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John F Stairs

John F Stairs

John Fitzwilliam Stairs, also known as John Fitz William Stairs (January 19, 1848 – September 26, 1904) was an entrepreneur and statesman, born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, a member of the prominent Stairs family of merchants and shippers founded by William Machin Stairs (1789-1865) that included the Victorian era explorer, William Grant Stairs. Known as "John F.", he studied at Dalhousie University and then entered the management of the family's vast business empire. He was elected to the Nova Scotia Legislative Assembly in 1879, resigning in 1882 to successfully run for election to the Canadian House of Commons in Ottawa where he served as a Conservative Party member until 1896. Stairs was president of many companies, including Nova Scotia Steel, Eastern Trust, Trinidad Electric (B.W.I.) and Royal Securities. He served as director of the Dartmouth and Halifax Steamboat Company, Nova Scotia Sugar Refining, the Union Bank of Halifax, Consumer Cordage, and during his lifetime, came to dominate the financial elite of the Maritime provinces. He also employed Max Aitken (later, Lord Beaverbrook) at the beginning of Aitken's business career, hiring him in 1902 when he set up Royal Securities, the first investment firm in Eastern Canada. Max Aitken was at Stairs' bedside when he passed away in Toronto, Ontario, where he was buried in the Mount Pleasant Cemetery.

References


- Frost, James. Merchant Princes, Halifax's First Family of Finance, Ships and Steel. James Lorimer and Company, 2003

External links


- [http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=41202 Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online]
- [http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/about/people/key/bio.asp?lang=E&query=13171&s=M Political biography from the Library of Parliament] Stairs, John F. Stairs, John F. Stairs, John F. Stairs, John F. Stairs, John F. Stairs, John F. Stairs, John F.

1848

1848 is a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar.

Events

Gregorian calendar]
- The Revolutions of 1848, a series of widespread but failed struggles for more liberal governments, from Brazil to Hungary.
- January 12 - The Palermo rising in Sicily rises against the Bourbon kingdom of Two Sicilies
- January 24 - California Gold Rush: James W. Marshall finds gold at Sutter's Mill, in Coloma, near Sacramento
- January 24 - The Storming of the Venezuelan National Congress takes place.
- January 26 - Henry David Thoreau addresses the Concord Lyceum with "The Rights and Duties of the Individual in Relation to Government" (which later came to be known as Civil Disobedience).
- February 2 - Mexican-American War: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is signed, ending the war.
- February 2 - California Gold Rush: The first ship with Chinese emigrants seeking fortune in California's gold country arrive in San Francisco.
- February 19 - First rescue party reaches the Donner Party, a convoy of settlers almost buried under snow near what is now the Donner Lake. They have eaten everything, including their own dead
- February 21 - Karl Marx publishes The Communist Manifesto.
- February 22 - In Paris, revolt erupts against the king Louis Philippe. Two days later he abdicates, leading to the Second Republic.
- March 4 - Carlo Alberto di Savoia signs the Statuto Albertino that will represent the first constitution of the Regno d'Italia
- March 7 - The Great Mahele (land division) is signed in Hawaii.
- March 10 - The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo is ratified by the United States Senate, ending the Mexican-American War.
- March 15 - Revolution breaks out in Pest. The Habsburg rulers are compelled to meet the demands of the Reform party.
- March 20 - King Ludwig I of Bavaria abdicates
- March 23 - Province of Otago in New Zealand is founded.
- March 29 - An upstream ice jam stops almost all water flow over Niagara Falls for 30 hours
- April 10 Chartist 'Monster Rally' held in Kennington Park London, headed by Feargus O'Connor. A petition demanding the franchise is presented to parliament.
- April 10 - Bridge collapses in Yarmouth, England - 250 dead
- May 15 - Radicals invade the France Chamber of deputies
- May 19 - Mexican-American War: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo - Mexico ratifies the treaty thus ending the war and ceding Texas, California and most of Arizona and New Mexico to the United States for $15 million dollars.
- May 29 - Wisconsin is admitted as the 30th U.S. state.
- July 19 - Women's rights: Seneca Falls Convention - The two day Women's Rights Convention opens in Seneca Falls, New York and the "Bloomers" are introduced at the feminist convention.
- July 29 - Irish Potato Famine: Tipperary Revolt - In Tipperary, an unsuccessful nationalist revolt against British rule is put-down by a government police force.
- August 17 - Yucatan officially united with Mexico
- August 19 - California Gold Rush: The New York Herald breaks the news to the East Coast of the United States, that there is a gold rush in California (although the rush started in January)
- August 28 – Mathieu Luis, first black member joins the French parliament as a representative of Guadaloupe
- November 1 - In Boston, Massachusetts, the first medical school for women, The Boston Female Medical School (which later merged with Boston University School of Medicine), opens.
- November 3 - Greatly revised Dutch constitution proclaimed
- November 7 - U.S. presidential election, 1848: Whig Zachary Taylor of Louisiana defeats Democrat Lewis Cass of Michigan in the first US presidential election held in every state on the same day.
- December 2 - Ferdinand I, Emperor of Austria, abdicates in favor of his nephew, Franz Josef I.
- December 10 - Prince Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte elected first president of the French Second Republic.
- December 20 - President Bonaparte takes his Oath of Office in front of the French National Assembly.
- December 26 - Phi Delta Theta Fraternity founded
- Cholera epidemic in New York kills 5000
- Associated Press founded in New York
- Queen's College for women founded in London
- Boston Public Library is founded by an act of the Great and General Court of Massachusetts
- Shaker song Simple Gifts is written by Joseph Brackett in Alfred, Maine
- First railway in Spain is opened, with line Barcelona to Mataró (circa 40 km).
- Illinois and Michigan Canal is completed.
- Independent Republic of Yucatan joins Mexico in exchange for Mexican help in suppressing revolt by Maya Indians.
- Serfdom is abolished in Austro-Hungarian Empire.
- John Bird Sumner becomes archbishop of Canterbury.
- British, Dutch, and German governments lay claim to New Guinea.
- Admiral Nevelskoi explores Strait of Tartary.
- Dunedin, New Zealand is founded by Scots settlers.
- University of Ottawa is founded.
- University of Mississippi is founded.
- University of Wisconsin, Madison is founded.
- Geneva College in Pennsylvania is founded.
- Holmes County, Florida is created.
- Elizabeth Gaskell publishes Mary Barton anonymously.
- Henrik Ibsen publishes first play Catilina.
- Ivar Aasen publishes Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects.
- Robert Schumann composes opera Genoveva.
- Richard Wagner begins writing libretto that will become Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung).
- Rhodes College is founded.

