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John Dalton

John Dalton

John Dalton (September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844) was a British chemist and physicist, born at Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in Cumberland. He is most well known for his advocacy of the atomic theory.

Biography

Early life

Dalton received his early education from his father and from John Fletcher, a teacher of the Quaker school at Cumberland, on whose retirement in 1778 he himself started teaching. This youthful venture was not successful, the amount he received in fees being only about five shillings a week, and after two years he took to farm work. But he had received some instruction in mathematics from a distant relative, Elihu Robinson, and in 1781 he left his native village to become assistant to his cousin George Bewley, who kept a school at Kendal. There he passed the next twelve years, becoming in 1785, through the retirement of his cousin, joint manager of the school with his elder brother Jonathan. About 1790 he seems to have thought of taking up law or medicine, but his projects met with no encouragement from his relatives and he remained at Kendal until, in the spring of 1793, he moved to Manchester. Mainly through John Gough, a blind philosopher to whose aid he owed much of his scientific knowledge, he was appointed teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at the Manchester Academy. He remained in that position until the relocation of the college to York in 1803, when he became a public and private teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Among his pupils were: Eaton Hodgkinson and James Prescott Joule.

Meteorology, vision and miscellany

During his years in Kendal, Dalton had contributed solutions of problems and questions on various subjects to the Gentlemen's and Ladies' Diaries, and in 1787 he began to keep a meteorological diary in which, during the succeeding fifteen years, he entered more than 200,000 observations. His first separate publication was Meteorological Observations and Essays (1793), which contained the germs of several of his later discoveries. However, in spite of the originality of his treatment, the book met with only a limited sale. Another work by him, Elements of English Grammar, was published in 1801. In 1794 he was elected a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, the Lit & Phil, and a few weeks after election he communicated his first paper on Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours, in which he gave the earliest account of the optical peculiarity known as Daltonism or colour blindness, and summed up its characteristics as observed in himself and others, including his brother. Besides the blue and purple of the spectrum he was able to recognize only one colour, yellow, or, as he says in his paper, that part of the image which others call red appears to me little more than a shade or defect of light. After that the orange, yellow and green seem one colour which descends pretty uniformly from an intense to a rare yellow, making what I should call different shades of yellow. This paper was followed by many others on diverse topics on rain and dew and the origin of springs, on heat, the colour of the sky, steam, the auxiliary verbs and participles of the English language and the reflection and refraction of light.

Atomic theory

In 1800 he became a secretary of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, and in the following year he presented the important paper or series of papers, entitled Experimental Essays on the constitution of mixed gases; on the pressure of steam and other vapors at different temperatures, both in a vacuum and in air; on evaporation; and on the thermal expansion of gases. The second of these essays opens with the striking remark, :There can scarcely be a doubt entertained respecting the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever kind, into liquids; and we ought not to despair of affecting it in low temperatures and by strong pressures exerted upon the unmixed gases further. After describing experiments to ascertain the pressure of steam at various points between 0 ° and 100°C (32° and 212°F), he concluded from observations on the vapor pressure of six different liquids, that the variation of vapor pressure for all liquids is equivalent, for the same variation of temperature, reckoning from vapor of any given pressure. In the fourth essay he remarks, :"I see no sufficient reason why we may not conclude that all elastic fluids under the same pressure expand equally by heat and that for any given expansion of mercury, the corresponding expansion of air is proportionally something less, the higher the temperature. It seems, therefore, that general laws respecting the absolute quantity and the nature of heat are more likely to be derived from elastic fluids than from other substances." He thus enunciated Gay-Lussac's law, stated some months later by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. In the two or three years following the reading of these essays, he published several papers on similar topics, that on the absorption of gases by water and other liquids (1803), containing his law of partial pressures. The most important of all Dalton's investigations are those concerned with the atomic theory in chemistry, with which his name is inseparably associated. It has been proposed that this theory was suggested to him either by researches on ethylene (olefiant gas) and methane (carburetted hydrogen) or by analysis of nitrous oxide (protoxide of azote) and nitrogen dioxide (deutoxide of azote), both views resting on the authority of Thomas Thomson. However, a study of Dalton's own laboratory notebooks, discovered in the rooms of the Lit & Phil, concluded that so far from Dalton being led to the idea, that chemical combination consists in the interaction of atoms of definite and characteristic weight, by his search for an explanation of the law of multiple proportions, the idea of atomic structure arose in his mind as a purely physical concept, forced upon him by study of the physical properties of the atmosphere and other gases. The first published indications of this idea are to be found at the end of his paper on the absorption of gases already mentioned, which was read on October 21 1803 though not published till 1805. Here he says: : "Why does not water admit its bulk of every kind of gas alike? This question I have duly considered, and though I am not able to satisfy myself completely I am nearly persuaded that the circumstance depends on the weight and number of the ultimate particles of the several gases." He proceeds to give what has been quoted as his first table of atomic weights, but in his laboratory notebooks there is an earlier one dated 1803 in which he sets out the relative weights of the atoms of a number of substances, derived from analysis of water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, etc. by chemists of the time. It appears, then, that confronted with the problem of calculating the relative diameter of the atoms of which, he was convinced, all gases were made, he used the results of chemical analysis. Assisted by the assumption that combination always takes place in the simplest possible way, he thus arrived at the idea that chemical combination takes place between particles of different weights, and this it was which differentiated his theory from the historic speculations of the Greeks. The extension of this idea to substances in general necessarily led him to the law of multiple proportions, and the comparison with experiment brilliantly confirmed his deduction. It may be noted that in a paper on the proportion of the gases or elastic fluids constituting the atmosphere, read by him in November 1802, the law of multiple proportions appears to be anticipated in the words: The elements of oxygen may combine with a certain portion of nitrous gas or with twice that portion, but with no intermediate quantity, but there is reason to suspect that this sentence was added some time after the reading of the paper, which was not published till 1805. Many of Dalton's ideas were acquired from other chemists at the time, such as Antoine Lavoisier and William Higgins. However, he was the first to put the ideas into a universal atomic theory, which was undoubtedly his greatest achievement. Five main points of Dalton's Atomic Theory
- All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
- All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same size, mass, and chemical properties. Atoms of a specific element are different from those of any other element.
- Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles, or destroyed.
- Different atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
- In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined, or rearranged.

Later years

Dalton communicated his atomic theory to Thomson who, by consent, included an outline of it in the third edition of his System of Chemistry (1807), and Dalton gave a further account of it in the first part of the first volume of his New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808). The second part of this volume appeared in 1810, but the first part of the second volume was not issued till 1827, though the printing of it began in 1817. This delay is not explained by any excess of care in preparation, for much of the matter was out of date and the appendix giving the author's latest views is the only portion of special interest. The second part of vol. ii. never appeared. Dalton was president of the Lit & Phil from 1817 until his death, contributing 116 memoirs. Of these the earlier are the most important. In one of them, read in 1814, he explains the principles of volumetric analysis, in which he was one of the earliest workers. In 1840 a paper on the phosphates and arsenates, often regarded as a weaker work, was refused by the Royal Society, and he was so incensed that he published it himself. He took the same course soon afterwards with four other papers, two of which On the quantity of acids, bases and salts in different varieties of salts and On a new and easy method of analysing sugar, contain his discovery, regarded by him as second in importance only to the atomic theory, that certain anhydrates, when dissolved in water, cause no increase in its volume, his inference being that the salt enters into the pores of the water.

