – listing of all days ko:5월 27일 ms:27 Mei ja:5月27日 simple:May 27 th:27 พฤษภาคม

1564

Events


- March 8 — Naples bans kissing in public under the penalty of death
- June 22 — Fort Caroline, the first French attempt at colonizing the New World
- September 10 — The Battle of Kawanakajima
- Ottoman Turks invade Malta
- Modern pencil becomes common in England
- Conquistadors crossed the Pacific
- Spanish founded a colony in the Philippines

Births


- February 15 - Galileo Galilei, Italian astronomer and physicist (died 1642)
- February 26 - Christopher Marlowe, English poet and dramatist (died 1593)
- March 9 - David Fabricius, Frisian astronomer (died 1617)
- April 26 (baptized) - William Shakespeare, English poet and dramatist (died 1616)
- September 24 - William Adams, English navigator and samurai (died 1620)
- November 22 - Henry Brooke, 8th Baron Cobham, English peer and traitor (died 1619)
- William Bathe, Jesuit priest
- Abraham Bloemaert, Dutch painter and engraver (died 1651)
- Daniel Chamier, minister of religion in France (died 1621)
- Henry Chettle, English dramatist (died 1607)
- Kryštof Harant z Polžic a Bezdružic, Bohemian composer and protestant rebel (beheaded 1621)
- Paul Miki, Japanese Catholic saint and martyr (died 1597)
- Thomas Morton, English churchman (died 1659)
- Henry Percy, 9th Earl of Northumberland (died 1632)
- Francisco Pacheco, Spanish painter (died 1654)
- Pedro Páez, Jesuit missionary in Ethiopia (died 1622)
- Thomas Shirley, English pirate (died 1620)
- Pieter Brueghel the Younger, Flemish painter (died 1638) See also :Category: 1564 births.

Deaths


- January 4 - Hosokawa Ujitsuna, Japanese military commander (b. 1514)
- February 18 - Michelangelo Buonarroti, Italian artist and architect (born 1475)
- May 2 - Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi, Italian humanist (b. 1500)
- May 27 - John Calvin, French protestant reformer (born 1509)
- July 27 - Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor (born 1503)
- October 5 - Pierre de Manchicourt, Flemish composer
- October 15 - Vesalius, Flemish anatomist (born 1514)
- October 18 - Johannes Acronius Frisius, German physician and mathematician (born 1520)
- Pierre Belon, French naturalist (born 1517)
- Giovanni da Udine, Italian painter (born 1487)
- Purandara Dasa, Indian musician
- Charles Etienne, French anatomist (born 1503)
- Guillaume Morel, French classical scholar (born 1505)
- Manus O'Donnell, Irish leader
- Maurice Scève, French poet (born 1500)
- Luis de Velasco, Spanish viceroy of New Spain (born 1511) See also :Category: 1564 deaths. Category:1564 ko:1564년 simple:1564

ChristianIty

Christianity

Theology

Theology is reasoned discourse concerning God (Greek θεος, theos, "God", + λογος, logos, "word" or "reason"). It can also refer to the study of other religious topics. A theologian is a person learned in theology. religious topics