Ongoing events


- Mexican-American War (1846-1848)
- Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)

Births


- January 6 - Hristo Botev, Bulgarian revolutionary (d. 1876)
- January 19 - John F. Stairs, Canadian businessman and statesman (d. 1904)
- January 21 - Henri Duparc, French composer (d. 1933)
- January 27 - Togo Heihachiro, Japanese admiral (d. 1934)
- February 5 - Joris-Karl Huysmans, French author (d. 1907)
- February 5 - Belle Starr, American outlaw (d. 1889)
- February 8 - Joel Chandler Harris, American journalist and author (d. 1908)
- February 14 - Benjamin Baillaud, French astronomer (d. 1934)
- February 16 - Octave Mirbeau French art critic and novelist (d. 1917)
- February 18 - Louis Comfort Tiffany, American glass artist (d. 1933)
- February 24 - Grant Allen, Canadian author (d. 1899)
- February 24 - Andrew Inglis Clark, Tasmanian politician (d. 1907)
- February 27 - Hubert Parry, English composer (d. 1918)
- March 19 - Wyatt Earp, American lawman and gunfighter (d. 1929)
- March 31 - Viscount William Astor, British financier and statesman (d. 1919)
- April 7 - Randall Thomas Davidson, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1930)
- April 10 - Hubertine Auclert, French feminist (d. 1914)
- May 23 - Otto Lilienthal, German engineer (d. 1896)
- June 7 - Paul Gauguin, French artist (d. 1903)
- July 6 - Gabor Baross, Hungarian statesman (d. 1892)
- July 9 - Robert I, Duke of Parma, last ruling Duke of Parma (d. 1907)
- July 15 - Vilfredo Pareto, Italian economist (d. 1923)
- July 22 - Winfield Scott Stratton, American miner (d. 1902)
- July 25 - George Robert Aberigh-Mackay, Anglo-Indian writer (d. 1881)
- July 25 - Arthur James Balfour, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1930)
- November 13 - Albert I, Prince of Monaco (d. 1922)

Deaths


- January 19 - Isaac D'Israeli, English author (b. 1766)
- January 20 - Christian VIII, King of Denmark (b. 1786)
- February 15 - Hermann von Boyen, Prussian field marshal (b. 1771)
- February 23 - John Quincy Adams, 6th President of the United States (b. 1767)
- March 29 - John Jacob Astor, American businessman (b. 1763)
- April 8 - Gaetano Donizetti, Italian composer (b. 1797)
- May 25 - Annette von Droste-Hülshoff, German writer (b. 1797)
- June 27 - Denis Auguste Affre, Archbishop of Paris (b. 1793)
- July 4 - François-René de Chateaubriand, French writer and diplomat (b. 1768)
- August 7 - Jöns Jakob Berzelius, Swedish chemist (b. 1779)
- August 12 - George Stephenson, English locomotive pioneer (b. 1781)
- November 9 - Robert Blum, German politician (b. 1810)
- November 23 - Sir John Barrow, English statesman (b. 1764)
- November 24 - Lord Melbourne, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1779)
- December 19 - Emily Brontë, English author (b. 1818)
- Edward Baines, British newspaperman and politician (b. 1774) Category:1848 ko:1848년 simple:1848

September 26

September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 96 days remaining.

Events


- 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a temple to his mythical ancestor Venus Genetrix in fulfilment of a vow he made at the battle of Pharsalus.
- 1580 - Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates the globe.
- 1687 - The Parthenon in Athens is partially destroyed after an explosion caused by the bombing from Venetian forces led by Morosini who were besieging the Ottoman Turks stationed in Athens.
- 1777 - British troops occupy Philadelphia, Pennsylvania during the American Revolution.
- 1789 - Thomas Jefferson is appointed the first United States Secretary of State, John Jay is appointed the first Chief Justice of the United States, Samuel Osgood is appointed the first United States Postmaster General, and Edmund Randolph is appointed the first United States Attorney General.
- 1810 - A new Act of Succession is adopted by the Riksdag of the Estates and Jean Baptiste Bernadotte becomes heir to the Swedish throne.
- 1907 - New Zealand and Newfoundland each becomes a dominion of the British Empire.
- 1914 - The US Federal Trade Commission (FTC) is established by the Federal Trade Commission Act.
- 1918 - World War I: Battle of Meuse.
- 1934 - Steamship RMS Queen Mary is launched.
- 1944 - World War II: Operation Market Garden fails.
- 1950 - United Nations troops recapture Seoul from the North Koreans.
- 1954 - Japanese rail ferry Toya Maru sinks during a typhoon in the Tsugaru Strait, Japan killing 1,172.
- 1957 - Leonard Bernstein's West Side Story opens on Broadway
- 1960 - In Chicago, Illinois, the first televised debate takes place between presidential candidates Richard M. Nixon and John F. Kennedy.
- 1961 - Bob Dylan makes his public debut.
- 1962 - Yemen Arab Republic is proclaimed
- 1962 - Premiere of The Beverly Hillbillies on CBS.
- 1969 - The Chicago Seven trial begins.
- 1969 - The Beatles album Abbey Road is released in the UK.
- 1973 - Concorde makes its first non-stop crossing of the Atlantic in record-breaking time.
- 1970 - The Laguna Fire starts in San Diego County, California, burning 175,425 acres (710 km²).
- 1981 - Baseball: Nolan Ryan sets a Major League record by throwing his fifth no-hitter.
- 1983 - Soviet military officer Stanislav Petrov averts a worldwide nuclear war.
- 1983 - Australia II, the first non-American winner, wins the Americas Cup.
- 1984 - United Kingdom agrees handover of Hong Kong.
- 1988 - Ben Johnson is stripped of his gold medal in the 100 m sprint at the Seoul Olympics for failing a drug test.
- 1991 - Biosphere 2 opens.
- 1996 - Nintendo 64 went on sale in the United States.
- 1997 - A Garuda Indonesia Airbus A-300 crashes near Medan, Indonesia, airport, killing 234
- 1997 - An earthquake strikes the Italian regions of Umbria and the Marche, causing part of the Basilica of St. Francis at Assisi to collapse.
- 2001 - Anti-globalization protests in Prague (some 20,000 protesters) police turned violent during the IMF and World Bank summits.
- 2001 - Star Trek: Enterprise begins airing in the US.
- 2002 - The overcrowded Senegalese ferry Joola capsizes off the coast of Gambia killing 1,836 people.
- 2002 - Thirty people are killed in a gun attack at a temple in Gandhinagar, India
- 2002 - Five people are shot dead in a botched bank robbery in Norfolk, Nebraska, United States.
- 2005 - The shock elimination of favoured to win, Teresa Bergman, on New Zealand Idol.