Dalton's experimental method

As an investigator, Dalton was content with rough and inaccurate instruments, though better ones were readily attainable. Sir Humphry Davy described him as a very coarse experimenter, who almost always found the results he required, trusting to his head rather than his hands. In the preface to the second part of vol. i. of his New System he says he had so often been misled by taking for granted the results of others that he determined to write as little as possible but what I can attest by my own experience, but this independence he carried so far that it sometimes resembled lack of receptivity. Thus he distrusted, and probably never fully accepted, Gay-Lussac's conclusions as to the combining volumes of gases. He held peculiar and quite unfounded views about chlorine. Even after its elementary character had been settled by Davy, he persisted in using the atomic weights he himself had adopted, even when they had been superseded by the more accurate determinations of other chemists. He always objected to the chemical notation devised by Jöns Jakob Berzelius, although by common consent it was much simpler and more convenient than his own cumbersome system of circular symbols. His library, he was once heard to declare, he could carry on his back, yet reputedly he had not read half the books it contained.

Public life

Before he had propounded the atomic theory he had already attained a considerable scientific reputation. In 1804 he was chosen to give a course of lectures on natural philosophy at the Royal Institution in London, where he delivered another course in 1809–1810. However, he was deficient, it would seem, in the qualities that make an attractive lecturer, being harsh and indistinct in voice, ineffective in the treatment of his subject, and singularly wanting in the language and power of illustration. In 1810 he was asked by Davy to offer himself as a candidate for the fellowship of the Royal Society, but declined, possibly for financial reasons. However, in 1822 he was proposed without his knowledge, and on election paid the usual fee. Six years previously he had been made a corresponding member of the French Académie des Sciences, and in 1830 he was elected as one of its eight foreign associates in place of Davy. In 1833 Lord Grey's government conferred on him a pension of £150, raised in 1836 to £300. Dalton never married, though there is evidence that he enjoyed the company of educated and refined women. He lived for more than a quarter of a century with his friend the Rev. W. Johns (1771–1845), in George Street, Manchester, where his daily round of laboratory work and tuition was broken only by annual excursions to the Lake District and occasional visits to London. In 1822 he paid a short visit to Paris, where he met many distinguished resident scientists. He attended several of the earlier meetings of the British Association at York, Oxford, Dublin and Bristol.

Death and legacy

Dalton died in Manchester in 1844 of paralysis. The first attack he suffered in 1837, and a second in 1838 left him much enfeebled, both physically and mentally, though he remained able to make experiments. In May 1844 he had another stroke; on July 26 he recorded with trembling hand his last meteorological observation, and on the 27th he fell from his bed and was found lifeless by his attendant. A bust of him, by Chantrey, was publicly subscribed for him and placed in the entrance hall of the Manchester Royal Institution. Dalton had requested that his eyes be examined after his death, in an attempt to discover the cause of his colour-blindness; he had hypothesised that his aqueous humour might be coloured blue. Postmortem examination showed that the humours of the eye were perfectly normal. However, an eye was preserved at the Royal Institution, and a 1990s study on DNA extracted from the eye showed that he had lacked the pigment that gives sensitivity to green; the classic condition known as a deuteranope. In honor of his work with ratios and chemicals that led to the idea of atoms and atomic weights, many chemists and biochemists use the (as of yet unofficial) unit Dalton (abbreviated Da) to denote one atomic mass unit, or 1/12 the weight of a neutral atom of Carbon-12.

Notes

#Roscoe & Harden (1896) #Laboratory notebooks for 1802–1804, under the date 6th September 1803, on p.248 #Roscoe & Harden (1896), pp. 50,51

Bibliography

- Henry, Life of Dalton, Cavendish Society (1854)
- Angus Smith, Memoir of John Dalton and History of the Atomic Theory
- Roscoe and Harden, A New View of the Origin of Dalton's Atomic Theory (1896)
- DM Hunt, KS Dulai, JK Bowmaker, JD Mollon, "The chemistry of John Dalton's color blindness." Science Feb 17 1995

External links

- [http://rylibweb.man.ac.uk/dalton/ John Dalton Manchester Man exhibit]
- [http://www.manlitphil.org.uk/1418.html Dalton Bicentennial celebrations]
- [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/D/Dalton-J.html John Dalton Biography] Dalton, John Dalton, John Dalton, John Dalton, John Dalton, John Dalton, John Dalton, John Dalton, John ja:ジョン・ドルトン

1766

1766 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 1 - Bonnie Prince Charlie becomes the new Stuart claimant to the throne of Great Britain as King Charles III and figurehead for Jacobitism.
- March 5 - Antonio de Ulloa, the first Spanish governor of Louisiana, arrives in New Orleans.
- March 18 - American Revolution: The British Parliament repeals the Stamp Act which was very unpopular in the British colonies. The persuasion of Benjamin Franklin is considered partly responsible. The Declaratory Act asserts the right of Britain to bind the colonies in all other respects.
- November 10 - The last Colonial governor of New Jersey, William Franklin, signs the charter of Queen's College (later renamed Rutgers University).
- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart returns to Salzburg after touring Paris and London with his father
- Christian VII becomes King of Denmark
- Lorraine becomes French again on the death of Stanislaus I Leszczyński, King of Poland
- The Burmese begin to invade the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya.
- What is now England's oldest surviving Georgian theatre constructed in Stockton-on-Tees.

Births

- February 14 - Thomas Malthus, English demographer and economist (d. 1834)
- April 22 - Anne Louise Germaine de Stael, French author (d. 1817)
- July 8 - Dominique Jean Larrey, French surgeon (d. 1842)
- August 6 William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist (d. 1828)
- September 6 - John Dalton, English chemist and physicist (d. 1844)
- October 23 - Emmanuel, marquis de Grouchy, French marshal (d. 1847)
- November 2 - Joseph Radetzky von Radetz, Austrian field marshal (d. 1858)
- December 3 - Barbara Fritchie, U.S. patriot in Civil War (d. 1862)

Deaths

- January 1 - James Francis Edward Stuart, "The Old Pretender" (b. 1688)
- January 9 - Thomas Birch, English historian (b. 1705)
- January 13 - King Frederick V of Denmark (b. 1723)
- January 19 - Jean-Nicolas Servan, French architect and painter (b. 1695)
- January 21 - James Quin, English actor (b. 1693)
- February 5 - Leopold Josef Graf Daun, Austrian field marshal (b. 1705)
- February 23 - Stanislaus I Leszczyński, King of Poland (b. 1677)
- April 4 - John Taylor, English classical scholar (b. 1704)
- April 7 - Tiberius Hemsterhuis, Dutch philologist and critic (b. 1685)
- May 5 - Jean Astruc, French physician and scholar
- May 8 - Samuel Chandler, English non-conformist minister (b. 1693)
- June 24 - Adrien-Maurice, 3rd duc de Noailles, French soldier (b. 1678)
- July 9 - Jonathan Mayhew, American minister and patriot (b. 1720)
- July 11 - Elizabeth Farnese, queen of Philip V of Spain (b. 1692)
- July 14 - František Maxmilián Kaňka, Czech architect (b. 1674)
- September 3 - Archibald Bower, Scottish historian (b. 1686)
- September 13 - Benjamin Heath, English classical scholar (b. 1704)
- November 9 - Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer, Dutch composer (b. 1692)
- December 12 - Johann Christoph Gottsched, German writer (b. 1700) Category:1766 ko:1766년 ms:1766 simple:1766

