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John Dewey

John Dewey

John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer, whose thought has been greatly influential in the United States and around the world. He is recognized as one of the founders of the philosophical school of Pragmatism (along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James), a pioneer in functional psychology, and a leading representative of the progressive movement in U.S. education during the first half of the 20th century. Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont of modest family origins. He received his PhD from the Krieger School of Arts & Sciences at Johns Hopkins University in 1884. From 1904, he was professor of philosophy at Columbia University.

Educational philosophy

As can be seen in his [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Democracy_and_Education Democracy and Education] Dewey attempts to at once synthesize, criticize, and expand upon the democratic or proto-democratic educational philosophies of Rousseau and Plato. He saw Rousseau's as overemphasizing the individual and Plato's as overemphasizing the society in which the individual lived. For Dewey, this distinction was by and large a false one; like Vygotsky, he viewed the mind and its formation as communal process. Thus the individual is only a meaningful concept when regarded as an inextricable part of his society, and the society has no meaning apart from its realization in the lives of its individual members. However, as evidenced in his later Experience and Nature Dewey recognizes the importance of the subjective experience of individual people in introducing revolutionary new ideas. For Dewey, it was vitally important that education not be the teaching of mere dead fact, but that the skills and knowledge which students learned be integrated fully into their lives as persons, citizens and human beings. At the Laboratory School which Dewey and his wife Alice ran at the University of Chicago, children learned much of their early chemistry, physics, and biology by investigating the natural processes which went into cooking breakfast—an activity they did in their classes. This practical element—learning by doing—sprang from his subscription to the philosophical school of Pragmatism. His ideas, while quite popular, were never broadly and deeply integrated into the practices of American public schools, though some of his values and terms were widespread. Progressive education (both as espoused by Dewey, and in the more popular and inept forms of which Dewey was critical) was essentially scrapped during the Cold War, when the dominant concern in education was creating and sustaining a scientific and technological elite for military purposes. In the post-Cold War period, however, progressive education has reemerged in many school reform and education theory circles as a thriving field of inquiry.

Dewey and historical progressive education

The most basic idea of John Dewey's with regard to education was that greater emphasis should be placed on the broadening of intellect and development of problem solving and critical thinking skills, rather than simply on the memorization of lessons. While Dewey's educational theories have enjoyed a broad popularity during his lifetime and after, they have a troubled history of implementation. Dewey's writings can be difficult to read, and his tendency to reuse commonplace words and phrases to express extremely complex reinterpretations of them makes him unusually susceptible to misunderstanding. So while he remains one of the great American public intellectuals, his public often did not quite follow his line of thought, even when it thought it did. Many enthusiastically embraced what they thought was Deweyan teaching, but which in fact bore little or somewhat perverse resemblance to it. Dewey tried, on occasion, to correct such misguided enthusiasm, but with little success. Simultaneously, other progressive educational theories, often influenced by Dewey but not directly derived from him, were also becoming popular, and progressive education grew to comprehend many, many contradictory theories and practices, as documented by historians like Herbert Kliebard. It is often thought that progressive education "failed", though whether this view is justified depends on one's definitions of "progressive" and "failure". Several versions of progressive education succeeded in transforming the educational landscape: the utter ubiquity of guidance counseling, to name but one example, springs from the progressive period. However, radical variations of educational progressivism were hardly ever tried, and often were troubled and short-lived.

Deweyan pragmatism

Dewey is one of the three central figures in American pragmatism, along with Charles Sanders Peirce, who coined the term, and William James, who popularized it—though Dewey did not identify himself as a pragmatist per se, and instead referred to his philosophy as "instrumentalism". Dewey worked from strongly Hegelian and Neo-Hegelian influences, unlike James, whose lineage was primarily British, drawing particularly on empiricist and utilitarian thought. Dewey was also not nearly so pluralist or relativist as James. He held that value was a function not of whim nor purely of social construction, but a quality situated in events ("nature itself is wistful and pathetic, turbulent and passionate" (Experience and Nature)). He also held, unlike James, that experimentation (social, cultural, technological, philosophical) could be used as a relatively hard-and-fast arbiter of truth. For example, James felt that for many people who lacked "over-belief" in religious concepts, human life was shallow and rather uninteresting, and that while no one religious belief could be demonstrated as the correct one, we are all responsible for taking the leap of faith and making a gamble on one or another theism, atheism, monism, or whatever. Dewey, in contrast, while honoring the important role that religious institutions and practices played in human life, rejected belief in any static ideal, such as a theistic God. For Dewey, God was the method of intelligence in human life: that is to say, rigorous inquiry, or, very broadly conceived, science. As with the reemergence of progressive philosophy of education, Dewey's contributions to philosophy as such (he was, after all, much more a professional philosopher than a thinker on education) have also reemerged with the post-Cold War reassessment of pragmatism by thinkers like W.V. Quine, Richard Bernstein, Hans Joas and Richard Rorty. Because of his process-oriented and sociologically conscious view of the world and knowledge, he is sometimes seen as a useful alternative to both modern and postmodern ways of thinking. Recent exponents (like Rorty) have not always remained faithful to Dewey's original vision, though this itself is completely in keeping both with Dewey's own usage of other thinkers and with his own philosophy—for Dewey, past doctrines always require reconstruction in order to remain useful for the present time. Dewey's philosophy has gone by many names other than "pragmatism". He has been called an instrumentalist, and experimentalist, an empiricist, a functionalist, and a naturalist. The term "transactional" may better describe his views, a term emphasized by Dewey in his later years to describe his theories of knowledge and experience.