Births


- 1406 - Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros, English soldier and politician (d. 1430)
- 1711 - Richard Grenville-Temple, 2nd Earl Temple, English politician (d. 1779)
- 1750 - Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood, British admiral (d. 1810)
- 1774 - Johnny Appleseed, American environmentalist (d. 1847)
- 1791 - Théodore Géricault, French painter (d. 1824)
- 1869 - Komitas, Armenian composer (d. 1935)
- 1870 - King Christian X of Denmark (d. 1947)
- 1871 - Winsor McCay, American cartoonist (d. 1934)
- 1873 - Aleksey Shchusev, Russian architect (d. 1949)
- 1874 - Lewis Hine, American photographer and social activist (d. 1940)
- 1875 - Edmund Gwenn, Welsh actor (d. 1959)
- 1876 - Edith Abbott, American social worker, educator, and author (d. 1957)
- 1877 - Ugo Cerletti, Italian neurologist (d. 1963)
- 1877 - Alfred Cortot, Swiss pianist (d. 1962)
- 1886 - Archibald Vivian Hill, English physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1977)
- 1887 - Antonio Moreno, Spanish-born actor (d. 1967)
- 1887 - Sir Barnes Neville Wallis, British scientist, engineer and inventor (d. 1979)
- 1888 - J. Frank Dobie, American folklorist and newspaper columnist (d. 1964)
- 1888 - T. S. Eliot, American writer and editor, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1965)
- 1889 - Martin Heidegger, German philosopher (d. 1976)
- 1891 - Charles Munch, French conductor and violinist (d. 1968)
- 1895 - George Raft, American actor (d. 1980)
- 1897 - Arthur Rhys Davids, English pilot (d. 1917)
- 1897 - Pope Paul VI (d. 1978)
- 1898 - George Gershwin, American composer (d. 1937)
- 1907 - Anthony Blunt, English art historian and Soviet spy (d. 1983)
- 1907 - Bep van Klaveren, Dutch boxer (d. 1992)
- 1909 - Bill France, Sr., American founder of NASCAR (d. 1992)
- 1914 - Jack LaLanne, American fitness advocate
- 1923 - Dev Anand, Indian actor and film producer
- 1925 - Marty Robbins, American singer (d. 1982)
- 1926 - Masatoshi Koshiba, Japanese physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1926 - Julie London, American singer and actress (d. 2000)
- 1930 - Fritz Wunderlich, German tenor (d. 1966)
- 1932 - Richard Herd, American actor
- 1932 - Dr. Manmohan Singh, Prime Minister of India
- 1932 - Vladimir Voinovich, Russian writer and dissident
- 1933 - Donna Douglas, American actress
- 1936 - Winnie Mandela, South African anti-apartheid activist
- 1942 - Kent McCord, American actor
- 1943 - Ian Chappell, Australian test cricket player and broadcaster
- 1944 - Anne Robinson, British television host
- 1945 - Bryan Ferry, British singer
- 1946 - Andrea Dworkin, American feminist (d. 2005)
- 1946 - Christine Todd Whitman, American politician
- 1947 - Lynn Anderson, American singer
- 1948 - Olivia Newton-John, Australian singer
- 1949 - Clodoaldo, Brazilian football player
- 1951 - Stuart Tosh, Scottish musician
- 1954 - Kevin Kennedy, baseball manager and television host
- 1956 - Linda Hamilton, American actress
- 1962 - Melissa Sue Anderson, American actress
- 1963 - Lysette Anthony, British actress
- 1967 - Shannon Hoon, American singer (Blind Melon) (d. 1995)
- 1968 - James Caviezel, American actor
- 1973 - Chris Small, Scottish snooker player
- 1974 - Martin Müürsepp, Estonian basketball player
- 1975 - Emma Härdelin, Swedish singer (Garmarna and Triakel)
- 1976 - Michael Ballack, German footballer
- 1976 - Yoshiko Horie, Japanese singer and voice actor.
- 1981 - Christina Milian, American actress and singer
- 1981 - Serena Williams, American tennis player

Deaths


- 1417 - Francesco Zabarella, Italian jurist (b. 1360)
- 1468 - Juan de Torquemada, Spanish Catholic cardinal (b. 1388)
- 1626 - Wakisaka Yasuharu, Japanese warrior (b. 1554)
- 1763 - John Byrom, English poet (b. 1692)
- 1764 - Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro, Spanish scholar (b. 1767)
- 1802 - Baron Jurij Vega, Slovenian mathematician, physicist, and military officer (b. 1754)
- 1820 - Daniel Boone, American frontiersman (b. 1734)
- 1868 - August Ferdinand Möbius, German mathematician and astronomer (b. 1790)
- 1877 - Hermann Grassmann, German mathematician and physicist (b. 1809)
- 1904 - John F. Stairs, Canadian businessman and statesman (b. 1848)
- 1937 - Bessie Smith, American singer (b. 1894)
- 1945 - Béla Bartók, Hungarian composer (b. 1881)
- 1947 - Hugh Lofting, British writer (b. 1886)
- 1952 - George Santayana, Spanish philosopher (b. 1863)
- 1965 - James Fitzmaurice, Irish aviation pioneer (b. 1898)
- 1972 - Charles Correll, American radio actor (b. 1890)
- 1976 - Lavoslav Ružička, Croatian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1887)
- 1978 - Manne Siegbahn, Swedish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1886)
- 1984 - John Facenda, American broadcaster and sports announcer (b. 1913)
- 1998 - Betty Carter, American singer (b. 1930)
- 2000 - Richard Mulligan, American actor (b. 1932)
- 2003 - Robert Palmer, British singer (b. 1949)

Holidays and observations


- Calendar of Saints - Sts. Cosmas and Damian Also see September 26 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
- Discordianism - Bureflux
- [http://www.ecml.at/edl/ European Day of Languages]

External links


- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/26 BBC: On This Day] ---- September 25 - September 27 - August 26 - October 26 - more historical anniversaries ko:9월 26일 ms:26 September ja:9月26日 simple:September 26 th:26 กันยายน