1844

1844 was a leap year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 15 - University of Notre Dame receives its charter from Indiana.
- February 27 - The Dominican Republic gains independence from Haiti.
- February 28 - A gun on USS Princeton explodes while the boat is on a Potomac River cruise, killing two United States Cabinet members and several others.
- April - The Fleet Prison for debtors in London is abolished.
- May 23 - Persian Prophet The Báb announces His revelation, founding Bábism.
- May 24 - First electrical telegram sent by Samuel Morse from Baltimore, Maryland to Washington, D.C., saying "What hath God wrought?".
- June 6 - George Williams founds the Young Men's Christian Association in London.
- June 15 - Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber.
- June 27 - Joseph Smith, Jr. is murdered with his brother Hyrum in Carthage Jail, Carthage, Illinois.
- July 3 - The last pair of Great Auks are killed.
- August 8 - During a meeting held in Nauvoo, the Quorum of Twelve, headed by Brigham Young, is created as the leading body of the Mormon Church.
- October 22 - Date predicted by the Millerites for the Second Coming of Jesus; leads to the Great Disappointment.
- November - James K. Polk defeats Henry Clay in the U.S. presidential election
- 3 November - Debut of Giuseppe Verdi's I due Foscari, at Teatro Argentina, Rome.
- November 6 - The Dominican Republic gains its independence from Spain.
- First ever international cricket match is played in New York City between Canada and the United States.
- Swedish chemistry professor Gustaf Erik Pasch invents the safety match
- Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx meet in Paris
- Alexander Dumas Jr meets Marie Duplessis
- Locksmith Alexander Fichet invents the first safe
- Carlos Antonio Lopez becomes dictator of Paraguay
- Abd al-Kader is defeated at Isly in Morocco. The sultan of Morocco soon repudiates his ally.

Births

- February 17 - Aaron Montgomery Ward, American department store founder (d. 1913)
- February 20 - Ludwig Boltzmann, Austrian physicist (d. 1906)
- February 20 - Joshua Slocum, Canadian seaman and adventurer (d. 1909)
- February 21 - Charles-Marie Widor, French organist and composer (d. 1937)
- March 10 - Pablo de Sarasate, Spanish violinist (d. 1908)
- March 18 - Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Russian composer (d. 1908)
- March 25 - Adolf Engler, German botanist (d. 1930)
- March 30 - Paul Verlaine, French poet (d. 1896)
- April 16 - Anatole France, French writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1924)
- May 17 - Julius Wellhausen, German biblical scholar (d. 1918)
- May 21 - Henri Rousseau, French artist (d. 1910)
- May 22 - Mary Cassatt, American artist (d. 1926)
- May 23 - `Abdu'l-Bahá, Persian religious leader (d. 1921)
- June 3 - Garret A. Hobart, 24th Vice President of the United States (d. 1899)
- July 11 - King Peter I of Serbia (d. 1921)
- July 22 - William Archibald Spooner, British scholar and Anglican priest (d. 1930)
- July 28 - Gerard Manley Hopkins, English poet (d. 1889)
- August 6 - Prince Alfred of the United Kingdom, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1900)
- August 17 - Menelik II, Emperor of Ethiopia (d. 1913)
- August 22 - George Washington DeLong, American naval officer and explorer (d. 1881)
- August 23 - Hamilton Disston, American land developer (d. 1896)
- August 29 - Edward Carpenter, English Socialist poet (d. 1929)
- August 30 - Emily Ruete, princess of Zanzibar (d. 1924)
- October 15 - Friedrich Nietzsche, German philosopher (d. 1900)
- October 22 - Louis Riel, Canadian leader (d. 1885)
- October 22 - Sarah Bernhardt, French actress (d. 1923)
- October 23 - Robert Bridges, English poet (d. 1930)
- October 27 - Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Swedish writer and pacirist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1916)
- November 2 - Mehmed V, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1918)
- November 23 - Karl Benz, German automotive pioneer (d. 1929)
- December 1 - Alexandra of Denmark, queen of Edward VII of England (d. 1925)
- December 8 - Émile Reynaud, French science teacher and animation pioneer (d. 1918)
- Abd ar-Rahman Khan, Emir of Afghanistan (d. 1901)

Deaths

- January 25 - Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Count d'Erlon, French marshal (b. 1765)
- January 27 - Charles Nodier, French writer (b. 1780)
- February 27 - Nicholas Biddle, president of the Second Bank of the United States (b. 1786)
- March 8 - King Charles XIV John of Sweden, Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, French Napoleonic general (b. 1763)
- June 27 - Hyrum Smith, American religious leader (b. 1800)
- June 27 - Joseph Smith, Jr., American religious leader (b. 1805)
- July 27 - John Dalton, English chemist and physicist (b. 1766)
- July 28 - Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I and King of Napes and Spain (b. 1768)
- July 29 - Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, Austrian composer (b. 1791) Category:1844 ko:1844년 ms:1844 simple:1844

Kingdom of Great Britain

:This article is about the historical state called the Kingdom of Great Britain (1707-1800). For information about its modern successor state, see the main article: United Kingdom. :For other meanings of the terms "United Kingdom" and "UK" , see United Kingdom (disambiguation) and UK (disambiguation). :For an explanation of terms like England, (Great) Britain and United Kingdom see British Isles (terminology). The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a state located in Western Europe, from 1707 to 1800. It was created by the merging of the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England under the Acts of Union 1707 to create a single kingdom encompassing the whole of the island of Great Britain. A new, single parliament and government, based in Westminster in London, controlled the new kingdom. The two former kingdoms had shared the same monarch since King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England in 1603. From 1707 onward, a joint "British" throne replaced the English and Scottish thrones and a joint Parliament of Great Britain replaced the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Scotland and England were given seats in both the House of Commons and the House of Lords of the new parliament. Although Scotland's representation in both houses was smaller than its population indicated it should have been, representation in parliament was at that time based not on population but on taxation, and Scotland was given a greater number of MPs than its share of taxation warranted. Under the terms of the union, Scotland elected forty-five members to the Commons and sent sixteen representative peers to the Lords. The Kingdom of Great Britain was superseded by the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801 when the Kingdom of Ireland was absorbed with the enactment of the Act of Union following the suppression of the Irish Rebellion of 1798.
Monarchs of Great Britain

- Anne (1707–1714), previously Queen of England, Queen of Scotland, and Queen of Ireland since 1702.
- George I (1714–1727)
- George II (1727–1760)
- George III (1760–1801), continued as King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until 1820.
See also

- Union Jack
- UK topics
- Style of the British Sovereign
Great Britain, United Kingdom of Great Britain, United Kingdom of Category:History of Great Britain British Isles (terminology) ja:グレートブリテン王国

Chemist

A chemist is a scientist trained in the science of chemistry. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. In Commonwealth English, chemist may also refer to a dispensing chemist, a pharmacist, or a general retailer of chemicals (usually for medicinal purposes).

Education

Jobs for chemists usually require at least a bachelor's degree, but many positions, especially those in research, require a PhD. Most undergraduate programs emphasize mathematics and physics as well as chemistry. At the Master's level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field. Fields of specialization include biochemistry, organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, and physical chemistry. Post-doctorate experience may be required for certain positions.

Employment

The three major employers of chemists are academic institutions, industry, especially the chemical industry and the pharmaceutical industry, and government laboratories.