Transaction

In the first sentence of the introduction to KNOWING AND THE KNOWN1, Dewey announces the task at hand : "the attempt to fix a set of leading words capable of firm use in the discussion of "knowings" and "existings" in that specialist region of research called the theory of knowledge"2. Much of the book is spent in dense philosophical analyses of the words, terms, concepts,etc of the then current authoritative books, making the book difficult to paraphrase, summarize , or to interpret. Transaction is but one of the words selected, though a central one. Others are: behavior, characterization, event, fact, observation, naming, specification, etc. The terminology problem in the fields of epistomology and logic is partially due, according to Dewey and Bentley, to unobserved, unexamined, undifferentiated, inefficient, and imprecise use of words, terms, concepts that reflect three historic levels of organization and presentation.In the order of chronological appearance, these are : "
- Self-Action: where things are viewed as acting under their own powers,dating from the time of Aristotle. Interaction: where thing is balanced against thing in causal interconnection as described by Newton. Transaction: where modern systems of descriptions and naming are employed to deal with aspects and phases of action without final attribution to "elements" or other presumptively detachable or independent "entities,","essences," or "realities," and without isolation of presumptively detachable "relations" from such detachable "elements"3" The principle used in all analyses is that : All knowledge (known) and all efforts to acquire, to maintain, store, recall, and express knowledge(knowings) are acts of man. Language is the means man has to communicate knowledge or to participate in the use or acquisition of knowledge. As such any given word, sentence, postulation or proposition is always open to critical analysis, review, and revision by the inquiring behavior of men. The best explication of the differences in these three levels of inquiry is Dewey's and Bentley's presentation, in unusually clear language, eight positions that they do not hold and which in no case should be read into their work. To quote directly at length: "1.We employ no basic differentiation of subject vs object, any more than of soul vs body, of mind vs matter,or self vs nonself. 2.We introduce no knower to confront what is known as if in a different, or superior, realm of being or action; nor any known or knowable as of a different realm to stand over against the knower. 3.We tolerate no "entities" or "realities" of any kind intruding as if from behind or beyond the knowing-known events, with power to interfere, whether to distort or to correct. 4.We introduce no "faculties" or other operators (however disguised) of an orgnism's behaviors, but require for all investigation direct observation and usable reports of events without which, or without the effort to obtain which, all proposed procedure is to be rejected as profitless for the type of enterprise we here undertake. 5.In especial we recognize no names that pretend to be expressions of "inner" thoughts, any more than we recognize names that pretend to be compulsions exercised upon us by "outer" objects. 6.We reject the "no man's land" of words inmagined to lie between the organism and its environmental objects in the fashion of most current logics, and require, instead definite locations for all naming behaviors as organic-environmental transactions under observation. 7.We tolerate no finalities of meaning parading as "ultimate" truth or "absolute" knowledge, and give such purported finalities no recognition whatever under our postulation of natural system for man in the world. 8.To sum up: Since we are concerned with what is inquired into and is in process of knowing as cosmic event, we have no interest in any form of hypostatized underpinning. Any statement that is or can be made about a knower, self, mind, or subject--or about a known thing, an object,or a cosmos--must, so far as we are concerned, be made on the basis, and in terms, of aspects of event which inquiry, as itself a cosmic event, finds taking place."4 The authors then present a series of characterizations of Transaction indicating the wide range of considerations involved: "Transaction is inquiry of a type in which existing descriptions of events are accepted only as tentative and preliminary, so that new descriptions of the aspects and phases of events,.......may freely be made at any and all stages of inquiry."5 "Transaction is inquiry which ranges under primary observation across all subjectmatters that present themselves, and proceeds with freedom toward the re-determination and re-naming of the objects comprised in the system."6 "Transaction is Fact such that no one of its constituents can be adequately specified as fact apart from the specification of other constituents of the full subject matter."7 "Transaction develops the widening phases of knowledge, the broadening of system within the limits of observation and report."8 "Transaction regards extension in time to be as indespensable as is extension in space...., so that "thing" is in action, and "action" is observable in things and actions are taken as marking provisional stages of subject matter to be established through further inquiry,"9 "Transaction assumes no pre-knowledge of either organism or environment alone as adequate,....., but requires their primary acceptance in common system, with full freedom reserved for their developing examination."10 "Transaction is the procedure which observes men talking and writing, with their word-behaviors and other representational activities connected with their thing-perceivings and manipulations, and which permits a full treatment, descriptive and functional, of the whole process inclusive of all its "contents", whether called "inners" or "outers" , in whatever way the advancing techiques of inquiry require."11 "Transactional Observation is the fruit of an insistence upon the right to proceed in freedom to select and view all subjectmatters in whatever way seems desirable under reasonable hypothesis, and regardless of ancient claims on behalf of either minds or material mechanisms, or any of the surrogates of either."12 In summary, all of human knowledge consists of actions and products of acts in which men and women participate with other human beings,other animal and plant life forms, organic and inorganic objects, in random,selected, and total environments. And men and women have, are, and will present these acts and products of action in language. Generic man, and specific men and women are well known to be vulnerable to error. Consequently, all knowledge (knowing and known ) whether commonsensical or scientific; past, present, or future; is subject to further inquiry, examination, review, and revision NOTES: 1.Dewey,John,and Bentley,Arthur:KNOWING AND THE KNOWN, Beacon Press, Boston,1949, 334pp 2.ibid,pxi 3.ibid,p107 4.ibid,p120,121 5.ibid,p122 6.ibid,p122 7.ibid,p122 8.ibid,p122 9.ibid,p123 10.ibid,p123 11.ibid,p123 12.ibid,p124

External links


- Democracy and Education (WikiSource)
-
- [http://www.erzwiss.uni-hamburg.de/sonstiges/dewey/DewExpNa.pdf Excerpts from Experience and Nature] (pdf file)
- [http://geocities.com/deweytextsonline/isr.htm Impressions of Soviet Russia] (HTML) Dewey, John Dewey, John Dewey, John Dewey, John Category:Education Category:Humanists Dewey, John Dewey, John ja:ジョン・デューイ

October 20

October 20 is the 293rd day of the year (294th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 72 days remaining.