Halifax, Nova Scotia

Please read first: :Former Halifax, Nova Scotia pertaining to the amalgamated community of Halifax Regional Municipality has been moved to that article (see the discussion page for more information). ---- discussion page discussion page Halifax, founded in 1749, is a community and former city in the Canadian province of Nova Scotia. Halifax was the shire town of Halifax County and the provincial capital. In 1996 the provincial government amalgamated all municipalities in Halifax County into a single tier regional government named Halifax Regional Municipality, commonly referred to as HRM. While Halifax and its neighbouring city of Dartmouth and the town of Bedford were disincorporated at this time, the former city forms part of the urban core of the larger HRM and is labelled the "capital district." Rudyard Kipling paid homage to Halifax in his poem The Song of Cities: :: Into the mist my guardian prows put forth, ::Behind the mist my virgin ramparts lie, ::The Warden of the Honour of the North, ::Sleepless and veiled am I! Halifax was founded to counter French power in the remnants of Acadia, which included present-day New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton Island and the Gaspe Peninsula. A fortress town and naval base, Halifax rarely prospered except during conflict and war for most of its early history. Despite Halifax's status as the regional centre and provincial capital, the city rarely saw commercial or economic success during its early years. Halifax only began to benefit from a process of increased rural depopulation and corresponding urban growth in Atlantic Canada during the late 20th century - a demographic shift that was delayed several decades in the region compared with other parts of North America. Today the former city is the centre of HRM's urban core and is benefitting from increased cultural and economic diversity.

Geography

The original settlement of Halifax occupied a small stretch of land inside a palisade at the foot of Citadel Hill on the Halifax Peninsula, a sub-peninsula of the much larger Chebucto Peninsula that extends into Halifax Harbour. Halifax subsequently grew to incorporate all of the north, south, and west ends of the peninsula with a central business district concentrated in the southeastern end along "The Narrows". In 1969, the City of Halifax grew westward of the peninsula by amalgamating several communities from the surrounding Halifax County; namely Africville, Fairview, Rockingham, Spryfield, Purcell's Cove, and Armdale. These communities saw a number of modern subdivision developments during the late 1960s through to the 1990s, one of the earliest being the Clayton Park development at the southwestern edge of Rockingham. Since amalgamation into HRM, the name "Halifax" is increasingly used to refer to neighbourhoods on the Halifax Peninsula (ie. the pre-1969 city boundary), and to a much lesser extent, the post-1969 amalgamated parts of the county . Many of the communities that were amalgamated during the 1960s have reasserted their identities and have become for the most part part of the "Western" service delivery districts of HRM known as Mainland West or Mainland North. The peninsula, in addition to being referred to as "Halifax," is officially referred to as the "Central" or "Capital District." Main article: Halifax Regional Municipality

Present Day Neighbourhoods


- Downtown Halifax
- Historic Properties
- North End Halifax
- Quinpool district
- South End Halifax
- Spring Garden
- Armdale
- Clayton Park
- Rockingham
- Fairview
- Herring Cove
- Purcell's Cove
- Spryfield

Historic Neighbourhoods


- Africville
- Richmond
- The Dutch Village

Military

Halifax was founded as a military town. From the construction of the Halifax Citadel as a counterpoint to the French fortress at Louisbourg, to the Royal Navy's largest dockyard in the Western Hemisphere, the history of the city is intertwined with story of the British Imperial forces in North America and the North Atlantic. Following British victory against France in the Seven Years War, the colony of Nova Scotia grew to take in all of the former territories of Acadia and became known as the "14th Colony" (see 13 Colonies). The immense presence of the Royal Navy as well as regular army and colonial militia in the colony and capital city of Halifax is often pointed as being the reason for Nova Scotia (ie. the Maritimes) not joining its colonial neighbours to the south in revolting against Britain during the American Revolutionary War. Halifax was first and foremost a naval base for the British, and for the better part of two centuries it remained the most heavily fortified city in North America, boasting dozens of forts and defensive works, many of which can still be seen today such as the Halifax Citadel. Because of it's strategic position on the Atlantic coast, and it's inherent military nature, Halifax was a city built for war, and played a role in every major conflict participated in by the British and later the Candian Governments. During these conflicts the Economy of Halifax would see huge growth, however, when peace returned, many people would leave the city to find work elsewhere. Halifax boasts the second largest natural harbour in the world behind Sydney, Australia, and was an integral part of the "North Atlanic Quadrangle" which was a set of four strategic British Naval bases on the Atlantic ocean which allowed for the resupply, repair, and refueling of British Naval ships, and allowed them to mainain their Global Empire. Due to this distiction, Halifax is often called the "Warden of the North." Major conflicts in which Halifax played a major role included: Seven Years War, American Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, War of 1812, Boer War, World War I and World War II. Halifax is home to such historic sites as the "Halifax Defence Complex" which includes the Prince of Wales Tower and Fort Ogilvie in Point Pleasant Park, the Halifax Citadel (formally known as Fort George), and the sites of Fort Needham in the north end and Fort Massy in the south end, as well as the defensive works at Georges Island immediately offshore from the downtown. The city and its port also played an important role in more recent conflicts, staging Canadian troops and supplies destined for the Boer War, First World War, Second World War, Korean War, Cold War and numerous peacekeeping and humanitarian missions that military forces have participated in. Halifax's dependency on the military continues to this day as the city's largest single employer is CFB Halifax, which is also the largest naval base in Canada and the nation's largest military base in terms of the number of personnel. It is the headquarters for Maritime Forces Atlantic, Canada's east coast fleet.

History

Maritime Forces Atlantic

Pre-European History

The Mi'kmaq called the area Jipugtug (anglicized as "Chebucto"), which means "the biggest harbour". There is evidence that bands would spend the summer on the shores of the Bedford Basin, moving to points inland before the harsh Atlantic winter set in. Examples of Mikmaq habitation and burial sites have been found throughout Halifax, from Point Pleasant Park to the north and south mainland.