History of the term

The word "Theology" is derived from Hellenistic Greek, but its meaning has changed significantly through its use in the European Christian thought of the Middle ages and Enlightenment The term theologia is used in Classical Greek literature, with the meaning "discourse on the gods or cosmology" (see Lidell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon for references). Since the authority of Hellenistic city states was partly based on religious observance, those who first sought to ask difficult questions about the gods were often viewed as heretics, or in the language of the day "atheists". Socrates is famous for having been condemned to death for teaching youths atheism (though in fact he had not). Plato, his pupil, wrote several discourses on the gods, though his doctrine of forms and emanations would be more significant for later Theology. Aristotle divided theoretical philosophy into mathematice, phusike and theologike, with the latter corresponding roughly to metaphysics, which for Aristotle included discussion of the nature of the divine. The term has since been appropriated by a number of Eastern and Western religious traditions. Drawing on Greek sources, the Latin writer Varro influentially distinguished three forms of such discourse: mythical (concerning the myths of the Greek gods), rational (philosophical analysis of the gods and of cosmology) and civil (concerning the rites and duties of public religious observance). Christian writers, working within the Hellenistic mould, began to use the term to describe their studies. It appears once in some biblical manuscripts, in the heading to the book of Revelation: apokalupsis ioannou tou theologou, "the revelation of John the theologos". There, however, we are probably dealing with a slightly different sense of the root logos, to mean not "rational discourse" but "word" or "message": ho theologos here is probably meant to tell us that the author of Revelation has presented God's revealed messages – words of God, logoi tou theou – not that he was a "theologian" in the modern English sense of the word. Other Christian writers used the term with several different ranges of meaning. # Some Latin authors, such as Tertullian and Augustine followed Varro's threefold usage, described above. # In patristic Greek sources, theologia could refer narrowly to the discussion of the nature and attributes of God. # In other patristic Greek sources, theologia could also refer narrowly to the discussion of the attribution of divine nature to Jesus. (It is in this sense that Gregory Nazianzus was nicknamed "the theologian": he was a staunch defender of the divinity of Christ.) # In medieval Greek and Latin sources, theologia (in the sense of "an account or record of the ways of God") could refer simply to the Bible. # In scholastic Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of the doctrines of the Christian religion, or (more precisely) the academic discipline which investigated the coherence and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the latter often as represented in Peter Lombard's Sentences, a book of extracts from the Church Fathers). It is the last of these senses which lies behind most modern uses (though the second is also found in some academic and ecclesiastical contexts), and while the term "theology" can refer to any discussion of the nature of God or the gods, or indeed the discussion of any religious topic, it is also regularly used to denote the academic study (in Universities, seminaries and elsewhere) of the doctrines of Christianity, or of any other religion, or of the relationships and contrasts between various different religions, although the latter is a field more usually termed "comparative religion."

A brief history of "Theologies"