Events


- 1740 - Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony refuse to honour the Pragmatic Sanction and the War of the Austrian Succession begins.
- 1803 - United States Senate ratifies the Louisiana Purchase.
- 1827 - Battle of Navarino - a combined Turkish and Egyptian armada is destroyed by an allied British, French, and Russian naval force in the port of Navarino in Pylos, Greece. The most important result of this battle is the end of the Greek Liberation War and the affirmation of independence of modern Greece.
- 1883 - Peru and Chile signed the Treaty of Ancón, by which the Tarapacá province was ceded to the latter, bringing an end to Peru's involvement in the War of the Pacific.
- 1910 - The hull of the RMS Olympic, sister-ship to the ill-fated RMS Titanic, is launched from the Harland and Wolff shipyard in Belfast, Ireland.
- 1935 - The Long March ends
- 1944 - The Soviet army and Yugoslav Partisans liberate Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia
- 1944 - Liquid natural gas leaks from storange tanks in Cleveland, then explodes; the explosion and resulting fire level 30 blocks and kill 130.
- 1944 - General Douglas MacArthur fulfills his promise to return to the Philippines when he commands an Allied assult on the islands, reclaiming them from the Japanese during the Second World War.
- 1947 - The House Un-American Activities Committee begins its investigation into Communist infiltration of Hollywood, resulting in a blacklist that prevents some from working in the industry for years.
- 1955 - Publication of The Return of the King, being the last part of The Lord of the Rings
- 1967 - A purported bigfoot is filmed by Patterson and Gimlin
- 1968 - Former First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy marries Greek shipping tycoon Aristotle Onassis.
- 1971 - The Nepal stock exchange collapses.
- 1973 - The Saturday Night Massacre: President Nixon fires Attorney General Elliot Richardson and Deputy Attorney General William Ruckelshaus after they refuse to fire Watergate prosecutor Archibald Cox, who is finally fired by Robert Bork.
- 1973 - The Sydney Opera House opens.
- 1973 - The Six Million Dollar Man premieres on ABC.
- 1977 - A plane carrying Lynyrd Skynyrd crashes in Mississippi, killing several band members, including lead singer Ronnie Van Zant and guitarist Steve Gaines.
- 1979 - The John F Kennedy library is opened in Boston, Massachusetts.
- 1982 - St. Louis Cardinals defeat Milwaukee Brewers 6-3 to win their 9th World Series Championship.
- 1986 - Yitzhak Shamir begins his second office term as Israel's prime minister
- 1989 - Brisbane bound coach collides with semi-trailer north of Grafton in New South Wales, Australia. This is known as the Grafton Bus Crash
- 1991 - The Oakland Hills firestorm kills 25 and destroys 3469 homes and apartments, causing more than $2 billion in damage.
- 1995 - Filmmaker Kevin Smith releases Mallrats.
- 2004 - The Boston Red Sox win the American League pennant, defeating the New York Yankees 10-3 in Game 7 of the American League Championship Series, becoming the first team in major league baseball history to recover from a 3-0 postseason series deficit.
- 2004 - Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono is sworn in as the President of Indonesia.

Births


- 1463 - Alessandro Achillini, Italian philosopher (d. 1512)
- 1469 - Guru Nanak Dev, first Sikh Guru (d. 1539)
- 1496 - Claude, Duke of Guise, French soldier (d. 1550)
- 1616 - Thomas Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (d. 1680)
- 1620 - Aelbert Cuyp, Dutch painter (d. 1691)
- 1632 - Sir Christopher Wren, English architect (d. 1723)
- 1656 - Nicolas de Largillière, French painter (d. 1746)
- 1660 - Robert Bertie, 1st Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven, English statesman (d. 1723)
- 1677 - Stanislaus I Leszczyński, King of Poland (d. 1766)
- 1711 - Timothy Ruggles, American-born Tory politician (d. 1795)
- 1719 - Gottfried Achenwall, German statistician (d. 1772)
- 1759 - Chauncey Goodrich, U.S. Senator from Connecticut (d. 1815)
- 1808 - Karl Andree, German geographer (d. 1875)
- 1819 - The Báb, Persian founder of the Bábí Faith (d. 1850)
- 1822 - Thomas Hughes, English novelist (d. 1896)
- 1854 - Arthur Rimbaud, French poet (d. 1891)
- 1858 - John Burns, English politician (d. 1943)
- 1859 - John Dewey, American philosopher (d. 1952)
- 1874 - Charles Ives, American composer (d. 1954)
- 1882 - Bela Lugosi, Hungarian-born actor (d. 1956)
- 1889 - Margaret Dumont, American actress (d. 1965)
- 1890 - Jelly Roll Morton, American composer (d. 1941)
- 1891 - James Chadwick, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974)
- 1891 - Jomo Kenyatta, President of Kenya (d. 1978)
- 1893 - Charley Chase, American comedian (d. 1940)
- 1894 - Olive Thomas, American actress (d. 1920)
- 1897 - Crown Prince Eun of Korea (d. 1970)
- 1900 - Wayne Morse, U.S. Senator from Oregon (d. 1974)
- 1904 - Anna Neagle, English actress (d. 1986)
- 1904 - Tommy Clement Douglas, Canadian politician (d. 1986)
- 1905 - Ellery Queen, pseudonym of two American writers (d. 1982)
- 1907 - Arlene Francis, American television personality (d. 2001)
- 1913 - Grandpa Jones, American banjo player and singer (d. 1998)
- 1918 - Robert Lochner, German journalist (d. 2003)
- 1925 - Art Buchwald, American newspaper columnist
- 1928 - Joyce Brothers, American psychologist and television personality
- 1931 - Mickey Mantle, baseball player (d. 1995)
- 1932 - Rosey Brown, American football player (d. 2004)
- 1935 - Jerry Orbach, American actor (d. 2004)
- 1937 - Juan Marichal, baseball player
- 1940 - Kathy Kirby, British singer
- 1942 - Earl Hindman, American actor (d. 2003)
- 1942 - Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, German biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
- 1944 - David Mancuso, American disc jockey
- 1946 - Elfriede Jelinek, Austrian writer, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1949 - Valeri Borzov, Ukrainian athlete
- 1950 - Tom Petty, American musician
- 1955 - Aaron Pryor, American boxer
- 1956 - Danny Boyle, English film director
- 1958 - Viggo Mortensen, American actor
- 1958 - Ivo Pogorelic, Croatian pianist
- 1960 - Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player (d. 2004)
- 1963 - Julie Payette, Canadian astronaut
- 1964 - Curt Gunz, American author
- 1965 - William Zabka, American actor
- 1966 - Allan Donald, South African cricketer
- 1966 - Stefan Raab, German entertainer
- 1969 - Juan Gonzalez, baseball player
- 1971 - Snoop Dogg, American rapper
- 1971 - Dannii Minogue, Australian-born singer
- 1976 - Tom Wisniewski, American guitarist (mxpx)
- 1978 - Virender Sehwag, Indian cricketer
- 1981 - Willis McGahee, American football player
- 1984 - Scott Fuller, Radio personality
- 1984 - Florent Sinama-Pongolle, French footballer
- 1988 - Risa Niigaki, Japanese singer (Morning Musume)
- 1989 - Christopher David Ray, American