Acadian Period

Chebucto did not have a sizable permanent Acadian settlement, the nearest being the settlements of Minas (later Windsor) and Pizquid. French warships and fishing vessles, requiring shelter and a place to draw water certainly visited the harbour, however France's strategic focus on protecting its Louisiana Territory and New France left Acadia with little to no investment or resources. The territory, which included much of the present-day Maritimes and Gaspé Peninsula, passed from French to English and even Scottish hands several times. In the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, Acadia was relinquished to England, however the boundaries of the ceasefire were imprecise, leaving England with what is today peninsular Nova Scotia, and France with control of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The colonial capital chosen was Annapolis Royal. In 1720, France began a 20-year effort to build a large fortified seaport at Louisbourg on present-day Cape Breton Island. In 1745, Fortress Louisbourg fell to a New England-led force. In 1746 Admiral Jean-Batiste, De Roye de la Rochefoucauld, Duc d'Anville, was dispatched by the King of France in command of a French Armada of 20 warships, 32 transports and 21 smaller auxiliary vessels. He was ordered to take his 3,000 troops and 10,000 naval hands and retake Louisbourg for France, then conquer Annapolis Royal, and proceed to harass and bombard Boston and New York. The fleet was to meet in Chebucto (Halifax Harbour) on British-held peninsular Nova Scotia after crossing the Atlantic, take water and proceed to Louisbourg. Unfortunately, two major storms kept the fleet at sea for over three months. Poor water and spoiled food further weakened the exhausted fleet, resulting in the death of at least 2,500 men, including Duc d'Anville himself, by the time it arrived at Chebucto. After a series of calamities the fleet returned to France, its mission unfulfilled. For decades after, the skeletal remains of the desperate, despairing French soldiers and sailors were reportedly found on the shores and in the woods around Halifax by later settlers and their descendents. The ghost of Duc d'Anville is said to haunt George's Island, his burial place, to this day.

English Settlement

Between the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and 1749, no serious attempts were made by Great Britain to colonize Nova Scotia, aside from its presence at Annapolis Royal and infrequent sea and land patrols. The peninsula was dominated by Acadian residents and the need for a permanent settlement and British military presence on the central Atlantic coast of peninsular Nova Scotia was recognized, but it took the negotiated return of Fortress Louisbourg to France in 1748 to prod Britain into action. British General Edward Cornwallis was dispatched by the Lords of Trade and Plantations to establish a city at Chebucto, on behalf of and at the expense of the Crown. Cornwallis sailed in command of 13 transports, a sloop of war, 1,176 settlers and their families. Halifax was founded on July 9, 1749 below a glacial drumlin that would later be named Citadel Hill. The outpost was named in honour of George Montague-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, who was the President of the British Board of Trade. Halifax was ideal for a military base, as it has what is claimed to be the second largest natural harbour in the world (this is contested by many locations - see largest harbours), and could be well protected with batteries at McNab's Island, the North West Arm, Point Pleasant, George's Island and York Redoubt. In its early years, Citadel Hill was used as a command and observation post, prior to changes in artillery which could range out into the harbour. During the early 1700s, Nova Scotia was considered a hardship posting for the British military, given the proximity to the border with French territory and potential for conflict; the local environment was also very inhospitable and many early settlers were ill-suited for the colony's virgin wilderness on the shores of Halifax Harbour. The original settlers, who were often discharged soldiers and sailors, left the colony for established cities such as New York and Boston or the lush plantations of the Virginias and Carolinas. The military threat to Nova Scotia was removed following British victory over France in the Seven Years War. With the addition of remaining territories of the colony of Acadia, the enlarged British colony of Nova Scotia was mostly depopulated, following the deportation of Acadian residents. In addition, Britain was unwilling to allow its residents to emigrate, this being at the dawn of their Industrial Revolution, thus Nova Scotia was opened up settlement to "foreign Protestants". The region, including its new capital of Halifax, saw a modest immigration boom comprising Germans, Dutch, New Englanders, residents of Martinique and many other areas. In addition to the surnames of many present-day residents of Halifax who are descended from these settlers, an enduring name in the city is the "Dutch Village Road", which led from the "Dutch Village", located in Fairview.

The American Revolution & After

Halifax's fortunes waxed and waned with the military needs of the Empire. While it had quickly become the largest Royal Navy base on the Atlantic coast and had hosted large numbers of British army regulars, the complete destruction of Louisbourg in 1760 removed the threat of French attack. With the removal of this threat, so too was removed the reason for Halifax's founding. The navy sailed to where it was needed, Crown interest in Halifax was reduced, and most importantly, New England turned its eyes west, to the French territory now available due to the defeat of Montcalm at the Plains of Abraham. By the mid 1770s the town was in dire straits. The American Revolutionary War was not uppermost in the minds of most residents of Halifax. The government did not have enough money to pay for oil for the Sambro lighthouse. The militia was unable to maintain a guard, and was disbanded. Provisions were so scarce during the winter of 1775 that Quebec had to send flour to feed the town. While Halifax was remote from the troubles in the rest of the American colonies, martial law was declared in November 1775 to combat growing lawlessness. The colony stumbled along, not quite caught up in the affairs of the rest of the continent, until 1776. 1776 On March 30, 1776, General William Howe arrived, having been driven from Boston by rebel forces. He brought with him 200 officers, 3000 men, and over 4,000 loyalist refugees, and demanded housing and provisions for all. This was merely the beginning of Halifax's role in the war. Throughout the conflict, and for a considerable time afterwards, thousands more refugees, often 'in a destitute and helpless condition' had arrived in Halifax or other ports in Nova Scotia. This would peak with the evacuation of New York, and continue until well after the formal conclusion of war in 1783. At the instigation of the newly-arrived Loyalists who desired greater local control, Britain subdivided Nova Scotia in 1784 with the creation of the colonies of New Brunswick and Cape Breton Island; this had the effect of considerably dilluting Halifax's presence over the region. During the American Revolution, Halifax became the staging point of many attacks on rebel-controlled areas in the Thirteen Colonies, and was the city to which British forces from Boston and New York were sent after the over-running of those cities. After the War, tens of thousands of United Empire Loyalists from the American Colonies flooded Halifax, and many of their descendants still reside in the city today. Despite the changes caused by the American Revolution, Halifax did not grow considerably until the beginning of what would become known as the Napoleonic Wars. By 1794, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, was sent to take comand of Nova Scotia. Many of the cities forts were designed by him, and he left an indelable mark on the city in the form of many public buildings of Georgian architecture, and a dignified British feel to the city itself. It was during this time that Halifax truly became a city. Many landmarks and institutions were built during his tenure, from the town clock on Citadel Hill to St. George's Round Church, fortifications in the Halifax Defence Complex were built up, businesses established, and the population boomed. Though the Duke left in 1800, the city continued to experience considerable investment throughout the Napoleonic Wars and War of 1812. Although Halifax was never attacked during the war of 1812, due to the overwhelming military presence in the city, many Naval battles occured just outside the harbour including a very dramatic battle which saw the American ship Chesapeake taken by the British Frigate Shannon, and brought back to Halifax as a prize. As well, an invasion force which attacked Washington in 1813, and burned the Capitol and White House was sent from Halifax. Early in the War, an expedition under Lord Dalhousie left Halifax to capture the Area of Castile, Maine, which they held for the entirety of the war. The revenues which were taken from this invasion were used after the war to found Dalhousie University which is today Halifax's largest University. Saint Mary's University was founded in 1802, originally as an elementary school. Saint Mary's was upgraded to a college following the establishment of Dalhousie in 1818; both were initially located in the downtown central business district before relocating to the then-outskirts of the city in the south end near the Northwest Arm. Separated by only few minutes walking distance, the two schools now enjoy a friendly rivalry. Government House was built to house the governor, and Province House was built to house the House of Assembly. During the 1800s Halifax became the birthplace of two of Canada's largest banks; local financial institutions included the Halifax Banking Company, Union Bank of Halifax, People's Bank of Halifax, Bank of Nova Scotia, and the Merchants' Bank of Halifax, making the city one of the most important financial centers in colonial British North America and later Canada until the beginning of the 20th century. This position was somewhat rivalled by neighbouring Saint John, New Brunswick where that city's Princess Street laid claim to being the "Wall Street of Canada" during the city's economic hey-day in the mid-19th century. Having played a key role to maintain and expand British power in North America and elsewhere during the 18th century, Halifax played minor roles in the consolidation of the British Empire during the 19th century. The port aided challenges to British North America during the War of 1812, whereby British troops and sailors staged raids on Baltimore and Washington, D.C. and Nova Scotian privateers preyed on American shipping. Nova Scotian and Maritimers were recruited through Halifax for the Crimean War, and the port played a minor role during the American Civil War, offering refuge and supplies to Confederate naval vessels. The port also saw Canada's first overseas military deployment as a nation to aid the British Empire during the Boer War.