History

The word chemist is a corruption of the New Latin noun chimista, an abbreviation of alchimista (alchemist).

References

- [http://jobs.strategy-blogs.com/Chemists-and-Materials-Scientists.html Occupational Analysis for Chemists]
- ja:化学者 simple:Chemist

Cockermouth

Cockermouth is a town in Cumbria, England, where the River Cocker flows into the River Derwent. It is situated on the North west fringe of the English Lake District. This location tends to enhance the life and character of the town without the negative impact of receiving too many tourists (as some believe has occurred in the case of Cockermouth's neighbour Keswick). Much of the architectural core of the town remains largely unchanged since the 18th and 19th centuries. 19th 19th 19th The town has ancient roots and Romans, Vikings and Normans have each left lingering marks on the Town and surrounding place names. Curiously, Cockermouth lays claim to be the first town in Britain to pilot electric lighting. It is perhaps best known as the birthplace of William and Dorothy Wordsworth, John Grayston, and Fletcher Christian (of Mutiny on the Bounty fame). John Dalton (a father of atomic theory) was born in a village on the outskirts of Cockermouth and Astronomer Royal Fearon Fallows also hailed from the town.Also world famous mountaineer and TV personality Chris Bonnington is a native of the Town. Wordsworth House has recently been expensively restored and visitors may take tea in its 18th century kitchen. Cockermouth is situated within a few minutes travelling distance from lakes such as Ennerdale, Crummock, Loweswater and Bassenthwaite, but is much less crowded with tourists than many Cumbrian towns. There was a market every Monday in the town's Market Place from the 13th century, but in recent times the event is held infrequently, if at all. Much of the centre of the town is Georgian with Victorian infill. The tree lined Kirkgate offers splendid examples of unspoilt classical 17th and 18th century terraced housing, cobbled paving and wistful twisty curving lanes which run steeply down to the River Cocker. Many of the buildings are of traditional slate and stone construction with thick walls and green slate roofs. Many of the facades lining the streets are frontages for historic housing in alleyways and lanes (often maintaining medieval street patterns) to the rear. An example of this may be observed through the alleyway adjacent to the almost perfectly preserved Market Place hardware merchant (J.B.Banks and Son) where 18th century dye workers' cottages line one side of the lane and the former works faces them from the other. Other examples may be observed behind frontages in Castlegate Drive, Main Street and Kirkgate. Attractions include the sizeable but partly ruined Norman castle (still inhabited by Lady Egremont), built at the confluence of the Rivers Cocker and Derwent, (complete with a tilting tower which hangs Pisa-like over Jennings Brewery. The castle and its preserved dungeons is open only once a year during the annual festival. The Printing House Museum, the Toy Museum and Wordworth's birthplace are other attractions. There is also a Lakeland Sheep Centre which offers daily shows in its theatre. Cockermouth is also home to the respected and traditional Jenning's Brewery which offers regular public tours and occasional carriage rides pulled by a shire horse. Culturally, the Kirkgate Centre offers international music, theatre and world cinema (including critically acclaimed and art-house movies on Monday evenings) and the town has an annual festival of concerts and performances each Summer. Cockermouth has an annual Easter Fair, fireworks display and carnival. In April 2005 and it is to host its first Georgian Fair. At Christmas the town puts on a truly impressive display of festive lights, which are accompanied by competing shop displays. Cockermouth has a three primary schools. These are Fairfield, which has separate Infant and Junior Schools, All Saints C of E and St. Joseph's Catholic. It also has a large secondary school which is one of the best in Cumbria, and several churches, three medical and dental surgeries, a complementary health centre, an arts centre, and an internationally renowned art gallery (Castlegate House). Percy House Gallery on Main Street has a ceiling which dates from the 16th century with some of its timberwork dating from the 14th century. The town has many antique shops, three main galleries, and more than 14 cafes (most of which serve good espresso and varied teas). There are many restaurants and of course lots of pubs. There is even a gourmet fish and chip restaurant in the Market Place. The Bitter End Pub in Kirkgate has its own micro-brewery and visiting ales. The largest hotel is the Georgian fronted Trout which still has a faded photo on its walls of Bing Crosby who used the hotel as a base for his fishing in the town's rivers. Many of the shops offer a distinctive and local appeal and yet there are three supermarkets (including the only Sainsburys between Lancaster and Glasgow), two chemists, two cycle shops, a Wilkinsons store, a sports centre, three bakers, swimming pool and two parks which both facilitate very pleasant riverside walks. The small but charmingly preserved Youth Hostel is sited in a 16th century mill on a bend in the River Cocker's approach to the Town. The adjoining village of Papcastle is also picturesque village in its own right and stands on the site of a Roman fort. The main cemetery on the Lorton Road is one of the most beautiful in Britain, with streams, humped stone bridges and views of the nearby fells.

Cumberland, England

Cumberland is one of the 39 traditional counties of England. The traditional county town is Carlisle, and the county borders Northumberland and County Durham to the east, Westmorland to the south, the Furness part of Lancashire to the south-west, Dumfriesshire to the north and Roxburghshire to the north-east. Much of the Lake District was formerly located in Cumberland. The county was administratively divided into five wards, rather than the hundred found in most English counties. The wards were Allerdale above Derwent, Allerdale below Derwent, Cumberland, Eskdale and Leath. In 1974, the area also became part of the new administrative county of Cumbria, along with Westmorland and parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire. The name continues in use as a geographical and cultural term, and survives in Cumberland sausages and various organisations and companies, such as the local newspapers The Cumberland News, and The West Cumberland Times and Star, and the Cumberland Building Society. During the 1990s UK local government reform, the Local Government Commission published Draft Recommendations in June 1994, suggesting as one option a North Cumbria unitary authority, whose southern boundary would broadly match that of Cumberland's historic boundary. It also suggested that Cumberland could be reinstated as an independent ceremonial county. The Final Recommendations, published in October 1994, did not include such recommendations, apparently due to lack of expression of support for the proposal to the Commission.

Links

- [http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/eng/CUL/Gaz1868.html CUMBERLAND, England - History and Description, 1868] Category:Cumberland Category:Traditional counties of England Category:History of Cumbria Category:Former administrative counties

Religious Society of Friends

The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers or Friends, is a religious community who do not have a universal set of doctrines to which all members subscribe but who embrace certain concepts that have been adopted by consensus. The most central concept of all is the Inner Light. Friends believe that the Inner Light is a guiding force within each person. This belief has been understood in several different ways but always accepted by various branches within the Society. Belief in the Inner Light has led to the development of several key concepts that are referred to as Testimonies. The Testimonies involve a commitment to such issues as peace, equality between the sexes and among the races, living simply, and maintaining personal integrity. They are explained in more detail in a subsequent section below and in separate articles. The Religious Society of Friends was founded in England in the 17th century. Quakers are counted among the historic peace churches, and have congregations scattered across the world. Since its origin in England, Quakerism has spread to other countries, chiefly the United States, Kenya and Bolivia. The number of Quakers in the world is relatively small (approximately 600,000), although there are places, such as Philadelphia & Pennsylvania in the United States, in which Quaker influence is concentrated. Although Quakers are historically Christian, there are many who consider themselves atheist, universalist or who do not accept any religious label.

Basic divisions and organization

Like many movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into various smaller subgroups. It is difficult to describe the Religious Society of Friends without making numerous qualifications and listing exceptions. In order to understand other aspects of the Religious Society of Friends, it is helpful to understand the basic divisions and organization.