::Main article: History of theology Classical Greek theology (c.700 BC to 323 BC). Various forms of systematic and philosophical reflection on Ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology arose in the classical period - from Hesiod's attempts to organise the diverse materials of mythology into a unified Theogony to the more properly philosophical analysis reportedly carried out by Socrates. Plato's Timaeus and Aristotle's Metaphysics Book Lambda are two of the most influential writings of Classical Greek theology. Hellenistic theology (323 BC to 529 AD). Philosophical reflection on the gods, on religion, and on the origins and governance of the Universe, flourished in the Hellenistic period amongst both Greek- and Latin-speaking thinkers. Amongst the very diverse movements of Hellenistic philosophy in which theological reflection could be found were Cynicism, Stoicism, Epicureanism, Middle Platonism, and Neoplatonism. Influential texts include Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus, Cicero's de Natura Deorum, Lucretius' de Rerum Natura, Epictetus' Enchiridion, and Plotinus' Enneads. Hellenistic theology, which could be deemed to last until the suppression of the Athenian Academy in 529 by Justinian I, overlaps with early Jewish and early Christian theology (see below), and several strands of thought important particularly to early Christian thought arise within Hellenistic circles: attempts to explain the apparent caprice of the gods, Atheism, the development of monotheism, the idea of God as first cause or form of the Good, the dualism of spirit and matter in humanity, and redemption (the release of the spirit from its material prison to a higher spiritual world) through knowledge. See also Greek mythology - Hellenistic rationalism and Ancient Greek religion - Theology Early Jewish theology (to c.200 AD). Two strands of Jewish theology develop in this period. On the one hand, there are those oral traditions of Rabbinic exegesis (Midrash) and legal discussion (Mishnah) that eventually began to be written down towards the end of the 2nd Century AD. Important figures include Gamliel I, Yohanan ben Zakkai, Gamliel II, Rabbi Akiva, and Rabbi Judah haNasi. On the other hand, there is the attempt to accommodate traditional Jewish exegesis of the Jewish Scriptures and tradition with Greek philosophy - a strand of thought of which Philo is the best known proponent. The destruction of the Jerusalem temple in 70 AD and the dispersion of many Jews from Israel had a profound effect on Jewish Theology. Early Christian theology, coming partly from Hellenistic Judaism, therefore had no trouble in expressing itself in the Greek language (i.e. the New Testament). Whilst the conception of a canon of sacred books was inherited from Judaism, their interpretation soon came to be heavily influenced by Greek allegorical methods (e.g. Origen). Origen" during the long decline of the Roman Empire]] Patristic Theology (c. 100 – 500 AD) is so called because certain men (Fathers or "Patroi") concerned themselves with determining the degree to which the Christian faith could be accommodated to Hellenistic thought. Irenaeus of Lyons wrote to combat those who made Christianity into Gnostic Theology. Justin Martyr sought to use Hellenistic philosophy and Natural Theology to justify Christianity to the Romans. Later Theologians especially sought to show how three divine persons could be one in substance (the Trinity, see Council of Nicea) and how Jesus (a man of material flesh, see Council of Chalcedon) could at also be divine. These statements though held to be philosophically illogical were nevertheless held to be true, human reason being incapable of understanding them. This was an important development that would define the Theology of the Middle Ages in Islam as well as Christianity. Important theologians were Athanasius, Gregory of Nazanzius, Gregory of Nyssa, Origen, Ambrose, Augustine and Jerome. The fall of the Roman empire affected Theology in two main ways; Firstly monasticism became more popular and ascetic, and mystical theology therefore became more prevalent. Secondly, the increasing influence of the Bishop of Rome (The Pope) in theological doctrine and cultural differences between the two remnants of the Roman empire caused the doctrine of apostolic succession to be more important. The two sides finally split in 1054. The collapse of the Roman Empire meant that most Theology occurred in Monasteries with few of the resources of classical scholarship available. Over time many local variations in Theology developed and the traditions of pre-Christian religions were sometimes included in Theology as well as practice. Likewise, in the East, (Greece and the Levant) Theology became increasingly influenced by speculative neo-Platonism. The epistle of Dionysius the Areopagite was a popular guide with such ideas. Many monks came to emphasize the idea of the inherent evil of the world. Islam established itself in this atmosphere and began also to practice Theology. Although Islam is often considered to lack a "Theology" as in Christianity there were many attempts to frame Islamic ideas within Greek thought, especially during the early abbassids and the reign of the caliph al-mamun. However, this movement, Mu’tazilism, became discredited through the Abassids attempts to use it to enforce religious unity, and the popular and orthodox considered Hellenistic thought to be unhelpful and error. Theology would continue to be practiced, but was usually done so by an elite of intellectuals whose ideas would seldom be made public. These included Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Averroes, Avicenna and Al-Ghazali. High Medieval theology in Western Europe combined the Theology inherited from Dark-age monasticism with new learning from classical Hellenistic documents from the Islamic world. Thomas Aquinas, Anselm, John Duns Scotus and Peter Abelard were among the most important Theologians of this period. Peter Abelard]] The Renaissance yielded scholars the ability to read the scriptures in their original languages and this in part stimulated the Reformation, a Theological movement that based its "Protests" on a new understanding of the Bible. Most important were Martin Luther, John Calvin, Zwingli, Melancthon, Martin Bucer and the Anabaptists. Their Theology was developed by successors such as Theodore Beza, the English Puritans and Francis Turretin. The Catholic counter-reformation spearheaded by the Jesuits under Ignatius Loyola took their Theology from the decisions of the Council of Trent. The overall result of the Reformation was therefore to highlight distinctions of belief that had previously co-existed uneasily. The fall of Constantinople in the east, 1453, led to a significant shift of gravity to the rising state of Russia, the "Third Rome". The Renaissance would also stimulate a program of reforms by patriarchs of prayer books. A movement called the "Old believers" consequently resulted and influenced Russian Orthodox Theology in the direction of conservatism and Erastianism. After the Reformation protestant groups continued to splinter, leading to a range of new Theologies. The "Enthusiasts" were so named because of their emotional zeal. These included the Methodists, the Quakers and Baptists. Another group sought to reconcile Christian faith with "Modern" ideas, sometimes causing them to reject beliefs they considered to be illogical, including the Nicene creed and Chalcedonian creed. these included Unitarians and Universalists. The Nineteenth Century saw the rise of biblical criticism, new knowledge of religious diversity in other continents and above all the growth of science. This led many church men to espouse a form of Deism. This, along with concepts such as the brotherhood of man and a rejection of miracles led to what is called "Classic Liberalism". Immensely influential in its day, classic liberalism suffered badly as a result of the two world wars and fell prey to the criticisms of postmodernism.postmodernism Theologian]] Postmodern theology seeks to respond to the challenges of post modern and deconstructionist thought, and has included the death of God movement, Process Theology, Feminist theology and Queer Theology and most importantly Neo-orthodox Theology. Karl Barth, Rudolf Bultmann and Reinhold Niebuhr were Neo-Orthodoxies main representatives. In particular Barth labeled his Theology "Dialectical Theology", a reference to existentialism. The predominance of Classic Liberalism resulted in many reactionary movements amongst conservative believers. Evangelical theology, Pentecostal or Renewal theology and Fundamentalist theology, often combined with Dispensationalism, all moved from the fringe into the academy. Marxism stimulated the significant rise of Liberation Theology which can be interpreted as a challenge to Academic Theology that fails to challenge the establishment and help the poor. From the late nineteenth century to the early twentieth many groups established themselves that derived many of their beliefs from protestant evangelical groups but significantly differed in doctrine. These include the Jehovah's Witnesses, the Latter Day Saints and many so called "cults". Many of these groups use the protestant version of the bible and typically interpret it in a fundamentalist fashion, adding, however, special prophecy or scriptures, and typically denying the trinity and the full deity of Jesus Christ. Ecumenical Theology sought to discover a common consensus on theological matters that could bring the many Christian denominations together. As a movement it was successful in helping to provide a basis for the establishment of the World council of churches and for some reconciliation between more established denominations. But ecumenical theology was nearly always the concern of liberal theologians, often protestant ones. The movement for ecumenism was opposed especially by fundamentalists and viewed as flawed by many neo-orthodox theologians. The pattern of challenge from a changing world, liberal response from official representatives and orthodox backlash from conservatives is found also in the history of Islam and Judaism. Reform Judaism represents a liberal interpretation as against Orthodox Judaism, and moderate or Liberal Islam continues to be theologically distinct from Islamic Fundamentalism, notably its Wahabi and Deobandi Schools. As other religions came to be studied in Western post Christian academies the term Theology was applied to them, though, as noted below, this may be a serious misnomer!