Incorporation, Responsible Government, Railways and Confederation

Boer War Later considered a great Nova Scotian leader, and the father of responsible government in British North America, it was the cause of self government for the city of Halifax that began the political career of Joseph Howe and would subsequently lead to this form of accountability being brought to colonial affairs for the colony of Nova Scotia. After election to the House of Assembly as leader of the Liberal party, one of his first acts was the incorporation of the City of Halifax in 1842, followed by the direct election of civic politicians by Haligonians. Halifax became a hotbed of political activism as the winds of responsible government swept British North America during the 1840s, following the rebellions against oligarchies in the colonies of Upper and Lower Canada. The first instance of responsible government in the British Empire was achieved by the colony of Nova Scotia in January-February 1848 through the efforts of Howe. The leaders of the fight for responsible or self-government later took up the Anti-Confederation fight, the movement that from 1868 to 1875 tried to take Nova Scotia out of Confederation. During the 1850s, Howe was a heavy promoter of railway technology, having been a key instigator in the founding of the Nova Scotia Railway, which ran from Richmond in the city's north end to the Minas Basin at Windsor and to Truro and on to Pictou on the Northumberland Strait. In the 1870s Halifax became linked by rail to Moncton and Saint John through the Intercolonial Railway and on into Quebec and New England, not to mention numerous rural areas in Nova Scotia. The American Civil War again saw much activity and prosperity in Halifax. Merchants in the city made huge profits selling supplies and arms to both sides of the conflict, and Confederate ships often called on the port to take on supplies, and make repairs. One such ship, the Tallahassee, became a legend in Halifax as it made a daring escape from six Federal frigates which were waiting to capture it just outside the harbour. After the American Civil War, the five colonies which made up British North America, Ontario, Quebec, Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, held meetings to consider Uniting into a single country. This was due to a threat of annexation and invasion from the United States. Canadian Confederation became a reality in 1867, but recieved much resistance from the merchant classes of Halifax, and from many prominent Halifax politicians due to the fact that both Halifax and Nova Scotia were at the time very wealthy, held trading ties with Boston and New York which would be damaged, and did not see the need for the Colony to give up it's comparative independance. After confederation Halifax retained it's British military Base, and was not overseen by the Canadian military until 1906. New Brunswick

World War I & II and the Halifax Explosion

For additional information see the main article Halifax Explosion.
However it was during the First and Second World Wars that Halifax would truly come into its own as a world class port and naval facility. The strategic location of the port with its protective waters of Bedford Basin sheltered convoys from German U-boat attack prior to heading into the open Atlantic Ocean. Halifax's railway connections and port facilities became vital to the British war effort during the First World War as Canada's industrial centres churned out materiel for the Western Front. During the Second World War, Halifax became a lifeline for preserving Britain during the Nazi onslaught of the Battle of Britain and the Battle of the Atlantic, the supplies helping to off-set a threatened amphibious invasion by Germany. In 1914, Halifax began playing a major role in the First World War, both as the depature point for Canadian Soldiers heading overseas, and as an assembly point for all convoys (a responsibility which would be placed on the city again during WW2). The war was seen as a blessing for the city's economy, but in 1917 a French Munitions ship "the Montblanc," collided with a Belgian relief ship "the Imo." The collision sparked a fire on the munitions ship which was filled with TNT, and gun cotton. On Dec. 6th 1917, at 9:00am the munitions ship exploded in what was the largest manmade explosion before Hiroshima, and is still one of the largest non-nuclear manmade explosion. The Halifax explosion decimated the city's north end, killing almost 3000 inhabitants, injuring 9000, and leaving 30 000 homeless. The following day a blizzard hit the city, crippling recovery efforts. Immediate help rushed in from the rest of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. In the following week more relief from other parts of North America arrived and donations were sent from around the world. The most celebrated effort came from the Boston Red Cross and the Massachusetts Public Safety Committee; as an enduring thank-you, for the past 30 years the province of Nova Scotia has donated the annual Christmas tree lit on the Boston Common. Halifax once again played a key role in the Allied war effort of World War II. The only theatre of War to be commanded by a Canadian was the North Western Atlantic, commanded by the Admiral in Halifax. Boston Common

Post-war

The 1960s-1990s saw less suburban sprawl than in many comparable Canadian cities in the areas surrounding Halifax. This was partly as a result of local geographies and topography (Halifax is extremely hilly with exposed granite not conducive to construction), a weaker regional and local economy, and a smaller population base than, for example, central Canada or New England. There were also deliberate local government policies to limit not only suburban growth but also some growth in the central business district resulting from heritage advocates. During the 1960s the Black community of Africville was demolished and its residents displaced to clear land for industrial use as well as for the A. Murray MacKay Bridge. The repercussions continue to this day and a 2001 United Nations report has called for reparations be paid to the community's former residents. Restrictions on development were relaxed somewhat during the 1990s, resulting in some suburban sprawl off the peninsula. Today Halifax is more compact than most Canadian urban areas although expanses of suburban growth have occurred in neighbouring Dartmouth, Bedford and Sackville. One development in the late 1990s was the Bayers Lake Business Park, where warehouse style retailers were permitted to build in a suburban industrial park west of Rockingham. This has become an important yet controversial centre of commerce for the city and the province. In the past few years, urban sprawl has even reached this area. What was once a business park surrounded by forest and a highway on one side has become a large suburb with numerous new apartment buildings and condominiums. Another element which has brought the city forward and kept it vibrant is the strong music scene. Halifax has consistently churned out talented musical acts, including such notable groups as Sloan, The Nellis Complex, Thrush Hermit, Christina Clark, and Matt Mays.