Deaths


- 460 - Aelia Eudocia, Byzantine Empress
- 1570 - João de Barros, Portuguese historian (b. 1496)
- 1640 - John Ball, English Puritan clergyman (b. 1585)
- 1652 - Antonio Coello, Spanish writer
- 1713 - Archibald Pitcairne, Scottish physician (b. 1652)
- 1740 - Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1685)
- 1865 - Champ Ferguson, Confederate guerilla
- 1900 - Naim Frashëri, Albanian poet (b. 1846)
- 1910 - David B. Hill, Governor of New York (b. 1843)
- 1920 - Max Bruch, German composer (b. 1838)
- 1936 - Anne Sullivan, American teacher (b. 1866)
- 1935 - Arthur Henderson, Scottish politician, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1863)
- 1964 - Herbert Hoover, 31st President of the United States (b. 1874)
- 1967 - Yoshida Shigeru, Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1878)
- 1972 - Harlow Shapley, American astronomer (b. 1885)
- 1977 - Members of the American rock group Lynyrd Skynyrd killed in a plane crash:
  - Cassie Gaines (b. 1948)
  - Steve Gaines (b. 1949)
  - Ronnie Van Zant (b. 1948)
- 1983 - Peter Dudley, British actor
- 1984 - Carl Ferdinand Cori, Austrian-born biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1896)
- 1984 - Paul Dirac, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1902)
- 1987 - Andrey Kolmogorov, Russian mathematician (b. 1903)
- 1989 - Anthony Quayle, English actor (b. 1913)
- 1990 - Joel McCrea, American actor (b. 1905)
- 1994 - Burt Lancaster, American actor (b. 1913)
- 1995 - Christopher Stone, American actor (b. 1942)
- 2002 - Barbara Berjer, American actress (b. 1920)
- 2003 - Jack Elam, American actor (b. 1918)
- 2004 - Anthony Hecht, American poet (b. 1923)
- 2004 - Chuck Hiller, baseball player (b. 1934)
- 2005 - Shirley Horn, American singer (b. 1934)
- 2005 - Endon Mahmood, First Lady of Malaysia (breast cancer) (b. 1941)
- 2005 - Eva Svankmajerova, Czech artist (b. 1940)

Holidays and observances

This day is unusually devoid of official commemorations.
- R.C. Saints: Bertilla Boscardin of Vicenza
- Also see October 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Vietnamese women's day

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/20 BBC: On This Day] ---- October 19 - October 21 - November 20 - September 20 - more historical anniversaries ko:10월 20일 ja:10月20日 simple:October 20 th:20 ตุลาคม

June 1

June 1 is the 152nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (153rd in leap years), with 213 days remaining.

Events


- 193 - Roman Emperor Marcus Didius is assassinated in his palace.
- 1283 - Treaty of Rheinfelden: Duke Rudolph II of Austria has to waive his right to the Duchies of Austria and Styria.
- 1485 - Matthias of Hungary took Vienna in his conquest of Austria (from Frederick III) and made the city his capital.
- 1495 - Friar John Cor records the first known batch of scotch whisky.
- 1533 - Henry VIII of England's new wife, Anne Boleyn, is crowned as queen.
- 1660 - Mary Dyer is hanged in Boston, Massachusetts, for defying a law banning Quakers from the colony. She is considered to be the last religious martyr in what would become the United States.
- 1779 - American Revolutionary War: Benedict Arnold is court-martialed for malfeasance in his treatment of government property.
- 1792 - Kentucky becomes the 15th state of the United States.
- 1796 - Tennessee becomes the 16th state of the United States.
- 1812 - War of 1812: U.S. President James Madison asks the Congress to declare war on the United Kingdom.
- 1813 - The United States Navy gains its motto as the mortally wounded commander of the frigate Chesapeake, Capt. James Lawrence, said, 'Don't give up the ship'.
- 1815 - Napoleon swears fidelity to the Constitution of France.
- 1831 - James Clark Ross discovers the position of the North Magnetic Pole on the Boothia Peninsula.
- 1855 - American adventurer William Walker conquers Nicaragua and reinstates slavery.
- 1862 - American Civil War: Battle of Fair Oaks ends, with both sides claiming victory.
- 1869 - Thomas Edison of Boston, Massachusetts, receives a patent for his electric voting machine.
- 1879 - Napoleon Eugene, Prince of France, is killed in the Anglo-Zulu War.
- 1890 - The United States Census Bureau begins using Herman Hollerith's tabulating machine to count census returns.
- 1898 - The Trans-Mississippi Exposition world's fair opens in Omaha, Nebraska, United States.
- 1907 - Cricket: Colin Blythe takes 17 wickets for 48 runs against Northamptonshire at Northampton in one day. It is the best analysis ever recorded either for a county cricket match or a single day's bowling, and not bettered in first-class cricket until 1956.
- 1909 - The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition world's fair opens in Seattle, Washington, United States.
- 1910 - Robert Falcon Scott's South Pole expedition leaves England.
- 1918 - World War I: Battle for Belleau Wood begins.
- 1921 - Tulsa Race Riot: A race riot in Tulsa, Oklahoma, kills at least 85 people.
- 1922 - Official founding of the Royal Ulster Constabulary.
- 1925 - Lou Gehrig of the New York Yankees plays the first game in his record streak of 2,130 consecutive games, an endurance record in major league baseball that stands till Cal Ripken, Jr. broke it in 1995.
- 1935 - First driving tests introduced in Britain.
- 1938 - Baseball: Protective helmets are worn by batters for the very first time.
- 1941 - World War II: Battle of Crete ends as Crete capitulates to Germany.
- 1943 - A civilian flight from Lisbon to London is shot down by the Germans during World War II, killing all aboard, including actor Leslie Howard.
- 1954 - The Peanuts comic strip character Linus van Pelt is shown with a security blanket for the first time. [http://www.unitedmedia.com/comics/peanuts/meet_the_gang/meet_linus.html]
- 1958 - Charles De Gaulle is brought out of retirement to lead France by decree for six months.
- 1967 - The Beatles album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band is released; Don Dunstan becomes Premier of South Australia
- 1971 - Vietnam War: Vietnam Veterans for a Just Peace, claiming to represent the majority of U.S. veterans who served in Southeast Asia, speak against war protests.
- 1974 - Flixborough disaster: An explosion at a chemical plant in Flixborough, UK, kills 28 people.
- 1978 - The first international applications under the Patent Cooperation Treaty are filed.
- 1979 - The first black-led government of Rhodesia in 90 years takes power, ousting Ian Smith and changing the country's name to Zimbabwe.
- 1980 - The Cable News Network (CNN) begins broadcasting.
- 1990 - U.S. President George H. W. Bush and Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev sign a treaty to end chemical weapon production and start destroying each of their nation's stockpiles.
- 2000 - The multilateral Patent Law Treaty (PLT) is signed.
- 2001 - Crown Prince Dipendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev of Nepal slaughters his family during a royal dinner. Diprenda was also shot, and was proclaimed king in his hospital bed, dying three days later.
- 2003 - The People's Republic of China begins filling the reservoir behind the massive Three Gorges Dam, raising the water level near the dam over 100 metres.
- 2005 - The Dutch referendum on the European Constitution results in its rejection.