In Great Britain

In Britain there has been a high level of organizational unity throughout the history of the Society. The local Friends meetings there are called preparative meetings. Several local meetings are part of a Monthly meeting. Several monthly meetings are organized into a general meeting. Formerly, general meetings were called quarterly meetings, and, while they continue to meet up to three times per year, they usually play no direct role in Quaker structures. Monthly meetings are represented directly in Meeting for Sufferings, which meets in between Yearly meetings. (For further information, see [http://www.quaker.org.uk/qfp/index.html Quaker Faith and Practice], published by yearly meeting]]. In programmed traditions, the local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches". They usually have a paid pastor. Their services are planned ahead of time and include hymns, prayers, and sermons by the pastor. They resemble Protestant churches, but many retain aspects of unprogrammed worship, including periods of silence. The programmed tradition also has attracted a form of Evangelical Christianity within it. Although "programmed Quakerism" has become more akin to mainline Protestantism, many Quakers consider their faith neither [[Protestant nor Catholic, but rather an expression of a third way to experience Christianity. There is a wide range of beliefs among Quakers and discovering what it truly means to be Quaker means struggling with these different viewpoints in the Meeting and the viewpoints held by the larger Quaker community. There are also semi-programmed Friends Meetings, in which there is some planning of the service and some silent waiting on the Spirit.

Names

Christianity Various names have been used for the Friends movement and its adherents. These include:
- Seekers
- Saints
- Children of the light
- Friends of the Truth
- Quakers
- Religious Society of Friends
- Society of Friends In the first few years of the movement, Quakers thought of themselves as the restoration (or at least part of it) of the true Christian church after centuries of apostasy. For this reason, during this period they often referred to themselves as simply the "saints" or the "children of light". Another common name was "Friends of the Truth", reflecting the central importance in early Quaker theology of Christ as an Inner light that shows you your true condition. The name "Quaker" was first used in 1650, when preacher George Fox was brought before Justice Bennet of Derby on a charge of blasphemy. According to Fox's journal, Bennet "called us Quakers because we bid them tremble at the word of God." (Here Fox would have meant Christ by "word of God"; see Beliefs and practices of Friends.) Indeed, early Friends did tremble and shake at their meetings, and spent many pamphlets defending "quaking" as a biblical phenomenon. Some Friends (including Fox) disliked the name, but it began to stick nonetheless. There was apparently an attempt after a 1654 meeting in Leicestershire to become known as the "children of light", but this was not successful. The name "Religious Society of Friends" came many years later, in the 18th century. This remains the official name to this day, although often "Quakers" is added in parentheses for the sake of clarity. Also, there are some Friends, usually in unprogrammed meetings, who object to the word "religious" and refer to themselves as part of the "Society of Friends". There are some monthly meetings that for this reason do not include "religious" in their name, while most larger Quaker organizations, such as yearly meetings, use the full name.

History

yearly meetings The Quakers began in England in the early 1650s as a Nonconformist breakaway movement from Anglicanism. Traditionally George Fox has been taken to be the founder or at least the most important early figure. As the movement expanded, it faced opposition and persecution. Quakers were imprisoned and beaten in both the British Isles and the British colonies. In the Massachusetts Bay colony, some Quakers (most famously Mary Dyer) were put to death for upholding their beliefs. The state of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn as a safe place for Quakers to live and practice their faith. Despite persecution, the movement grew steadily into a strong and united society. During the 19th century Friends in Ireland and the United States suffered a number of separations, while Friends in Great Britain generally remained united. Hicksite-Orthodox Split In 1827 Elias Hicks was expelled for expressing universalist views. The next year, a number of Friends in sympathy with him separated to form a parallel system of yearly meetings in America, referred to as Hicksite. The Quakers who did not follow Hicks are called Orthodox. Gurneyite-Wilburite Split The Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic dispute between Joseph John Gurney of England and John Wilbur of Rhode Island. Gurney emphasized scriptural authority and favored working closely with other Christian groups. Wilbur, in response, defended the authority of the Holy Spirit, i.e. the Inner light, as primary and worked to prevent the dilution of Friends tradition of Spirit-led ministry. Wilbur was expelled from his yearly meeting in a questionable proceeding in 1842. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite-Gurneyite separations occurred. (See [http://www.snowcamp.org/shocf/ A short history of Conservative Friends] for further information.) Beanites Joel Bean was an Orthodox Friend who opposed the extreme evangelicalism that was creeping into his branch of Quakerism. He formed a new branch of Quakerism in the western part of the United States. The "Beanite" or independent Quakers resemble an amalgam of Hicksite and Wilburite Quakerism, some of them adopting the label "Christ-Centered Universalism".

Beliefs and practices of Friends

Experiencing God

Fox and the other early Quaker preachers believed that direct experience of God was available to all people, without any mediation (e.g. through a pastor, or through sacraments). Fox described this by writing in his journal that "Christ was come to teach his people himself." Friends have often expressed this belief by referring to "that of God in Everyone", "Inner light", "inward Christ", "the spirit of Christ within", and many other terms. Since Friends believe that everyone contains "that of God", much of the Quaker perspective is based on trying to hear what the Inward Guide is saying to us. Isaac Penington put it this way in 1670: "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing - to feel him my root, my life, my foundation..." [http://www.qhpress.org/texts/penington/letter40.html]

Mysticism

Quakerism is often termed a mystical religion, but it differs from other mystical religions in two important ways. First, Quaker mysticism is primarily group-oriented rather than focused on the individual. The unprogrammed Quaker meeting may be considered an expression of that group mysticism, where all the members of the meeting can together listen for the Spirit and, ideally (in what is called a "gathered meeting") the Spirit moves people to speak such that disparate comments are later seen to be part of a larger theme or idea. Second, Quaker mysticism includes a strong emphasis on its outwardly directed activism. Rather than seeking withdrawal from the world, the Quaker mystic translates his or her mysticism into action. Action, in turn, leads to greater spiritual understanding — both by individuals and by the Meeting as a whole. Quakers refer to calls of the Spirit to do some particular act as a Leading. John Woolman is one example of how an individual or group with a Leading — in his case the abolition of slavery — can change individuals, the Society of Friends and the world at large for the better. In the process, the Spirit manifests itself in new ways and informs the mysticism of the Meeting community. Another term used to refer to the Quaker practice of stillness or silent worship -- a component common to both programmed and unprogrammed meetings -- is quietism.

The Bible

Early Friends believed that Christ, not the Bible, was the Word of God; for example, according to Robert Barclay the scriptures "are only a declaration of the fountain, and not the fountain itself, therefore they are not to be esteemed the principal ground of all Truth and knowledge, nor yet the adequate primary rule of faith and manners" (Apology prop. 3). Early Friends did however believe that Christ would never lead them in ways that contradicted the Bible, and so making the Bible subordinate to the spirit led to fewer conflicts than it does today. As time passed, conflicts between what the Bible appeared to teach and how Friends believed they were being led by the Spirit began to arise. Some Friends decided that in these cases the Bible should be authoritative, in effect making explicit early Friends' assumption that the Spirit would never lead contrary to scripture. For example, the Richmond Declaration of 1887 declared, among other things, that any action "contrary to the Scriptures, though under profession of the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, must be reckoned and accounted a mere delusion". Today Evangelical Friends believe that the Bible is authoritative and that personal Leadings are not right if they are contradictory to its teachings. Other Friends, partly under the influence of movements such as liberal Protestantism, decided that it was possible to be truly led in ways contrary to scripture, and that in such cases scripture should give way. Still other Friends rejected (or began to neglect) the Christian Bible altogether; hence in many liberal (usually unprogrammed) Friends meetings one will encounter non-Christian Friends. In nearly all cases however, modern Friends believe in the necessity of being continually guided by the inward light. Divine revelation is therefore not restricted to the Bible, but rather continues even today; this doctrine is known as continuing revelation. From this interpretation a common set of beliefs emerged, which became known as testimonies. (See Testimonies for a list and description of them.)