Amalgamation

Sloan During the 1990s, Halifax like many other Canadian cities, amalgamated with its suburbs under a single municipal government. The provincial government had sought to reduce the number of municipal governments throughout the province as a cost-saving measure and created a task force in 1992 to pursue this rationalization. In 1995, an Act to Incorporate the Halifax Regional Municipality received Royal Assent in the provincial legislature and the HRM was created on April 1, 1996 by amalgamating all municipal governments in Halifax County (the neighbouring cities of Halifax and Dartmouth, town of Bedford, and Municipality of the County of Halifax). Sable Island is also considered to be jurisdictionally part of HRM, despite being located 180 km offshore. The population of HRM is 359,111 according to the 2001 census, making it Canada's 13th largest population centre. Although cities in other provinces affected by amalgamation retained their original names, the new municipality is often referred to as "HRM" especially in the media and by residents of areas outside of the former city of Halifax.

External links


- [http://www.halifax.ca/ Halifax Regional Municipality]
- [http://www.halifolks.cjb.net Halifax Online Community]
- [http://www.halifaxwebcam.ca Halifax Webcam]

Footnotes


- Thomas Raddall, Warden of the North.
- Chapter 3: Dr. Thomas B. Akins, History of Halifax City, p. 85.

References


- Akins, Thomas B., '[http://www.archive.org/details/historyofhalifax00akinuoft History of Halifax]', 1895.
- Landrey, Peter, [http://www.blupete.com/ Bluepete Historical Essays].
- Category:HRM communities

Canada

Canada is the second largest country in the world in terms of area, extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean with claims extending to the North Pole. The northern-most country on the mainland of North America, Canada has land borders only with the United States. Governed as a parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy, Canada is a federation of ten provinces with three territories. Initially constituted in 1867, the country's constitution was patriated in 1982 from the United Kingdom. Canada's head of state is its monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented in Canada by the Governor General, presently Michaëlle Jean. The head of government is the Prime Minister, currently Paul Martin; his minority government recently lost a vote of non-confidence in the Canadian House of Commons and asked for the dissolution of the Parliament by the Governor General, who then issued a Royal proclamation authorising the issue of election writs, and stating a federal election will take place on 2006 January 23. Canada's official languages are English and French. As of 2005, its official population estimate is approximately 32.4 million [http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm].

Overview

The capital city is Ottawa, Ontario, the seat of Canada's Parliament. The Governor General, the Prime Minister, the Leader of the Loyal Opposition, and the Speaker of the House of Commons have official residences in the National Capital Region.National Capital Region, Ontario.]] Originally a union of British colonies with significant French influence and entitled as a "dominion", Canada is a founding member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, and La Francophonie. Canada defines itself as a bilingual and multicultural nation:
- English is the official (and majority) language in most provinces of Canada.
- French is the official language of Quebec, an official language of New Brunswick, and is spoken in various areas throughout the country.
- Several Aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories; Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and has official status there. Canada is a technologically advanced and industrialized nation. It is a net exporter of energy because of its large fossil fuel deposits, nuclear energy generation, and hydroelectric power capacity. Its diversified economy relies heavily on an abundance of natural resources and trade, particularly with the United States, with which it has had a long and complex relationship. Canada has ten provinces and three territories: Canada's major cities that are not capital cities include Montreal, Quebec; Vancouver, British Columbia; and Calgary, Alberta.

Canada's name

The name Canada is believed to come from the Huron-Iroquois word kanata, which means "village" or "settlement". In 1535, locals used the word to tell Jacques Cartier the way to Stadacona, site of present-day Quebec City. Cartier used Canada to refer not only to Stadacona, but also to the entire area subject to Donnacona, Chief at Stadacona; by 1547, maps began referring to this and the surrounding area as Canada.