Births


- 1076 - Prince Mstislav of Kiev (d. 1132)
- 1265 - Dante Alighieri, Italian poet (d. 1321)
- 1300 - Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk, son of Edward I of England (d. 1338)
- 1480 - Tiedemann Giese, Polish Catholic bishop (d. 1550)
- 1503 - Wilhelm von Grumbach, German adventurer (d. 1567)
- 1563 - Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, English statesman and spymaster (d. 1612)
- 1633 - Geminiano Montanari, Italian astronomer (d. 1687)
- 1653 - Georg Muffat, French composer (d. 1704)
- 1675 - Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei, Italian archaeologist (d. 1755)
- 1771 - Ferdinando Paer, Italian composer (d. 1839)
- 1780 - Carl von Clausewitz, Prussian general (d. 1831)
- 1790 - Ferdinand Raimund, Austrian playwright (d. 1836)
- 1796 - Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, French mathematician (d. 1832)
- 1801 - Brigham Young, Mormon church leader and American western settler (d. 1877)
- 1804 - Mikhail Glinka, Russian composer (d. 1857)
- 1815 - Philip Kearny, American general (d. 1862)
- 1815 - King Otto of Greece (d. 1862)
- 1831 - John Bell Hood, American Confederate general (d. 1879)
- 1843 - Dr. Henry Faulds, Scottish fingerprinting pioneer (d. 1930)
- 1878 - John Masefield, English novelist and poet (d. 1967)
- 1881 - Charles Kay Ogden, English writer and linguist (d. 1957)
- 1890 - Frank Morgan, American actor (d. 1949)
- 1898 - Molly Picon, American actress (d. 1992)
- 1899 - Edward Charles Titchmarsh, English mathematician (d. 1963)
- 1901 - John Van Druten, English screen writer (d. 1957)
- 1915 - John Randolph, American actor (d. 2004)
- 1917 - William S. Knowles, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1921 - Nelson Riddle, American orchestra leader and arranger (d. 1985)
- 1922 - Povel Ramel , Swedish musician
- 1924 - Dr. William Sloane Coffin, Jr., American clergyman
- 1926 - Andy Griffith, American actor
- 1926 - Marilyn Monroe, American actress (d. 1962)
- 1928 - Georgi Dobrovolski, cosmonaut
- 1928 - Bob Monkhouse, English comedian and game show host (d. 2003)
- 1930 - Edward Woodward, English actor
- 1933 - Charles Wilson, American politician
- 1934 - Pat Boone (Charles Eugene Boone), American singer
- 1936 - Gerald Scarfe, British cartoonist and illustrator
- 1937 - Morgan Freeman, American actor
- 1939 - Cleavon Little, American actor (d. 1992)
- 1939 - Jackie Stewart, British race car driver
- 1940 - René Auberjonois, American actor
- 1940 - Kip Thorne, American physicist
- 1945 - Frederica von Stade, American mezzo-soprano
- 1946 - Brian Cox, Scottish actor
- 1947 - Jonathan Pryce, British actor
- 1947 - Ron Wood, English guitarist, (Jeff Beck Group, The Faces, and The Rolling Stones)
- 1956 - Lisa Hartman American actress
- 1959 - Martin Brundle, British race car driver
- 1960 - Simon Gallup, English Bass guitarist, (The Cure)
- 1961 - Paul Coffey, Canadian hockey player
- 1964 - Mark Curry, American comedian and actor
- 1965 - Nigel Short, English chess player
- 1968 - Jason Donovan, Australian actor
- 1970 - Alexi Lalas, American football player
- 1973 - Adam Garcia, Australian actor
- 1973 - Heidi Klum, German model
- 1973 - Derek Lowe, American baseball player
- 1974 - Alanis Morissette, Canadian singer
- 1977 - Danielle Harris, American voice actress
- 1980 - Oliver James, British actor
- 1981 - Carlos Zambrano, Venezuelan Major League Baseball player
- 1982 - Justine Henin-Hardenne, Belgian tennis player