Theology and religions other than Christianity

In academic theological circles, there is some debate as to whether theology is an activity peculiar to the Christian religion. If so we should distinguish Christian Theology from others. It is seen by some to be a term only appropriate to the study of a deity (a theos) within a presupposed belief in the ability to speak and reason about the subject (in logia) - and so to be less appropriate in religious contexts which are organized differently (i.e. religions without a deity, or which deny that such subjects can be studied logically). reason For example, some academic courses on Buddhism which are dedicated to the rational investigation of a Buddhist understanding of the world prefer the designation Buddhist philosophy to the term Buddhist theology, since Buddhism lacks the same conception of a theos. The same might be said of Hinduism which has many devas (deities). See for example, Vaishnava Theology, Advaita Vedanta and Hinduism#Nature of God. Moreover, the application of the term Theology to religions similar to Christianity can be misleading. in Islam, theological discussion which parallels Christian theological discussion has been a minor and even slightly disreputable activity, named "Kalam"; the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the investigation and elaboration of Islamic law, or "Fiqh". In Judaism the historical absence of political authority has meant that most theological reflection has happened within the context of the Jewish community and synagogue, rather than within specialised academic institutions. Nevertheless Jewish Theology has been historically very active and highly significant for Christian and Islamic Theology. Once again, the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be Rabbinical discussion of Jewish law and Jewish Biblical commentaries.

Theology and the Academy

Theology has a significantly problematic relationship to Academia that is not shared by any other subject. Most universities founded before the modern era grew out of the church schools and monastic institutions of Western Europe during the High Middle Ages (e.g. University of Bologna, Paris University and Oxford University). They were founded to train young men to serve the church in Theology and Law (often Church or Canon Law). At such Universities Theological study was incomplete with Theological practice, including preaching, prayer and the Mass. Ancient Universities still maintain some of these links (e.g. having Chapels and Chaplains) and are more likely to teach Theology than other institutions. During the High Middle Ages theology was therefore the main subject at universities,