History

Aboriginal tradition holds that the First Peoples have inhabited parts of what is now called Canada since the dawn of time. Archaeological records show that these lands have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years. Several Viking expeditions occurred circa AD 1000, with evidence of settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows. British claims to North America date from 1497, when John Cabot reached what he called Newfoundland, though it is unclear whether Cabot landed in current Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, or Maine. French claims date from explorations by Jacques Cartier (from 1534) and Samuel de Champlain (from 1603). Neither Cabot's nor Cartier's explorations left any permanent settlers behind. On August 5, 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed Newfoundland as England's first overseas colony under Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth I. In 1604, French settlers were the first Europeans to settle permanently in what is now Canada. After an unsuccessful winter in St. Croix Island (today in Maine), they settled Port-Royal in what is now the Annapolis Valley in Nova Scotia, but moved to found Quebec City in 1608. The current Acadians are descendants of settlers who came later in the same century and re-founded Port-Royal. New France was generally the name given to the French colonies of Canada and Acadia (and later Louisiana).Louisiana, depicts British General Wolfe's final moments during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham in 1759.]] British settlements were established along the Atlantic seaboard and around Hudson Bay. As these colonies expanded, a struggle for control of North America took place between 1689 and 1763 (see French and Indian Wars), exacerbated by wars in Europe between France and Great Britain. France progressively lost territory to Great Britain, surrendering peninsular Nova Scotia in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and the remainder of New France including what was left of Acadia in the Treaty of Paris (1763). During and after the American Revolution approximately 70,000 [http://www.uelac.org/whatis.html] Loyalists fled the Thirteen Colonies. Of these, roughly 50,000 United Empire Loyalists [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0850061.html] settled in the British North American colonies which then consisted of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, the Province of Quebec, and Prince Edward Island (created 1769). To accommodate the Loyalists, Britain created the colony of New Brunswick in 1784 from part of Nova Scotia, and divided Quebec into Lower Canada and Upper Canada under the Constitutional Act of 1791. The War of 1812 began when the U.S. attacked British forces in Canada in an attempt to end British influence in North America (and particularly, the British seizures of American merchant ships in the Atlantic). In April 1813, U.S. forces burned York (now Toronto). The British/Canadians retaliated with the burning of Washington (DC) in a surprise attack in August 1814, but were subsequently turned back at Plattsburgh, Baltimore, and New Orleans. The Treaty of Ghent was signed in December 1814. It was only after the French and Napoleonic wars ended in Europe that large-scale immigration to Canada resumed. The Canadas were merged into a single colony, the United Province of Canada, with the Act of Union (1840) in an attempt to assimilate the French Canadians. Once the U.S. agreed to the 49th parallel north as its border with western British North America, the British government created the colonies of British Columbia in 1848 and Vancouver Island in 1849. By the late 1850s, politicians in the Province of Canada had launched a series of western exploratory expeditions with the intention of assuming control of Rupert's Land (administered by the Hudson's Bay Company) and the Arctic. In 1864 and 1866, British North American politicians, in what became known as the Great Coalition, held three conferences to create a federal union. Spearheaded by John A. Macdonald, on July 1, 1867, three colonies—Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick—were granted a constitution, the British North America Act, by the United Kingdom, creating the Dominion of Canada. The term "Canadian Confederation" refers to this 1867 unification of the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec (formerly Canada East or Lower Canada), and Ontario (formerly Canada West or Upper Canada). The remaining British colonies and territories soon joined Confederation. By 1880 Canada included all of its present area except for Newfoundland and Labrador, which joined in 1949. (It should be noted that, although part of Canada, Alberta and Saskatchewan did not gain Provincial status until 1905.) Newfoundland and Labrador In 1919, Canada became a member of the League of Nations and, in the Imperial Conference of 1926, Canada assumed full control of its own through the Balfour Declaration. In 1927, Canada appointed its first ambassador to a foreign country, the United States. In 1931, the Statute of Westminster gave the Balfour Declaration constitutional force, confirming that no act of the UK's parliament would thereafter extend to Canada without its consent. Canadian citizenship was first distinguished from British in 1947; judicial appeals to the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council ended in 1949. The power to amend Canada's constitution remained with the British parliament, although subject to the Statute of Westminster, until it was finally "patriated" to Canadian control by the Canada Act 1982. The Quebec sovereignty movement has led to two referendums held in 1980 and 1995, with votes of 59.6% and 50.6% respectively against its proposals for sovereignty-association. In 1997, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional.

Geography

unconstitutionalCanada occupies the northern portion (precisely 41%) of North America. It is bordered to the south by the contiguous United States and to the northwest by Alaska. The length of these borders are 6,416 km (3,987 mi) and 2,477 km (1,539 mi), respectively. Off the southern coast of Newfoundland lies Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, an overseas community of France. The country stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west (hence the country's motto). To the north lies the Arctic Ocean; Greenland is to the northeast. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60° and 141° W longitude ([http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1]); this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82.5° N – just 834 kilometres (518 mi) from the North Pole. Also, the magnetic North Pole lies within Canadian boundaries (although is moving towards Siberia). Canada is the world's second-largest country in total area, after Russia. Much of Canada lies in Arctic regions, however, and thus Canada has only the fourth-most arable land area behind Russia, China, and the U.S. The population density of 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.0/mi²) is among the lowest in the world: Canada has more land area than the U.S., but only one-ninth of its population. The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City-Windsor Axis in the east. To the north of this region is the broad Canadian Shield, an area of rock scoured clean by the last ice age, thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and dotted with lakes and rivers—over 60% of the world's lakes are in Canada. The Canadian Shield encircles the immense Hudson Bay, extending from Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories at its westernmost point, to the Atlantic coast in Labrador in the east. Newfoundland, North America's easternmost island if Greenland is excluded, is at the mouth of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, the world's largest estuary. The Canadian Maritimes protrude eastward from the southern coasts of Quebec. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are divided by the Bay of Fundy, which experiences the world's largest tidal variations. Prince Edward Island is Canada's smallest province. Prince Edward Island; at 5 959 m (19,551 ft), Canada's highest point and second highest in North America.]]West of Ontario, the broad, flat Canadian Prairies spread toward the Rocky Mountains, which separate them from British Columbia. Northern Canadian vegetation tapers from coniferous forests to tundra and finally to Arctic barrens in the far north. The northern Canadian mainland is ringed with a vast archipelago containing some of the world's largest islands. Some specific geographical features of note include the world's largest freshwater island, Manitoulin Island, which divides Georgian Bay and Lake Huron and the world's longest freshwater beach, Wasaga Beach, on the Georgian Bay shoreline. Thanks to past glacial activity in the Canadian Shield, Canada boasts a considerable reserve of fresh water and more lakes than any other nation, roughly two million in all, the overwhelming majority of which are relatively small.

Climate

Canada has a reputation for cold temperatures in the winter months. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the Prairie Provinces. Temperatures can reach lows of -50°C (-58°F) in the far North however, such low temperatures are not the norm; the record coldest temperature in North America was -63°C (-81°F), at Snag, Yukon, in 1947. Coastal British Columbia is an exception: it enjoys a temperate climate with much milder winters than the rest of the country however, rainy winters are common. Summers in Canada range from mild (low 20s Celsius [70°F]) on the east and west coasts, to hot (mid 20s to low 30s Celsius [75-90°F]) in Central Canada, the Prairies and the intermontane regions of British Columbia. The highest recorded temperature in Canada was 45°C (113°F) at both Midale and Yellow Grass in Saskatchewan on July 5, 1937. For a more complete description of weather norms around Canada, go to www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html

Politics

1937] Canada's head of state is the monarch, currently Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and commonly referred to as the Queen of Canada. However, the day-to-day duties of head of state are exercised by the Governor General, who is generally a retired politician, military leader, or other notable Canadian; the current Governor General is Michaëlle Jean. All government authority is derived from the monarch, and executive power is wielded by the Prime Minister of Canada and the cabinet. The Governor General is formally appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister and is a non-partisan figure who fulfils many ceremonial and symbolic roles including providing Royal Assent to bills, reading the Speech from the Throne, officially welcoming dignitaries of foreign countries, presenting honours such as the Order of Canada, signing state documents, formally opening and ending sessions of Parliament, and dissolving Parliament for an election. The Governor General is also the titular Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces. The position of Governor General also beholds considerable reserve powers, but these have been rarely used. The last to do so was Jeanne Sauvé, who ignored