Creeds

Quakerism is a creedless religion. George Fox dismissed theologians as "notionists", and modern Quakerism is less concerned with theology than many other faiths. This lack of focus has resulted in a broad range of theologies from fundamentalist Christian to new-age universalist. Quakerism focuses more on faithfulness in life in the here and now than on ultimate destiny. Friends believe authentic listening to the Spirit cannot be reduced to a formula, and God's revelation continues as history unfolds. A formal creed would be an obstacle - both to authentic listening and to the recognition of new insight.

Sacraments

Early Friends did not believe in performing any special rites or sacraments, believing that holiness can exist in all the activities of one's life—all of life is sacred. Thus they did not perform baptism as a rite of membership, and their method of worship was considered unorthodox and heretical. Friends also believe that any meal with others can be a form of communion.

Plainness

Like many aspects of Quaker life, the practice of plainness has evolved over time, although it is based on principles that have been a lasting part of Quaker thought. These principles are now part of the Testimonies of Simplicity, Equality, and Integrity. Friends have practiced plainness in their dress and outward appearance as well as in their speech. Quakers wore plain clothes in order to address three concerns: the vanity and superiority associated with fanciness, the conformity associated with wearing the latest fashions, and the wastefulness of frequently buying new styles and spending money on adornment. At one time this practice of plainness allowed other people to identify Friends easily. Many people are still familiar with the image of the Quaker man in a gray or brown suit with a flat broad-brimmed hat, and the Quaker woman in a plain dress and bonnet. These specific practices are not followed by most Quakers today; however, the principles behind them are just as important to Quakers as ever, and most Friends apply them to their daily lives in new ways. Plainness in speech addressed other concerns: honesty, class distinction, and vestiges of paganism. These principles were put into practice by affirming rather than swearing oaths, setting fixed prices for goods, using familiar forms for the second person pronoun, avoiding the use of honorific titles, and using numbers rather than names for the days of the week and the months of the year.

Egalitarianism

For more information about Quaker Egalitarianism see Testimony of Equality Early Quakerism included a strong sense of spiritual egalitarianism, including a belief in the spiritual equality of the sexes—remarkable for that time. Both women and men were granted equal authority to speak in meetings for worship. George Fox's wife, Margaret Fell, was as vocal and literate as her husband, publishing several tracts in Quakerism's early days. One trait continued by modern Friends is taking a dim view of titles and ranks. For example, at Earlham College, a Quaker college in Richmond, Indiana, professors and administrators are addressed by their first name by students, without the use of "professor" or "doctor". It is generally accepted in Quaker communities for children to address adults by their first names.

Oaths and fair-dealing

For more information on this topic see Testimony of Integrity Early Friends believed that an important part of Jesus' message was how we treat our fellow human beings. They felt that honest dealing with others meant more than just not telling lies. Friends continue to believe that it is important not to mislead others, even if the words used are all technically truthful. Early Friends refused to swear oaths, even in courtrooms, believing that one must speak truth at all times, and the act of swearing to it implied otherwise.

Quaker terminology

Though the practices of plain dress and speech made them known as a "peculiar people", for the most part modern Quakers dress and speak in a manner indistinguishable from others. Some Friends do retain the use of "thou" and "thee" with other Friends. Friends also use certain distinctive terms when describing their theology and practices:
- Convincement: the process of a non-Friend deciding to become a Friend.
- Birthright Friend: those Friends born into families that are members of a Friends Meeting. (This is no longer recognized officially by British Friends.)
- Weighty Friend: a Friend, often (though not always) older, whose opinion or ministry is especially valued.
- Ministry: the act of speaking during a meeting for worship.
- Speaks to my condition, "Friend speaks my mind": directly addresses my personal understanding.
- That of God in everyone: the belief of an Inner Light within all people.
- Hold in the Light: think about, pray for, or hold special thoughts about another person.
- Lay down: what you do to a committee that is no longer needed, i.e. you disband it.
- Clearness: a process undergone to discern rightness of action, similar to consensus (when applied to group decision-making), but guided, according to Quaker belief, by the Holy Spirit or Inner light. Friends often work with Clearness committees when struggling with a difficult issue.
- Proceed as Way Opens: to undertake a service or course of action without prior clarity about all the details but with confidence that divine guidance will make these apparent and assure an appropriate outcome.
- I hope so: (British usage) during a meeting for worship for business, when the clerk asks those present if they agree with a minute, Friends will usually say "I hope so" rather than "yes". It is meant in the sense of "I hope that this is the true guidance of the Holy Spirit".

Testimonies

Quaker testimonies are the traditional statements of Quaker belief. Testimonies are not formal static documents, but rather a shared collection or view of how Quakers relate to God and the world. Testimonies cannot easily be taken one at a time, as they are interrelated. As a philosophical system, they are coherent, even outside of Christian theology. From today's perspective, Friends have not always followed their own testimonies well. For example while Friends were some of the first to oppose slavery in the United States (Germantown Monthly Meeting minuted their opposition to slavery in 1733), a number of Friends continued to own slaves. While the list of testimonies is evolving (see [http://www.quaker.org.uk/shared_asp_files/uploadedfiles/0baedba2-9b9c-4b82-a142-a9065fecbea6_testimonies_leaflet.pdf Quaker Testimonies leaflet]), like all aspects of Friends theology, the following is a generally accepted list.
- The Peace Testimony
- The Testimony of Integrity
- The Testimony of Equality
- The Testimony of Simplicity

The Peace Testimony

See main article on the Peace Testimony. The Peace Testimony is the most static testimony; it is also the best known testimony of Friends. The belief that violence is always wrong has persisted to this day, and many conscientious objectors, advocates of non-violence and anti-war activists are Friends. Because of the peace testimony, Friends are often considered as one of the historic peace churches. In 1947 Quakerism was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the prize was accepted by the American Friends Service Committee and Friends Service Council.

The Testimony of Integrity

See main article on the Testimony of Integrity. Also known as the Testimony of Truth, or Truth Testimony, the essence of the Testimony of Integrity is placing God at the center of one's life and refusing to place things other than God there—whether it be oneself, possessions, the regard of others, belief in principles or something else. To Friends integrity is in choosing to follow the leading of the Spirit despite the challenges and urges to do otherwise. This testimony has led to Friends having a reputation for being honest and fair in their dealings with others. It has led them to give proper credit to others for their contributions and to accept responsibility for their own actions.