Deaths


- 195 BC - Gaozu of Han of China
- 193 - Marcus Severus Didius Julianus, Roman Emperor (b.133)
- 1434 - King Wladislaus II of Poland
- 1571 - John Story, English Catholic (martyred)
- 1625 - Honoré d'Urfé, French writer (b. 1568)
- 1639 - Melchior Franck, German composer
- 1660 - Mary Dyer, English Quaker (hanged)
- 1710 - David Mitchell, British admiral (b. 1642)
- 1740 - Samuel Werenfels, Swiss theologian (b. 1657)
- 1769 - Edward Holyoke, American President of Harvard University (b. 1689)
- 1795 - Pierre-Joseph Desault, French anatomist and surgeon (b. 1744)
- 1815 - Louis Alexandre Berthier, French marshal (b. 1853)
- 1823 - Louis Nicolas Davout, French marshal (b. 1770)
- 1826 - Jean Frédéric Oberlin, Alsatian pastor and philantropist (b. 1740)
- 1841 - David Wilkie, Scottish artist (b. 1785)
- 1846 - Pope Gregory XVI (b. 1765)
- 1868 - James Buchanan, 15th President of the United States (b. 1791)
- 1873 - Joseph Howe, Canadian politican (b. 1804)
- 1876 - Hristo Botev, Bulgarian revolutionary (b. 1848)
- 1927 - J. B. Bury, Irish historian (b. 1861)
- 1941 - Hans Berger, German neuroscientist (b. 1873)
- 1943 - Leslie Howard, English actor (b. 1893)
- 1946 - Ion Antonescu, Prime Minister of Romania (b. 1882)
- 1948 - Sonny Boy Williamson I, American musician (b. 1914)
- 1954 - Martin Andersen Nexø, Danish writer (b. 1869)
- 1959 - Sax Rohmer, English author (b. 1883)
- 1960 - Lester Patrick, hockey star (b. 1883)
- 1966 - Papa Jack Laine, American musician (b. 1873)
- 1968 - Helen Keller, American humanitarian (b. 1880)
- 1969 - Ivar Ballangrud, Norwegian speed skater (b. 1904)
- 1971 - Reinhold Niebuhr, American theologist (b. 1892)
- 1979 - Werner Forssmann, German physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1904)
- 1980 - Rube Marquard, baseball player (b. 1886)
- 1981 - Carl Vinson, U.S. Congressman (b. 1883)
- 1994 - Frances Heflin, American actress (b. 1923)
- 1998 - Darwin Joston, American actor (b. 1937)
- 1999 - Christopher Sydney Cockerell, British engineer and inventor (b. 1910)
- 2001 - Queen Aiswarya of Nepal (shot) (b. 1949)
- 2001 - King Birendra of Nepal (assassinated) (b. 1945)
- 2001 - Hank Ketcham, American cartoonist (b. 1920)
- 2002 - Hansie Cronje, South African cricketer (b. 1969)
- 2004 - William Manchester, American writer (b. 1922)
- 2005 - George Mikan, American basketball player (b. 1924)

Holidays and observances


- Children's Day in some countries
- Commemoration of Justin Martyr (Anglican)
- Kenya Madaraka Day 1963
- Nirvana of Buddhists
- Roman Empire - Festival in honour of Carna
- Samoa - Independence Day 1962
- Tunisia - Constitution Day / Victory Day 1959
- Hannah Day (Ethiopia)

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/1 BBC: On This Day] ---- May 31 - June 2 - May 1 - July 1 – listing of all days ko:6월 1일 ms:1 Jun ja:6月1日 simple:June 1 th:1 มิถุนายน

1952

1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January


- January 8 - West Germany has 8 million refugees inside its borders.
- January 24 - Sudden heavy snowfall in Algeria.
- January 24 - Vincent Massey sworn in as first Canada-born Governor-General of Canada.

February

Governor-General of Canada and her mother, Queen Elizabeth at the funeral of King George VI.]]
- February 2 - A tropical storm forms just north of Cuba moving northeast. The storm makes landfall in southern Florida the next day. It is the earliest reported landfall from a tropical storm, and the earliest formation of a tropical storm on record in the Atlantic basin.
- February 6 - Elizabeth II becomes Queen upon the death of her father George VI.
- February 6 - In the United States, a mechanical heart is used for the first time in a human patient.
- February 14 to February 25 - Winter Olympics in Oslo
- February 15 - Funeral of King George VI takes place at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.
- February 16 - Roman Catholic Diocese of Baker formed in Eastern Oregon.
- February 20 - Emmett L. Ashford becomes the first African-American umpire in organized baseball by being authorized to be a substitute umpire in the Southwestern International League.
- February 21 - Winston Churchill scraps UK compulsory national Identity Cards
- February 26 - United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill announces that his nation has an atomic bomb.

March


- May 7-12 - Marcel Bardiauc sails through Kap Horn
- March 10 - General Fulgencio Batista takes power in Cuba - again
- March 15 to 16 - 73 inches (1,870mm) of rain falls in Cilaos, Réunion, the most rainfall ever in one day
- March 20 - The United States Senate ratifies a peace treaty with Japan.
- March 21 - The last two executions in the Netherlands take place.
- March 21 - Dr Kwame Nkrumah elected the Prime Minister of the Gold Coast
- March 27 - Failed assassination attempt against Konrad Adenauer

April


- April 4 - In Hague tribunal, Israel demands reparations worth 3 billion dollars from Germany.
- April 18 - Bolivia National Revolution: universal vote enables indigenous and women to vote, nationalisation of mines and agrarian reform.
- April 18 - West Germany and Japan form diplomatic relations.
- April 23 - Nuclear test in Nevada desert.
- April 28 - The Treaty of San Francisco goes into effect, formally ending the occupation of Japan.
- April 28 - Treaty of Taipei (Treaty of Peace between Japan and t

May


- May 1 - East Germany threatens to form its own army.
- May 2 - First passenger jet flight route between London and Johannesburg
- May 3 - U.S. lieutenant colonels Joseph O. Fletcher and William P. Benedict land a plane at the geographic North Pole.
- May 6 - Farouk of Egypt had himself announced as a descendant of prophet Muhammad.
- May 13 - Pandit Nehru forms his first government
- May 15 - Diplomatic relations established between the governments of Israel and Japan at the level of Legations.

June


- June 1 - Catholic church bans books of André Gide.
- June 5 - Remains of a Viking ship found near Boston, Massachusetts.
- June 14 - The keel is laid for the U.S. nuclear submarine USS Nautilus.
- June 15 - The Diary of Anne Frank published.
- June 21 - U.S. launches the first nuclear submarine USS Nautilus.
- June 29 - Finnish Armi Kuusela wins the title of Miss Universe.
- June 30 - Marshall Aid ends.