The Testimony of Equality

See main article on the Testimony of Equality. Testimony of Equality Friends believe that all people are created equal in the eyes of God. Since all people embody the same divine spark all people deserve equal treatment. Friends were some of the first to value women as important ministers and to campaign for women's rights, they became leaders in the anti-slavery movement, and were among the first to pioneer humane treatment for the mentally ill and for prisoners.
The Testimony of Simplicity
See main article on Testimony of Simplicity. Simplicity to Friends has generally been a reference to material possessions and is often referred to as plainness. Friends traditionally limited their possessions to what they need to live their lives, rather than pursuing luxuries. Recently this testimony is often taken to have an ecological dimension: that Friends should not use more than their fair share of the Earth's resources.
Quaker worship
Testimony of Simplicity Friends treat all functions of the church as a form of worship, including business, marriage, and memorial services, in addition to regular worship services. There are two main styles of Quaker worship, programmed and unprogrammed. Unprogrammed worship is the more traditional style of worship among Friends and remains the norm in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and much of the United States. During an unprogrammed meeting for worship, Friends gather together in "expectant waiting" for messages from God. They wait in silence. When a member feels led to share a message with the gathered meeting, they will generally rise and share (give "ministry"). Traditionally, messages, testimonies, ministry, or other speech are unprepared, and members are called on to discern the source of their inspiration—whether divine or ego. Sometimes a meeting is entirely silent, sometimes quite a few people speak. The number of people speaking is unrelated to how gathered a meeting feels to its participants. Generally meeting for worship lasts about an hour (although it can be shorter or longer depending on the group gathered). Unprogrammed worship is deemed to start as soon as the first member of the congregation is seated, the other participants entering the room in silence. The Meeting for Worship ends when a predetermined person (usually an "elder") shakes the hand of his or her neighbor. All the members of the assembly then shake hands with their neighbors, after which one member (usually the "clerk") usually rises and extends his or her greetings. Many meetings serve coffee or tea after meeting, which gives everyone an opportunity to catch up with friends and chat with visitors. Programmed worship arose in the US in the 19th century in response to large numbers of converts to Quakerism during the national spiritual revivalism of the time. Worship at a Friends Church resembles a typical Protestant worship service in the United States. Typically there are readings from scripture, hymns, and a sermon from the pastor. Many Friends in the southern and central United States worship in this way. Some Friends also hold what is termed Semi-Programmed Worship, which brings programmed elements like hymns and scripture readings into an otherwise unprogrammed worship service. While the different styles of worship generally reflect the theological splits within US Quakerism, with unprogrammed meetings generally being more theologically liberal and programmed Friends churches more theologically conservative, this is not a strict rule. The UK did not undergo the same schisms as the US and continued with unprogrammed meetings. As a result, there is a broader spectrum of theological beliefs within Britain Yearly Meeting.
Quaker weddings
See main article on Quaker weddings. Traditionally in a Friends Meeting when a couple decides to get married they declare their intentions to marry to the meeting. A traditional wedding ceremony in a Friends meeting is similar to any other Meeting for Worship, and therefore often very different from the experience expected by non-Friends. Quaker marriage ceremonies were performed in the same manner as worship, meaning there was no priest or high official to conduct the ceremony and sanction the union. The pair did, and still do, marry one another before God and human witnesses gathered.
Decision making among Friends
Quaker wedding Business decisions on a local level are conducted at a monthly "Meeting for Worship with a concern for business", or simply "business meeting". A meeting for business is a form of worship, and all decisions are reached so that they are consistent with the guidance of the Spirit (called "unity" or "sense of the meeting"). There is no voting. Instead, the Business Meeting attempts to gain a sense of God's will for the community. Each member of the meeting is expected to listen to that of God within themselves and, when led, to contribute it to the group for reflection and consideration. Each member listens to others' contributions carefully. A decision is reached when the meeting as a whole feels that the "way forward" has been discerned. Occasionally, some members of the Meeting will "stand aside" on an issue, meaning that these members do not share in the general sense of unity but are willing to allow the group to move forward. In still other cases a meeting may reach a sense of unity notwithstanding that some members remain opposed, although the meeting would proceed only after considerable time was spent in discernment to ensure that the concerns of the dissenting members have been heard and the sense of the meeting is clear. The business procedure of Friends can seem impractical. While the process can be frustrating and slow, at its best it works very well. By the time a decision is made, all the issues have been worked out and the group is ready to implement the decision. Making decisions by the sense of the meeting has been a centerpiece of the Religious Society of Friends for over 350 years, at times seeing them through extremely difficult decisions. Quaker-style decision making has been adapted for use in secular settings in recent years (see Consensus decision-making).
Memorial services
Quaker memorial services are also held as a form of worship. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the person who has died. Memorial services often last over an hour, particularly if there are a large number of people in attendence. Memorial services give everyone a chance to remember the lost individual in their own way, thus bringing comfort to those present. Many Quaker meetings remind families of the testimonies related to "plainness" in the context of choosing a grave marker.
Quaker organizations
Many schools around the world were founded by Friends. For a list of such schools with links to other articles, see List of Friends Schools. National or regional bodies of Friends are called yearly meetings. For a wider treatment of yearly meetings and a list of yearly meetings around the world, see Yearly meeting. Some yearly meetings belong to larger organizations, the three chief ones being Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends International (EFI). (In each of these three groups, most member organizations are from the United States.) FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while EFI is the most conservative. FUM is the largest of the three. Some monthly meetings belong to more than one of these larger organizations, while others are independent. The Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization which loosely unifies the diverse groups of Friends. FWCC was set up at the 1937 World Conference of Friends in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, US, "to act in a consultative capacity to promote better understanding among Friends the world over, particularly by the encouragement of joint conferences and intervisitation, the collection and circulation of information about Quaker literature and other activities directed towards that end." About 175 representatives, appointed by the almost 70 affiliated yearly meetings and groups, meet together every three years at Triennials, aiming to provide links among Friends. FWCC bring together the largest variety of Friends in the world. There are also various associated Friends organizations including: a US lobbying organization based in Washington, DC called the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); several service organizations like the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, and the Friends Committee on Scouting.
See also

- Christian anarchism
- Conservative Friends
- List of pacifist faiths
- List of Quakers
- List of Friends Schools
- Movement for a New Society
- Nonviolence
- Peace churches
- Pennsylvania, U.S. state founded by Quaker William Penn. (Penn was also a trustee for part of New Jersey.)
- A Quaker Action Group
- Quaker Bible
- Quaker tapestry
- Quaker views of homosexuality
- Quaker views of women
- Quakers in Kenya
- Quakers in Latin America
- Renovare
- Shakers
Recommended reading

- Bacon, Margaret H., The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the Quakers in America ISBN 0-87574-935-6
- Brinton, Howard H., Friends for 300 Years ISBN 0-87574-903-8
- Birkel, Michael L., Silence and Witness: The Quaker Tradition ISBN 1-57075518-3 (in the UK, ISBN 0-232-52448-3)
- Cooper, Wilmer A., A Living Faith : An Historical and Comparative Study of Quaker Beliefs. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-944350-53-4
- Gillman, Harvey, A Light that is Shining: Introduction to the Quakers ISBN 0-85245-213-6
- Hamm, Thomas D., The Quakers in America ISBN 0-231-12362-0
- Hubbard, Geoffrey, Quaker by Convincement ISBN 0-85245-189-X and ISBN 0-14-021663-4
- ed. Mullet, Michael, New Light on George Fox ISBN 1-85072-142-4
- Punshon, John, Portrait in Grey : a short history of the Quakers ISBN 0-85245-180-6
- Pym, Jim, Listening to the Light: How to Bring Quaker Simplicity and Integrity into our Lives. ISBN 0-7126-7020-3
- Smith, Robert Lawrence, A Quaker Book of Wisdom ISBN 0-688-17233-4
- ed. West, Jessamyn, The Quaker Reader ISBN 0-87574-916-X
- Wilson, Lloyd Lee, Essays On The Quaker Vision Of Gospel Order ISBN 0-87574-925-9
- Wilson, Lloyd Lee, Wrestling with Our Faith Tradition: Collected Public Witness, 1995-2004 ISBN 1-888305-36-4
External links