July


- July 13 - East Germany announces formation of its people's army.
- July 19 to August 3 - The Summer Olympic Games are held in Helsinki.
- July 23 - General Mohammed Naguib leads The Free Officers (formed by Gamal Abdel Nasser - the real power behind the coup) in the overthrow of King Farouk of Egypt.
- July 25 - Puerto Rico becomes a self-governing commonwealth of the United States.
- July 26 - Military coup in Egypt ousts King Farouk.

August

Farouk, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands form the European Coal and Steel community, the foundation organisation what will become the European Union.]]
- August 10 - Establishment of the European Coal and Steel community.
- August 11 - Jordanian army forces king Talal to resign due to mental illness - his successor is his son Hussein of Jordan.
- August 13 - Japan joins IMF.
- August 14 - West Germany joins IMF.
- August 14 - West Germany joins World Bank.
- August 16 - Lynmouth in North Devon England is devastated by floods, death toll of 34.
- August 26 - British passenger jet flies twice over Atlantic Ocean in the same day.
- August 27 - Reparation negotiations between West Germany and Israel end in Luxembourg - Germany will pay 3 billion Deutsche Marks.
- August 29 - Premiere of John Cage's 4' 33" in Woodstock, New York.
- August 30 - Last Finnish war reparations to Soviet Union.

September


- September 2 - Dr. C. Walton Lillehei and Dr. F. John Lewis perform first open-heart surgery at the University of Minnesota.
- September 4 - September 9 - Thick smog in London, England causes 4,000 fatalities.
- September 18 - Soviet Union vetoes Japan's application for membership in the United Nations.

October


- October 8 - Negotiations of ceasefire in Korea are postponed.
- October 8 - Three-train crash in Harrow railway station in England - 110 dead.
- October 14 - United Nations begins work in the new United Nations building in New York City
- October 19 - Alain Bombard begins to sail from Canary Islands to Barbados in 65 days; he reaches them December 23
- October 20 - Martial law in Kenya due to Mau Mau uprising.

November


- November 1 - Nuclear testing: Operation Ivy - The United States successfully detonates the first hydrogen bomb, codenamed "Mike" ["m" for megaton], at Eniwetok island in the Bikini atoll located in the Pacific Ocean.
- November 4 - 8.25 Richter scale earthquake in Kamchatka
- November 4 - U.S. presidential election, 1952: Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower defeats Democrat Adlai Stevenson (correctly predicted by UNIVAC computer).
- November 18 - Jomo Kenyatta is arrested in Kenya for alleged connection to Mau Mau uprising
- November 20 - Fireball crashes in a backyard in Havelock North, New Zealand
- November 20 - First official passenger flight over the North Pole from Los Angeles to Copenhagen
- November 21 - Show trial in Czechoslovakia sentences 11 ex-communist officials to death - all of them Jews.
- November 25 - Agatha Christie's murder-mystery play The Mousetrap opens at the Ambassadors Theatre in London; as of 2004, it continues, next door at the St. Martin's Theatre, and remains the longest continuously running production of a play in history.
- November 29 - Korean War: Newly-elected U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfills a political campaign promise by traveling to Korea to find out what can be done to end the conflict.

December


- December 1 - The New York Daily News carries a front page story announcing that Christine Jorgensen, a transsexual woman in Denmark became the recipient of the first successful sexual reassignment operation.
- December 4 - Great Smog of 1952: A "killer fog" descends on London ("Smog" for "smoke" and "fog" becomes a word).
- December 14 - First successful surgical separation of Siamese twins in Mount Sinai Hospital, Ohio.
- December 25 - Shooting incident in West Berlin - one West German soldier is killed
- December 26 - Joseph Ivor Linton, first Israeli Minister Plenipotentiary in Japan, presents his credentials to the Japanese Emperor.

Undated events


- 3300 die of polio in U.S.; 57,000 children are paralyzed
- National Security Agency founded
- Winston Churchill scraps UK compulsory national Identity Cards
- Cold War over Germany's frontiers intensify
- Sister Theresa becomes Mother Theresa and begins her charity work in Calcutta
- Charles Chaplin expelled from U.S.
- Cheez Whiz introduced
- Traffic lights in New York City
- Wernher von Braun talks about a manned flight to Mars.
- Nordic Council agrees free transport of people, goods and services throughout the Nordic Countries.
- National Prohibition Foundation incorporated.

Births

January-March


- January 11 - Ben Crenshaw, American golfer
- January 11 - Lee Ritenour, jazz guitarist and composer
- January 20 - Paul Stanley, American musician (KISS

Philosopher

A philosopher is a person devoted to studying and producing results in philosophy. The word, "philosopher," literally means "lover of wisdom." Greek: "φίλος + σοφία"

Popular Western philosophers in (approximate) historical order


Not listed above: (some of) The Presocratics -- Epicurus place after Aristotle --Hellenistic Philosophers -- Cicero -- Avicenna -- Sir Thomas Browne -- Francis Bacon -- Thomas Reid -- Dugald Stewart -- James Mill -- Rudolf Steiner -- Albert Schweitzer -- G. E. Moore -- Albert Camus -- Georg Henrik von Wright -- Mortimer Adler -- Nelson Goodman -- Imre Lakatos -- Paul Feyerabend -- Mario Bunge -- Douglas Hofstadter -- Pierre Teilhard de Chardin--Ayn Rand

Eastern philosophers in approximate historical order:

Gautama Buddha -- Confucius -- Mozi -- Lao Zi -- Rhazes -- Mencius -- Zhuang Zi -- Xun Zi --Han Feizi -- Nagarjuna -- Bodhidharma -- Avicenna -- Shankara -- Dogen -- Zhu Xi -- Feng Youlan -- Iqbal -- Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan

Philosophers: listed by philosophical school

See Philosophical Movements. Krishnamoorti

Nicknames of Medieval Philosophers

Several medieval philosophers have been given Latin nicknames -- some by their contemporaries, others by historians. For example:
- Francis Mayron - Doctor acutus, the acute doctor, or Doctor illuminatus
- St. Thomas Aquinas - Doctor Angelicus, the angelic doctor, or Doctor Communis
- William of Ockham - Doctor Invincibilis
- Alexander of Hales - Doctor Irrefragibilis
- Roger Bacon - Doctor Mirabilis, the wonderful doctor
- John Bassol - Doctor Ordinatissimus, the most methodical doctor
- Nissim Cahn - Doctor Gaon, the innovative doctor
- St. Bonaventure - Doctor Seraphicus
- Henry Goethals (Hendricus Bonicollius) - Doctor Solemnis, the solemn doctor
- Richard Middleton - the solid doctor, or the profound doctor
- Duns Scotus - Doctor Subtilis, the discriminating doctor, or Doctor Marianus
- Albertus Magnus - Doctor Universalis
- Durandus de Sancto Portiano - the most resolute doctor
- Thomas Bradwardine - the profound doctor
- Jean Ruysbroeck (Joannes Ruysbrokius) - the divine doctor or ecstatic doctor See Also the articles at: Philosophy, Eastern philosophy, Epistemology, Ethics, Metaphysics, Aesthetics, Deconstruction, Ontology, Logic, Reason, Mathematicians, Feminism, Scientists, List of philosophers, and a fuller listing at :Category:Philosophers. ---- The Philosopher is also the nickname of Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 22. Category:Philosophy Category:Humanities occupations ko:철학자 ja:思想家 th:นักปรัชญา

Psychologist

A psychologist is a scientist who studies psychology, the systematic investigation of the human behaviour and mental processes. Psychologists are usually categorised under a number of different fields, the most well-recognised being clinical psychologists, who provide mental health care, and research psychologists, who collect, investigate and analyse aspects of human behaviour. In the legal context in the United States and Canada, psychologist is a protected professional title. In this sense, the title of psychologist means that the mental health professional has a doctoral degree (usually a Ph.D. or a Psy.D.) in clinical or counseling psychology and has also met state or provincial licensing criteria. Those criteria typically include a period of post-doctoral practice under the supervision of a licensed psychologist, a licensing exam, and continuing education requirements. In most states in the United States and in Canada, only licensed psychologists and psychiatrists can legally provide psychotherapy and use this term to refer to aspects of the mental health treatments they perform. Unlike psychiatrists, psychologists are not medical doctors and hence, in most states, cannot obtain a license to prescribe psychiatric medications. Prescription privileges in the United States have recently began to change in some states, and some psychologists are gaining prescriptive privileges, specifically in New Mexico and Louisiana. Licensed psychologists generally have academic doctoral degrees (Ph.D.) that are different from the professional degrees of medical doctors in that they require not only coursework, supervised protessional training, and clinical internship but also significant academic research experience and original contributions to scientific research in the form of a dissertation. In this sense, the Ph.D. in clinical psychology is a hybrid academic/professional degree, and university programs in clinical psychology are not only acedmic but also training programs typically characterized by rigor and intensity. Some psychologists have professional degrees in psychology (Psy.D.) that include similarly rigorous coursework, supervised professional training, internship, and developing the ability to read and interpret academic research, but they do not necessarily require original research contributions to science.

Types of psychologist

Psychologists are often categorised under different fields or disciplines.
- Clinical psychologists and counselling psychologists often work in counseling centres, hospitals and clinics. They diagnose and evaluate mental and emotional disorders, and use tools such as psychotherapy and hypnosis to treat affected patients. They conduct interviews and psychological tests, and may conduct complex treatment programs, sometimes in conjunction with physicians or other specialists.
- Occupational psychologists are concerned with the performance of people at work and in training, with developing an understanding of how organisations function and how individuals and groups behave at work. Their aim is to increase effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction at work.
- Research psychologists study behavioural processes by experimenting on human beings and animals. They work in universities and private research centres, as well as for government organisations and often contribute to fields including marketing, design, and different forms of drug and chemical research. Common areas of research include memory, motivation, and factors affecting behaviour and development.

Statistics

These statistics are from the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, information dated 2002 unless noted otherwise.
- Employed psychologists: 139,000
- 1/4 self-employed
- 3/10 employed by educational institutions (in positions other than teaching)
- Median income for clinical psychologists: US$51,170
- Median income for industrial/organisational psychologists: US$63,710

Restrictions on the use of the label 'psychologist'

In New Zealand, the use of the title 'psychologist' is restricted by law. Initially, only 'clinical psychologist' and 'registered psychologist' were restricted (to people qualified as such). However, in 2004, the use of psychologist is now limited to only those registered psychologists (including clinical psychologists). This is to prevent the misrepresentation of other psychology qualifications in the mental health field. Academic psychologists (e.g., social psychologists) are now only able to refer to themselves as 'researchers in psychology'. Similar restictions apply in the United States, although application of these restrictions varies state-by-state. For example, school psychologists tend to have fewer years of course-based training and practice (e.g., residencies and fellowships) and less experience in conducting independent research than clinical psychologists. (Some school psychologists may have earned a doctorate (Ed.D., Psy.D., Ph.D.) but the vast majority have completed master's degree training (M.Ed., M.A., M.S.) or educational specialist training (Ed.S.) only. Clinical psychologists, by definition, have completed a doctorate). For this reason, individuals with training in school psychology cannot be licensed as a psychologist per se. Similarly, many states restrict the work of clinical psychologists to function in public schools.

See also


- Psychology
- List of psychologists
- List of psychological topics

External links


- [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos056.htm Bureau of Labor Statistics page]
- [http://www.calmis.cahwnet.gov/file/occguide/PSYCHOLO.HTM California Employment Development Department occupational guide]
- [http://www3.ccps.virginia.edu/career_prospects/briefs/P-S/ResearchPsych.shtml Career Prospects in Virginia: research psychology] ja:心理学者

United States

:For alternative meanings, see the disambiguation page for US, USA, United States, or American. The United States of America is a federal democratic republic situated primarily in central North America. It comprises 50 states and one federal district, and has several territories. It is also referred to, with varying formality, as the United States, the U.S., the U.S.A., the States, or simply and most commonly, America. The official founding date of the United States is July 4, 1776, when the Second Continental Congress—representing thirteen British