Information on Quakers and Quakerism

- [http://www.quaker.org Links, websites, mailing lists, and other information on Quakers]
- [http://www.britainyearlymeeting.org.uk/warwickshire/page.asp?pageid=3 Warwickshire Monthly Meeting - about Quakers in Britain]
- [http://www.quakerinfo.com Quaker Information Center]
- [http://www.fgcquaker.org/library Friends General Conference online resources library]
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk/ Quakers in Britain]
- [http://www.friends.org.uk/quakers/qschools.htm Friends Schools in the UK]
- [http://www.nonviolence.org/quaker/quaker_places.php A Guide to Quaker Websites and Blogs]
- [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Christianity/Denominations/Religious_Society_of_Friends Open Directory Project: Religious Society of Friends]
- [http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/quak.html Quakers, University of Virginia Religious Movements Project]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/quakers/ BBC's page on Quakers]
- [http://rps.gn.apc.org/leveson/resources/cadbury0503.htm Beliefs and Business: the experience of Quaker Companies]
Quaker organizations

- [http://www.fgcquaker.org Friends General Conference]
- [http://www.fum.org Friends United Meeting]
- [http://www.evangelical-friends.org Evangelical Friends International]
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk Religious Society of Friends in Britain]
- [http://www.fwccworld.org Friends World Committee for Consultation]
- [http://www.afsc.org American Friends Service Committee]
- [http://www.fcnl.org Friends Committee on National Legislation (US)]
- [http://www.nffuk.org/ New Foundation Fellowship (UK)]
- [http://www.friendscouncil.org Friends Council on Education (US)]
- [http://flgbtqc.quaker.org Friends for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender & Queer Concerns (FLGBTQC)]
- [http://www.qug.org.uk/ Quaker Universalist Group]
Quaker study centres

- [http://www.woodbrooke.org.uk Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre, UK]
- [http://www.pendlehill.org Pendle Hill Quaker Study Center, US]
Quaker links

- [http://worship.quaker.org/ Online Meeting for Worship]
- [http://www.quakerfinder.org Quakerfinder.org]: find unprogrammed Meetings in U.S. & Canada
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk/Templates/System/FindMeeting.asp?NodeID=89755 Find Meetings in Great Britain]
- [http://www.quakerinfo.com/qeu.shtml "Quaker E-mail lists"]
Quaker books and writings

- [http://worship.quaker.org/qfp Online Faith & Practice]
- [http://www.pym.org/publish/fnp/ Philadelphia Yearly Meeting: Faith & Practice]
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk/qfp/index.html Britain Yearly Meeting: Faith & Practice]
- [http://www.quakerbooks.org Quakerbooks]: Friends General Conference bookstore
- [http://www.barclaypress.com/ Barclay Press] (Evangelical Friends)
- [http://www.qis.net/~daruma/ Quaker Electronic Archive]
- [http://www.qhpress.org/texts/index.html Quaker Heritage Press Online Texts]
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk/qfp/chap1/index.html Advices and Queries] Category:Religious organizations
- ja:クエーカー simple:Religious Society of Friends

1778

1778 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar).

Events

- The term thoroughbred was first used in the United States in an advertisement in a Kentucky gazette to describe a New Jersey stallion called Pilgarlick.
- January 18 - Third Pacific expedition of Capt. James Cook, with ships HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first view O'ahu then Kaua'i in the Hawaiian Islands, which he names the "Sandwich Islands."
- February 5 - South Carolina becomes the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation.
- February 6 - American Revolutionary War: In Paris the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce are signed by the United States and France signaling official recognition of the new republic.
- February 23 - American Revolutionary War: Baron von Steuben arrives at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania and begins to train the Continental Army.
- July 10 - American Revolutionary War: Louis XVI of France declares war on the Kingdom of Great Britain.
- July 27 - American Revolution: First Battle of Ushant - British and French fleets fight to a standoff.
- August 26 - Triglav, at 2,864 metres above sea level the highest peak of Slovenia, was ascended for the first time by four brave men: Luka Korošec, Matevž Kos, Štefan Rožič and Lovrenc Willomitzer on Sigismund Zois's initiative.
- September - The Massachusetts Banishment Act, providing punishment for Loyalists, is passed.
- November 26 - In the Hawaiian Islands, Captain James Cook becomes the first European to discover Maui.
- France introduced the first state-controlled brothel.
- The first settlement was made in the area of what is now Louisville, Kentucky by 13 families under Col. George Rogers Clark.
- Phillips Academy, the most prestigious secondary boarding school in the United States, was founded by Samuel Phillips Jr.

Births

- January 3 - Antoni Melchior Fijałkowski, Polish bishop (d. 1861)
- February 22 - Rembrandt Peale, American artist (d. 1860)
- March 19 - Edward Pakenham, British general (d. 1815)
- April 10 - William Hazlitt, English essayist (d. 1830)
- May 18 - Charles William Vane, 3rd Marquess of Londonderry, British politician (d. 1854)
- August 11 - Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, German patriot (d. 1852)
- September 8 - Clemens Brentano, German poet (d. 1842)
- September 19 - Henry Peter Brougham, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (d. 1868)
- November 1 - Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (d. 1837)
- December 17 - Sir Humphry Davy, English chemist (d. 1829)

Deaths

- January 10 - Carolus Linnaeus, Swedish botanist (b. 1707)
- February 18 - Joseph Marie Terray, French statesman (b. 1715)
- February 20 - Laura Bassi, Italian scholar (b. 1711)
- March 5 - Thomas Augustine Arne, English compoer (b. 1710)
- March 7 - Charles De Geer, Swedish industrialist and entomologist (b. 1720)
- March 13 - Charles le Beau, French historian (b. 1701)
- April 22 - James Hargreaves, English weaver, carpenter, and inventor (b. 1720)
- May 16 - Robert Darcy, 4th Earl of Holderness, English diplomat and politician (b. 1718)
- May 30 - Voltaire, French philosopher (b. 1694)
- June 12 - Philip Livingston, American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. 1716)
- June 16 - Konrad Ekhof, German actor (b. 1720)
- June 24 - Pieter Burmann the Younger, Dutch philologist (b. 1714)
- July 2 - Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Swiss philosopher (b. 1712)
- July 2 - Bathsheba Ruggles, American murderer (b. 1746?)
- August 5 - Charles Clémencet, French historian (b. 1703)
- August 12 - Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, British general and politician (b. 1714)
- November 9 - Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Italian artist (b. 1720)
- November 20 - Francesco Cetti, Italian Jesuit scientist (b. 1726) Category:1778 ko:1778년 ms:1778

1781

1781 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar).

Events

- January 5 - American Revolutionary War: Richmond, Virginia is burned by British naval forces led by Benedict Arnold.
- January 30 - Articles of Confederation ratified by 13th state, Maryland.
- January - William Pitt the Younger, later Prime Minister, enters Parliament.
- March 1 - American Continental Congress implements the